PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 REVIEWER

 Inquiry, a term that is synonymous with the word ‘investigation,’ is the answer to
this question. When you inquire or investigate, you tend to ask questions to
probe or examine something.
 Research is coined from the French word “Certhier” which means seek. The
prefix “re” means to repeat. Literally, research is to repeat looking for something.
 Parel (2010) defined research as a systematic study or investigation of
something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the Researcher.
 Quantitative Research is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of
observable phenomena through the use of computational techniques.
 Some Advantages of using quantitative research are as follows: it allows the
researcher to measure and analyze data; it gives reliable results since the study
uses a big sample; and it is replicable since standards are usually used in
choosing the instruments, sampling procedures, and statistical treatments.
 The Disadvantage of quantitative research includes the following: it ignores the
context of the study in such a way that it does not consider the natural setting of
the conducted study; it requires more resources since it uses a large sample for
the study; and the results are limited because they are usually based on the
analysis of numbers and are not obtained from detailed narratives.

Guidelines in Formulating a Research Title

1. The title must contain the following Elements (depending on the nature of the
study)
● The subject matter or research problem
● The setting or locale of the study
● The respondents or participants involved in the study
● The time and the period when the study was conducted
2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study but should
be brief
and concise as possible
3. The use of terms as “Analysis of _____” A study of _____” An investigation of
_______and the like should be avoided
4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written in inverted pyramid
5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in the title should be in
capital
letters
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15 substantive words
7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much information
 8. To shorten the title, delete the terms “assessment or evaluation if these are
already
emphasized in the text

FORMULATING BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 The Background of the Study includes a review of the area being researched,
current information surrounding the issue, previous studies on the issue, and
relevant history on the issue. Ideally, the study should effectively set forth the
history and background information on your problem.

Content of the Background of the Study

● Discussion of the Topic

● Detailed literature review

● Problem and its history

- problem in general or large-scale view

- problem in a specific or local view

● Goal of the study

NATURE AND KINDS OF VARIABLES

1. Variables
 A variable is a central concept in research.
 A variable is anything that may assume varied numerical and categorical
values.
 Variables are “changing qualities or characteristics” of persons or things like
age, gender, intelligence, ideas, achievements, confidence, and so on that
are involved in your research study.

2. Continuous Variables – that can take infinite numbers on the value that can
occur within a population. Its values can be divided into fraction.
 a. Interval Variables – a measurements where the difference between two
values does have meaning. The interval between values makes sense and
can be interpreted.

b. Ratio Variables – Possess the properties of interval variables and has a clear
definition of zero, indication that there is none of the variables.

3. Discrete Variables – also known as Categorical Variable is any variables that has
a limited numbers of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fraction.

a. Nominal Variables – a variables with no quantitative value, it has two or more

categories but does not imply ordering of cases.
b. Ordinal Variables – a variables that has two or more categories which can be
ranked but a value cannot be placed to them. Distances between attributes do
not have any meaning.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

1. The scope of the study tells the reader which aspects of a subject the writer
has chosen to analyse.
2. Most research is limited in scope by sample size, time and geographic area.
The scope of the study is usually followed by an explanation of the limitations
of the research.
3. This section allows the writer to explain why certain aspects of a subject were
chosen and why others were excluded.
4. Don’t forget the limitation by writing the topics or information which is not
included in your research.
5. Some scope and delimitation of others consist of lots of paragraphs. But
actually, as long as the important matters have been discussed, one or two
paragraphs will do.

GUIDELINES IN WRITING SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

a) Indicate the principal variable, locale and time frame.

b) Mention the group of participants/respondents to whom you research directed to
c) Tell the subject matter of your study.
d) Write the topics or information which are not included in your research.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is a part where you will tell the importance and purpose of your study.
Researchers attempting to describe the significance of the study should
consider their work is important and what its implications are. They should
consider how the study might fill in knowledge gaps in their field, develop
better theoretical models or point the way towards further study.

a) Define who will benefit out of the findings of the study.

b) written statement that explains why your research was needed.
c) justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on your research
field, it's contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit from it.

POSSIBLE BENEFICIARIES OF SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

▪ The subject itself.

▪ Experts who are concerned about the problem.

▪ Administrators/policy makers who make the decisions and implement programs.

▪ The future researchers

▪ Those who are affected by the problem.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

 Brief overview of the issues or existing in the concerned area of the research.
 Focal point of the research
 Presents the problems or subjects to be resolved and exposed.

