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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Chemistry CIE 
6. Chemical Energetics
CONTENTS
6.1 Chemical Energetics
6.1.1 Energetics of a Reaction
6.1.2 Energy Transfer
Page 1 of 15
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6.1 Chemical Energetics YOUR NOTES

6.1.1 Energetics of a Reaction
Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions

Heat Exchange in Reactions
Chemical reactions occur so that elements can achieve a more stable energy state by
gaining a full outer shell of electrons
This is done by chemical bonding (we have already seen ionic and covalent bonding)
where old bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed)
This process involves the transfer of energy into and out of reaction mixtures
The terms used to describe this are the system (what happens in the chemical reaction)
and the surroundings (anything other than the chemicals reacting)
The energy within the system comes from the chemical bonds themselves which could be
considered as tiny stores of chemical energy
In the majority of reactions, the energy transferred is in the form of heat energy, although
sometimes other types of energy are produced such as light or sound
Exothermic Reactions
In exothermic reactions energy is transferred to the surroundings so the temperature of
the surroundings increases
This energy is transferred from the chemical energy store of the chemical system to the
surroundings and so the energy of the system falls - this means that the energy change is
negative
The overall transfer is from the system to the surroundings
Combustion, oxidation, and neutralisation reactions are typical exothermic reactions
Hand warmers used in the wintertime are based on the release of heat from an exothermic
reaction
Self-heating cans of food and drinks such as coffee and hot chocolate also use exothermic
reactions in the bases of the containers
Page 2 of 15
Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy outwards from an exothermic reaction YOUR NOTES
Endothermic Reactions 
In endothermic reactions energy is taken in from the surroundings so the temperature of
the surroundings decreases
This energy is transferred to the chemical energy store of the chemical system and so the
energy of the system increases - this means the energy change is positive
The overall transfer is from the surroundings to the system
These types of reactions are much less common than the exothermic reactions
Electrolysis, thermal decomposition reactions and the first stages of photosynthesis are
typical endothermic reactions
Sports injury treatments often use cold packs based on endothermic reactions to take
heat away from a recently injured area to prevent swelling
Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy from the surroundings into an endothermic
reaction
Energy Level Diagrams
Energy level diagrams (sometimes called reaction pathway diagrams or reaction profiles)
are graphical representations of the relative energies of the reactants and products in
chemical reactions
The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the reaction
pathway (a bit like time) is shown on the x-axis
The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents the
overall energy change of a reaction.
This is usually a sketch but can be drawn to scale if data is provided
Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic (overall reaction arrow
is downwards pointing, showing that the system has lost energy) or endothermic (overall
reaction arrow is upwards pointing, showing that the system has gained energy)
The initial increase in energy represents the activation energy (Ea), which is the minimum
energy that colliding particles must have in order to react
The greater the initial rise, the more energy that is required to get the reaction going e.g.
more heat needed
Page 3 of 15
YOUR NOTES
Reaction profile of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction
 Exam Tip
To help you remember whether a chemical system is exothermic or endothermic, in
EXothermic reactions heat Exits the system and in ENdothermic reactions heat
ENters the system. Exothermic reactions always give off heat and they feel hot,
whereas endothermic reactions take heat in and they feel cold.
You should be able to interpret (core) and draw/ label (supplement) energy level
diagrams diagrams for both exothermic and endothermic reactions.
This means including the reactants, products, overall change and activation energy
if required.
Page 4 of 15
Bond Breaking & Bond Forming YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED 
Chemical bonds in reactions

Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on the difference between the
energy needed to break existing bonds and the energy released when the new bonds are
formed
Bond breaking is always an endothermic process as energy needs to be taken in from the
surroundings to break the chemical bonds
Bond making is always an exothermic process as energy is transferred to the surroundings
as the new bond is formed
Overall exothermic reactions
If more energy is released than is absorbed, then the reaction is exothermic
More energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy required to break the
bonds in the reactants
The change in energy is negative since the products have less energy than the reactants
Therefore an exothermic reaction has a negative ΔH value
Making new chemical bonds releases energy which radiates outwards from the reaction to
the surroundings in the form of heat
Overall endothermic reactions
If more energy is absorbed to break bonds than is released to form new bonds, this reaction
is endothermic overall
The change in energy is positive since the products have more energy than the reactants
The symbol ΔH (delta H) is used to show the change in heat energy. H is the symbol for
enthaply, which is a measure of the total heat of reaction of a chemical reaction
Therefore an endothermic reaction has a positive ΔH value, which is shown on the energy
level diagrams and in calculations
Page 5 of 15
YOUR NOTES
Breaking chemical bonds requires energy which is taken in from the surroundings in the form
of heat
Bond making and breaking in energy level diagrams
Diagram of energy level diagrams showing bond making and breaking

Exothermic reactions:
During an exothermic reaction, more energy is energy is given out when new bonds are
made than the energy taken in to break bonds
This means that the energy of the products will be lower than the energy of the reactants,
so the change in enthalpy (ΔH) is negative
This is represented on the energy-level diagram above with the energy of the products
being lower than that of the reactants
Endothermic reactions:
During an endothermic reaction, more energy is taken in to break bonds than the energy
given out to make bonds
This means that the energy of the products will be higher than the energy of the reactants,
so the change in enthalpy (ΔH) is positive
This is represented on the energy-level diagram above with the energy of the products
being higher than that of the reactants
Page 6 of 15
Calculating the Energy of a Reaction YOUR NOTES
EXTENDED 
Energy of reaction calculations
Each chemical bond has a specific bond energy associated with it
This is the amount of energy required to break the bond or the amount of energy given out
when the bond is formed
This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a
reaction
To do this it is necessary to know the bonds present in both the reactants and products
Method
Write a balanced equation if none is present already
Optional - draw the displayed formula in order to identify the type and number of bonds
more easily
Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants – this is the ‘energy in’
Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products – this is the ‘energy out’
Calculate the energy change: Energy change = energy in - energy out
Equation
Energy change = Energy taken in - Energy given out
 Worked Example
Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrogen chloride gas:
H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl
The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the energy change for the
reaction and deduce whether it is exothermic or endothermic:
Answer:
Page 7 of 15
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example
Hydrogen bromide decomposes to form hydrogen and bromine:
2HBr ⟶ H2 + Br2
The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the energy change for the
reaction and deduce whether it is exothermic or endothermic:
Answer:
Page 8 of 15
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES
 For bond enthalpy questions, it is helpful to write down a displayed formula


equation for the reaction before identifying the type and number of bonds, to avoid
making mistakes. The reaction thus becomes: H-H + Cl-Cl → H-Cl + H-Cl
Page 9 of 15
6.1.2 Energy Transfer YOUR NOTES

Fuel, Combustion, Hydrogen
Energy from fuels
A fuel is a substance which releases energy when burned
When the fuel is a hydrocarbon then water and carbon dioxide are produced in complete
combustion reactions
Propane for example undergoes complete combustion according to the following
equation:
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O ΔH = -2219 kJ/mol
The efficiency of a fuel refers to how much energy is released per unit amount - this can be
per gram or per mole
We can measure the efficiency of fuels by calorimetry
A known mass of the fuel is combusted and used to heat up a known mass of water to
calculate its heat of combustion
Different fuels heat the water by different amounts and they can be analysed and
compared in this way
Calorimetry experiment – combustion
Page 10 of 15
YOUR NOTES
Diagram showing the calorimetry experiment for combustion

Method:
Using a measuring cylinder, place 100 cm3 of water into a copper can
Measure and record the initial temperature of the water
Fill the spirit burner with test substance and measure and record its mass, with the lid on the
burner to prevent evaporation
Place the burner under the copper can and light the wick
Stir the water constantly with the thermometer and continue heating until a predetermined
temperature rise is achieved (usually a rise of 10-20oC is easily attainable in a reasonable
time)
Put the lid back over the spirit burner to extinguish the flame
Page 11 of 15
Measure and record the highest temperature of the water - this is likely to be within the YOUR NOTES
minute after the flame is extinguished 

