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Radiation Protection Studies for Medical Particle Accelerators using Fluka

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DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncw302

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 Radiation Protection Dosimetry Advance Access published November 24, 2016

Radiation Protection Dosimetry (2016), pp. 1–7 doi:10.1093/rpd/ncw302

RADIATION PROTECTION STUDIES FOR MEDICAL PARTICLE

ACCELERATORS USING FLUKA MONTE CARLO CODE
Angelo Infantino1,*, Gianfranco Cicoria2, Giulia Lucconi2, Davide Pancaldi2, Sara Vichi2, Federico Zagni2,
Domiziano Mostacci1 and Mario Marengo2
1
Department of Industrial Engineering, Laboratory of Montecuccolino, University of Bologna, Via dei Colli
16, 40136 Bologna, Italy
2
Medical Physics Department, S. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna,
Italy

*Corresponding author: angelo.infantino@cern.ch

Downloaded from http://rpd.oxfordjournals.org/ at CERN Library on November 29, 2016

Radiation protection (RP) in the use of medical cyclotrons involves many aspects both in the routine use and for the decom-
missioning of a site. Guidelines for site planning and installation, as well as for RP assessment, are given in international
documents; however, the latter typically offer analytic methods of calculation of shielding and materials activation, in
approximate or idealised geometry set-ups. The availability of Monte Carlo (MC) codes with accurate up-to-date libraries
for transport and interaction of neutrons and charged particles at energies below 250 MeV, together with the continuously
increasing power of modern computers, makes the systematic use of simulations with realistic geometries possible, yielding
equipment and site-specific evaluation of the source terms, shielding requirements and all quantities relevant to RP at the
same time. In this work, the well-known FLUKA MC code was used to simulate different aspects of RP in the use of biomed-
ical accelerators, particularly for the production of medical radioisotopes. In the context of the Young Professionals Award,
held at the IRPA 14 conference, only a part of the complete work is presented. In particular, the simulation of the GE
PETtrace cyclotron (16.5 MeV) installed at S. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital evaluated the effective dose distribution
around the equipment; the effective number of neutrons produced per incident proton and their spectral distribution; the acti-
vation of the structure of the cyclotron and the vault walls; the activation of the ambient air, in particular the production of
41
Ar. The simulations were validated, in terms of physical and transport parameters to be used at the energy range of interest,
through an extensive measurement campaign of the neutron environmental dose equivalent using a rem-counter and TLD
dosemeters. The validated model was then used in the design and the licensing request of a new Positron Emission
Tomography facility.

INTRODUCTION
Cyclotrons are widely established in research sites
and in the biomedical field. In the latter, cyclotrons
support both diagnostic and therapeutic applica-
tions: in the diagnostic field, they are employed for
the production of radionuclides for clinical use, in
particular tracers for Positron Emission Tomography
(PET); while in hadron therapy cyclotrons are used
to accelerate protons or heavy ions.
In the planning stage of a facility, the aspects
related to radiation safety are key factors: an accurate
‘a priori’ knowledge of the radiation field around the
accelerator is essential for the design of shielding (in
particular as far as ‘bad geometry’ conditions are con-
cerned, like mazes, ducts and wall penetrations), the
selection of appropriate engineered controls and
safety systems, the classification of areas and the pro-
tection of workers, the public and the environment (1).
Guidelines for site planning and installation, as well
as for radiation protection (RP) assessment, are given
in a number of international documents; however,
these well-established guides typically discuss analyt-
ical methods of calculation of both shielding and
materials activation(2), in approximate or idealised
geometry set-ups. Moreover, these guidelines consider
the problems ‘one at a time’, without a comprehensive
overview. In other cases, published results are general-
ised from meta-analysis on existing facilities, as
reported by Tesch(3), or are based on general hypoth-
esis on the source term(4, 5). Experimental measure-
ments of the neutron dose field around PET
cyclotrons(6) and the neutron energy spectrum(7–10)
can be useful sources of information, but inevitable
differences in equipment, configuration and layout
should be carefully considered when planning new
facilities, since generalisation of experimental results
is not straightforward.
Given the complexity of the physical phenomena
involved in the transport of radiations, the availabil-
ity of Monte Carlo (MC) codes with accurate and
up-to-date libraries for radiation transport and inter-
action of neutrons and charged particles at energies
below 250 MeV, together with the continuously
increasing power of modern computers, allows the
systematic use of simulations with realistic geom-
etries. This provides the evaluation of the source
term specific for the site and the type of equipment,
the assessment of shielding requirements, the

© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com
 A. INFANTINO ET AL.
perspective estimation of activation of the acceler-
ator itself and the building materials and the assess-
ment of all the quantities relevant to RP at the same
time(11). FLUKA(12, 13) is a general purpose code to
model particle transport and interaction with matter;
it covers an extended range of applications spanning
from proton and electron accelerators shielding to cal-
orimetry, dosimetry, detector design, radiotherapy and
more. Even if the high-energy physics remains its main
field of application, the number of publications in
which FLUKA has been used in the medical field has
recently increased, covering the production of medical
radioisotopes(14–16), as well as proton and ion therapy
applications(17, 18) and radiation safety design(11, 19, 20)
at this low energy range. Given the main energy range
of application of FLUKA code, an accurate validation
in terms of physical and transport parameters to be
used at low energy range is mandatory for a correct
prediction of the quantities of radiological interest in
the medical field.
In this work, presented in the context of the
Young Professionals Award (14th Congress of the
International Radiation Protection Association,
Cape Town, South Africa, 9–13 May 2016), it is dis-
cussed only a part of a more comprehensive study
conducted on advanced aspects of RP in the use of
particle accelerators in the medical field. The
FLUKA MC code was used to simulate two H−
cyclotrons (16.5 and 19 MeV, respectively) for the
production of PET radionuclides, including their
targetry, the cyclotron vault and ducts. Simulations
yielded estimates of various relevant quantities,
including the effective dose distribution around the
equipment, the fluence of secondary neutrons and
their spectral distribution, and the evaluation of the
long-term activation of components and shielding
for the planning of future decommissioning
strategies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
FLUKA MC models of cyclotrons
GE PETtrace cyclotron
The cyclotron considered in this study is a PETtrace
(GE Medical System), a compact cyclotron with ver-
tical acceleration plane, capable of accelerating nega-
tive hydrogen and deuterium ions up to 16.5 and
8.4 MeV, respectively. The cyclotron is routinely used
at S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital for the production of
PET radionuclides. A detailed MC model of the
cyclotron and the bunker was developed using
FLUKA. The model includes an accurate descrip-
tion of a typical GE target system, comprised of a
silver chamber filled with [18 O]-water to produce
Fluorine-18 by the (p,n) reaction. The front of the
target body is sealed with a 25 µm thick Havar™
foil. All external connections of the targets, target
2
pressure transducers and liquid target fillers are
located at the Target Panel. The Target Panel is
mounted in front of the cyclotron, close to the tar-
gets and includes a slab of 5 cm thick lead and 10 cm
thick polyethylene, both enclosed in a structure of
iron. The cyclotron, not provided with self-shielding,
is installed in a bunker with inner dimensions of
650 cm by 535 cm and a height of 350 cm, while the
concrete walls are 200 cm thick. Data on dimensions
and features of the cyclotron, its main components
and the bunker were taken from technical data sheets
of the manufacturer and the project drawings of the
site.
Downloaded from http://rpd.oxfordjournals.org/ at CERN Library on November 29, 2016
ACSI TR19 cyclotron
A new PET facility completed in 2014 at Sacro
Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital in Negrar (Verona,
Italy) was modelled. The ACSI TR19 installed in
this facility is a compact cyclotron with vertical
acceleration plane able to accelerate H− ions, pro-
duced by an external multicusp ion source, in the
13–19 MeV energy range, with a nominal beam cur-
rent of 150 µA. It is provided with two target selec-
tors hosting up to four target assemblies each and
allowing a dual beam irradiation, and two local
shielding made of a proprietary composite material
designed by Advanced Cyclotron Systems, Inc.(21) to
significantly reduce the secondary gamma and neu-
tron field produced during irradiation. The layout of
the cyclotron vault was accurately reproduced from
original technical drawings and optimisation of the
ducts was performed using MC simulation
(Figure 1b). The inner dimensions of the bunker are
460 cm by 540 cm with a height of 380 and 200 cm
thick concrete walls.
FLUKA MC set-up
In both cases, the proton beam was simulated with a
Gaussian distribution in energy and divergence and
an elliptical shape in the plane perpendicular to the
beam direction, with a Gaussian distribution on
both x and y axes. The walls of the bunker were
simulated of standard concrete Portland. Radiation
decay was activated in analogue mode and all the
isotopes were produced in their ground state. A
default set of physical mechanisms called NEW-
DEFA was used and the proton transport threshold
was set to 1 MeV. An irradiation profile of 1 hour at
1 μA of extracted proton current was simulated.
Different types of estimators were used to obtain
residual nuclei, neutron spectra, neutron emission
and equivalent dose. The RESNUCLE estimator
allowed scoring residual nuclei produced in inelastic
interactions on a region basis; all activities were cal-
culated at the end of bombardment (EOB). The
USRBIN estimator was used to score the
 RP FLUKA STUDIES FOR MEDICAL CYCLOTRONS