Two major components

1. The objective or purpose- a statement of a long-term target or goal to be

achieved
 by the study.

2. Research question- refer to the specific question to be answered in the study.

Criteria for Research Problem Statements:

 The statement of the problem should clearly indicate what is to be investigated.

 The actual statement may be in a declarative or in a question form.
 The statement should indicate the variables of interest and the specific
relationship between variables that are to be studied.

SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE

 Review of Related Literature - documentation of comprehensive review of the

published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the area of
specific interest to the researcher.
 Primary Sources are the origin of information under study, fundamental
documents relating to a particular subject or idea. Often they are first-hand
accounts written by a witness or researcher at the time of an event or discovery.
 Secondary Sources are documents or recordings that relate to or discuss
information originally presented elsewhere.
 Importance, Purpose and Functions of Related Literature and Studies.

a. Help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research

problem or topic.
b. Help the investigator understand his topic for research better.
c. Ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies.
d. Help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information.
e. Help and guide the researcher in making his research design 
f. Help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with
the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of
formulating generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study
to the fund of knowledge.

Characteristics of Related Literature

a. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.

b. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.

c. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.

d. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original

and true facts or data to make valid and reliable.

e. Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many.

● Sources and Where to Locate Sources

a. Sources

1. Primary Sources

2. Secondary Sources

b. Where to locate the sources?

3. Libraries

4. Government and/or private offices

5. National Library

6. Library of Department of Education, Culture and Sports

c. Related Legal Bases

d. Related Literature

e. Related Studies
f. Conceptual and Operational

CITATION

 is a formal reference to a published or unpublished source that you consulted

and obtained information from while writing your research paper. 

 Citation Style dictates the necessary information needed for a citation and how
these information is ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.
 APA (American Psychological Association)
is used by Education, Psychology and Science. The APA style allows
for in-text citations, direct quotations and end notes and footnotes. It also
enables the author to use the past tense of verbs in the reportage.

MLA (Modern Language Association)

used mostly in the arts and humanities. MLA style focusses on the citation
of books, anthologies, literary works, audio-visual material, multimedia and
similar works with much more detail.

 Importance of Citing your Sources

a. Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you used.
b. Citing other people's words and ideas demonstrates that you have conducted a
thorough review of the literature on your topic
c. Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments.
d. The ideas of other researchers can be used to explain reasons for alternative
approaches.
e. Ideas are considered intellectual property and there can be serious
repercussions if you fail to cite where you got an idea from.

 Bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or
not) in the process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should
include:

a) the authors' names

b) the titles of the works
c) the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the
sources
d) the dates your copies were published
e) the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes

RESEARCH DESIGN

 Descriptive Research - It is also known as NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH.

This design is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and
components of the population or a phenomenon. There is no manipulation of
variables or search for the cause and effect related to the phenomenon.
  Correlational Research - It is a systematic investigation of the nature of
relationships, or associations between and among variables without necessarily
investigating into casual reasons underlying them.

 Evaluation Research - This kind of research aims to assess the effects, impacts
or outcomes of practices, policies or programs.

 Survey Research - This kind of research is used to gather information from

groups of people by selecting and studying samples chosen from a population.

 Causal-Comparative - It is also known as EX POST FACTO (after the fact)

RESEARCH. This kind of research derives conclusion from observations and
manifestations that already occurred in the past and now compared to some
dependent variables.

 Experimental Research - This research utilizes scientific method to test cause-

and-effect relationships under conditions controlled by the researcher. An
independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent
variable.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Sampling means choosing from a large population the respondents or subjects to

answer your research questions. The entire population is involved but for your research
study, you choose only a part of the whole.

Factors Affecting Sample Selection

1.Sample Size

- How big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decision on their own
experience

and on research studies they have already read. But the best way to guide you in
determining the right sample size is the representatives of the sample with respect to
the population. See to it that the sample truly represents the entire population from
where the sample came.

2. Sampling Technique
- Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. The first on uses a random selection; the second, a purposive or
controlled selection. Probability sampling that gives all population members equal
opportunity to be chosen as people to constitute the sample is a precise way of
sampling. Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an accurate manner of selecting the
right people to represent the population.

3. Heterogeneity of Population

- Heterogenous population is composed of individuals with varied abilities. There is a

wide variation among the people composing the population. If it is a homogenous
population where lots of uniformity in abilities exist among population members, a
sample of one will do, But for a heterogenous group, a sampling technique that will
widely spread the choosing of a large sample among all members of the population is
necessary.