Measure the mass of the spirit burner with the lid on again, in order to be able to calculate
the mass of fuel that has reacted
Calculation:
Temperature change of water = final temperature - initial temperature
The temperature change will be the same regardless of if the measurements were
made in K or oC
Mass of fuel used (g) = initial mass of burner - final mass of burner
Number of moles burned (moles) = mass of fuel used ÷ molecular mass of fuel
Amount of energy (J)= change in temperature x mass of water x specific heat capacity
Amount of energy per mole (J/mol) = total amount of energy ÷ moles burned
Amount of energy per mole is often required in kJ/mol, so be prepared to convert the
units
Hydrogen as a fuel
Hydrogen is used in rocket engines and in fuel cells to power some cars
Hydrogen has a some unique advantages and disadvantages regarding its use as a fuel:
Advantages:
It releases more energy per kilogram than any other fuel (except for nuclear fuels)
It does not pollute as it only produces water on combustion, no other product is
formed
Disadvantages:
Expensive to produce and requires energy for the production process
Difficult and dangerous to store and move around (usually stored as liquid
hydrogen in highly pressurised containers) as it is so flammable it easily explodes
when stored under pressure
Radioactive isotopes as fuels
Uranium-235 undergoes decay and gives off heat energy which nuclear power stations
harness
The heat it produces is used to heat water to steam, which in turn is used to power turbines
to generate electricity
Nuclear fuel energy is clean as it does not produce pollutants such as CO2 or oxides of
nitrogen or sulfur
But nuclear power plants are expensive to build and maintain as well as being potentially
dangerous in the event of an accident as radioactive materials may be released
Radioactive waste still needs to be safely stored so that it does not contaminate the local
ecosystems
Page 12 of 15
YOUR NOTES
The nuclear fission
of a large nucleus of uranium-235 into smaller daughter nuclei
Page 13 of 15
Fuel Cells YOUR NOTES
The hydrogen fuel cell 

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which a fuel donates electrons at one electrode and
oxygen gains electrons at the other electrode
This keeps the hydrogen and oxygen separate, reducing the hazards associated with
combusion of hydrogen
The only product is water
These cells are becoming more common in the automotive industry to replace petrol or
diesel engines
H2 and O2 are pumped through two porous electrodes where the half-reactions occur
The following reaction occurs at the anode:
2H2 → 4H+ + 4e-
At the cathode the following reaction takes place:
4H+ + O2 + 4e- → 2H2O
The overall reaction is:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
The electrons move around the external circuit from the cathode to the anode
This movement of electrons is used to drive an electric motor
Page 14 of 15
YOUR NOTES
Diagram showing
the movement of hydrogen, oxygen and electrons in a Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell

Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells
Advantages
They do not produce any pollution
They produce more energy per kilogram than either petrol or diesel
No power is lost on transmission as there are far fewer moving parts than in an internal
combustion engine
Fuel cells are quiet and lightweight compared to combustion engines
Disadvantages
Materials used in producing fuel cells are expensive
High-pressure tanks are needed to store the oxygen and hydrogen in sufficient
amounts
Fuel cells are affected by low temperatures, becoming less efficient
Hydrogen is expensive to produce and store
Page 15 of 15

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Head to savemyexams.co.

uk for more awesome resources

IGCSE Chemistry CIE 

6.1 Chemical Energetics YOUR NOTES

Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions

Reaction profile of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction

Bond Breaking & Bond Forming YOUR NOTES

Chemical bonds in reactions

Diagram of energy level diagrams showing bond making and breaking

Calculating the Energy of a Reaction YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 For bond enthalpy questions, it is helpful to write down a displayed formula

6.1.2 Energy Transfer YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the calorimetry experiment for combustion

minute after the flame is extinguished 

The nuclear fission

of a large nucleus of uranium-235 into smaller daughter nuclei

Fuel Cells YOUR NOTES

The hydrogen fuel cell 

the movement of hydrogen, oxygen and electrons in a Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell

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