What?

A research is an organized and systematic

way of fact finding missions that enables answer
questions about a reality or given construct and explore its
practice.
 Organized in that there is a structure or method
in going about doing research; (scope)
 Systematic because there is a definite set of procedures and steps
which one needs to follow to come up with a quality research
output;
 Fact finding is the hallmark of research; – finding answer
 Questions or issues that need exploration are central to research.
research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions
 Key concern of a
research
How the facts are acquired
What the research and
explores? the conclusions are reached
(The facts and
(Scientific, critical
conclusions)
investigations)
 Ontology is the assumption that we make about
reality;
 Epistemology is general set of assumptions about
the best ways of inquiring into the nature of the
world;
 Methodology is a combination of techniques used to
enquire into a specific situation;
 Method is an individual technique for data
collection, analysis, etc;
 Paradigm is a general organizing framework for a
theory and research;
 Positivism
 Postpositivism is a ‘critical
realism’(realism & critical realism)
 Critical theorisism

 Social constrictivism
‘relativism’(interpretivism &
phenomenology)
 The positivistic paradigm views reality
through the ontological belief that reality is
external and objective and is driven by
immutable natural laws
 It holds that an accurate and value-free
knowledge of things is possible.
Positivism is a ‘realistic view’ of science; –
 Ontology: Reality is external and objective and is driven by
immutable natural laws;
 Epistemology: Since reality is independent of the inquirer
and is controlled by natural laws, the inquirer should
behave objectively in an effort to explore reality and unravel
universal laws that govern causal relationships through non-
value laden means;
 Methodology: both that curbs for inquirer bias and
meticulous enough to penetrate into the characteristics of
the issue under scrutiny.
Postpositivism is a ‘critical realism’ view of science
 Ontology: Although a real world driven by natural laws exists
independent of human cognition, due to the limitedness of human
cognition, imperfect sensory, constrained intellectual mechanisms,
etc., exploring and perceiving into the true nature of reality is
impossible;
 Epistemology: Reasonable objectivity by trying to be as neutral as
possible and articulating interferences and value laden
characterizations so that the reader can make informed judgments;
 Methodology: Commitments for critical realism and modified
objectivism through critical multiplism of methodologies
(multiple data source, investigators, theories, methods, etc.)
Realism
 retains many of the ambition of posetivism but
recognizes, and comes in terms with, the
subjective nature of research and the inevitable
role values in it.(the danger of researcher's
subjectivity are counterbalanced by debate and
review)
Critical realism
 shares many the ambition of realism and
argues that there is a level of reality below the
everyday levels or events and our experience of
them. (hidden from the common view)
 Critical theorisism, like postmodernism, critical reality
(true conscious) view of (ideology-politics);
 It encompasses a category of paradigms such as
Neo_x0002_Marxism, Feminism, Participatory
Enquiry, etc., that argue for a value freedom enquiry.
It argues that the choice of problem/construct to
enquire, the paradigm adopted, the instruments
used, the analysis and interpretation adopted, etc.
are all human constructs and hence are choices
based on value. Given the involvement of values and
thus the associated challenge of which values and
whose values govern, the approach makes enquiry
somewhat a political act.
 Critical theorisism, like postmodernism, critical reality (true
conscious) view of (ideology-politics);

 Ontology: The choice of problem/construct to enquire, the

paradigm adopted, the instruments used, the analysis and
interpretation adopted, etc. are all human constructs and hence
are choices based on value; –
 Epistemology: It adopts a subjective investigation that allows for
the values of enquirer to be reflected in exploration and
characterization of the inquired; –
 Methodology: The major aim of enquiry (an ideological one as
that) is to transform the world by raising the conscious of
participants and energizing them to a cause and hence
methodologies so chosen shall facilitate same;
‘relativism’ view of science
 Ontology: Reality is socially constructed; –
 Epistemology: Given that reality is a human
mind construct, subjective interaction between
enquirer and inquired is the best way of
constructing it;
 Methodology: Approaches that properly gauge
the hermeneutics (accurate description) and
dialects (comparison and contrasting) aspects
of an enquiry
Paradigm Ontology Epistemology Methodology

Positivism Realism Objectivism Experimentalism/Empirici

sm

Postpositivism Critical realism Modified objectivism Critical

multiplism

Critical theorism Critical realism Subjectivism Transformative dialogue

Constructivism Relativism Subjectivism Hermeneutics & dialectics

Paradigm Positivism Postpositivism Critical theorism Constructivism

Aims Discovery Exposure Transformation Invention

Starting point Hypothesis Supposition Multiple values Meaning

Designs Experiment Triangulation Caucuses Reflexivity

/observation

Techniques Measurment Survey (mainly) Diadoque Conversation

Analyses Verification Probability Reasoning Sense-making

/interprétation /Falsification

Outcomes Causality Correlation Improved Understanding

conscious