4. Statistical Techniques

- The accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise or accurate your methods
are in calculating the numbers used in measuring the chosen samples or in giving a
certain value to each of them. Any error in your use of any statistical method or
computing numbers representing the selected subjects will turn in unfounded results.

5. Time and Cost

-Choosing samples makes you deal with one big whole population, with each member
of this large group needing your attention, time and effort, let alone the amount of
money you will fork out for the materials you will need in making the sampling frame.
Hence, considering all these things, your sample selection makes you spend some of
your time deliberati8ng or mulling over several factors affecting or influencing your
sample selection.

 Probability Sampling
                   This is sampling method that makes you base your selection of respondents
on pure chance. All are given equal opportunity or chance to form the sample  that is
capable of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population from where such
sample was drawn

a. Simple Random Sampling- choosing respondents based on pure chance.

b. Systematic Sampling- picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th member listed in
the sampling frame until the completion of the desired total number of respondents.
c. Stratified sampling- choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into strata,
sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of the data analysis.
d. Cluster sampling- selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate
individuals such as choosing 5 classes of 40 students each from a whole population of
5,000 students.

 Non- probability Sampling

              The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen randomly,
but purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to bias. The non-probability
sampling techniques succumb to the control, likes, or wishes of the researcher and to
restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling procedure. The following are the
non- probability sampling techniques.

a. Quota sampling- choosing specific samples that you know correspond to the
population in terms of one, two, or more characteristics.

b. Voluntary sampling- selecting people who are very much willing to participate
as respondents in the research project.

c. Purposive sampling- choosing respondents whom you have judged as people

with good background knowledge or with great enthusiasm about the research.

d. Availability sampling- picking out people who are easy to find or locate and
willing to establish contact with you.

e. Snowball sampling- selecting samples from several alternative samples like

drug dependents, human traffickers, street children, and other wayward and
homeless people whose dwelling places are not easily located for they are like
nomads moving from place to place.

STATISTICAL TREATMENT

 STATISTICS
Branch of mathematics that deals with the systematic collection, organization, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of data. 

 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 
- Used to say something or describe a set of information collected. It can also be
represented with graphs. 

 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
- Gathers data from a sample, perform hypothesis testing, make predictions, and
generalize the findings for the entire population. 

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

 MEAN- is determine by adding up all of the scores or values in the distribution

and then dividing the sum by the total number of scores. 

 MEDIAN- the midpoint of the values or the mean of the two middle values after
they have been ordered from the smallest to the largest or vice versa. 

 MODE- the value of the observation that appears most frequently. 

 PERCENTAGE- may be used regardless of the total number of respondents as it

describes quantitatively as to how small or big the total population. 

 STANDARD DEVIATION- is used to measure how spread out the datas are. 

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 

 Z-TEST- it is a statistical test to determine whether two population means are

different when the variance are known and the sample size is large. 

 T-TEST- is a statistical test that compares the means of two samples.

a) INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T-TEST- applies when there are two separate

populations to compare 
b) PAIRED SAMPLES T-TEST- appropriate when there are two measures to be
compared for a single population. 

 F-TEST- is used by a researcher in order to carry out the test for the equality of
the two population variances. 
  CHI-SQUARE- is a statistical test used to compare observed results with
expected results. 

 PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION- is a

measure of the strength and direction of association that exists between two
variables measured on atleast an interval scale.

 SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS- is a statistical method that allows

us to summarize and study relationships between two continuous (quantitative)
variables.

 SPEARMAN’S RANK- is used to discover the strength of a link between to sets

of data. 

METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING

 EDITING OF DATA- information gathered during data collection may be

incomplete, contains errors and lack uniformity. It is the process of examining the
collected survey data to remove errors and inconsistencies. 

 CODING OF DATA- coding is a solution to the data entry issue of research,

numbers are assigned to the qualitative attributes of variables to facilities data
entry and analysis.

(a). deciding the categories to be used. 

(b). allocating individuals answer to them.

 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA- it is the process of arranging data into

homogeneous group. The collected data is arranged into classes and to sub-
classes according to their common characteristics.

 TABULATION DATA- it is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it

in compact form further analysis. 

 DATA GRAMS- diagrams are charts and graphs are use to present data.

a) CHARTS- a chart is a diagrammatic form of data presentation.

b) GRAPH- gives relationship between two variables by means of either a
curve or a straight line.