Figure 1. (a) Section of the 3D FLUKA MC model of the PETtrace cyclotron and the cyclotron vault at S. Orsola-

Downloaded from http://rpd.oxfordjournals.org/ at CERN Library on November 29, 2016

Malpighi Hospital, showing a detail of the ducts through the vault walls; red numbers indicate the locations in which the
assessment of the neutron ambient dose equivalent was performed. (b) 3D FLUKA MC model of TR19 and the cyclotron
vault, including ducts, installed at Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital.

distribution of the dose equivalent in a regular spa- RESULTS

tial structure, called mesh, independent from the
geometry. The AUXSCORE card was used to assess
the neutron dose field by convoluting the neutron
fluence with the fluence-to-dose equivalent conver-
sion coefficients. USRTRACK score was used to cal-
culate the differential neutron fluence distribution in
an energy-binning basis. To reach statistical uncer-
tainty inferior to 1%, 109 primary particles were
simulated using FLUKA version 2011.2b.6; the
simulations were performed on a laptop provided
with 4-phycal cores Intel® Core™ i7-3630QM in
~48–72 hours.
Experimental measurements
A careful validation of the simulated dose field
around the PETtrace cyclotron was obtained
through a measurement campaign of the neutron
ambient dose equivalent. The experimental set-up
adopted in this work refers to a previous work con-
ducted by this group and published by Gallerani
et al.(6) where measurements of the ambient dose
equivalent H*(10) were performed within the cyclo-
tron vault.
Measurements were conducted in 12 points located
along 8 directions, at the same height as the target
used for the production of 18F (Figure 1a). Measure-
ments were performed during irradiations using a neu-
tron rem-counter FHT-752 (Thermo Scientific),
provided with a BF3 proportional-counter and a PE-
moderator and directly calibrated in H*(10) and a set
of 12 CR39 fast neutron dosemeters(22). To obtain
dose rates in the measurement range of the detector
and therefore limit the effects of dead time, irradiation
tests were conducted with an integrated current
between 0.005 and 0.0016 μAh. Results were com-
pared with MC simulations.
Assessment of H*(10) around a PETtrace cyclotron
Figure 2 shows the neutron ambient dose equivalent
distribution assessed using FLUKA and represented
through a Cartesian mesh: for all the positions data
were taken at the same coordinates as the real dose-
meters. The results of MC simulations are reported
in Table 1, along with the experimental measure-
ments performed in this work. Data obtained using
the neutron rem-counter were corrected for the dead
time of the instrument. To compare different irradi-
ation conditions, results were normalised to the total
charge accumulated on the target in each irradiation
test, expressed in μAh.
As shown in Table 1, in most of the locations there
is a good agreement between FLUKA results and
experimental measurements, particularly with the
neutron rem-counter; small discrepancies might be
due to small differences in the modelling of the cyclo-
tron components or in the positioning of the dose-
meters. As reported in the technical specifications of
the manufacturer, the uncertainty associated with the
CR39 dosemeters is a function of the measured dose,
in the range of 54–72%. This is substantially due to
the significant dependence on the energy response of
the detector in an intense and complex radiation
field, such as the one inside the cyclotron vault dur-
ing an irradiation. Besides, the spectrum used for the
calibration differed from the one the dosemeters were
exposed to. Finally, CR39 dosemeters allow meas-
uring only neutrons with an energy above 200 keV;
taking into account the contribution of thermal neu-
trons, the agreement between FLUKA and the
experimental measurements would therefore improve.
On the other hand, an electronic instrument like the
rem-counter allows for a better counting statistics
due to the greater dimensions of the probe, compared

3
 A. INFANTINO ET AL.

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Figure 2. FLUKA assessment of the neutron ambient dose equivalent H*(10) for the PETtrace cyclotron over the whole
vault with a Cartesian mesh (5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm).

Table 1. Comparison of neutron ambient dose equivalent and small differences in the modelling of the cycl-
H*(10) obtained from MC simulations and experimental otron components, FLUKA simulation provided an
measurements.
excellent agreement with the experimental measu-
rements and allowed an accurate estimation of the
Position Dose ± uncertainty (mSv μAh−1) neutron dose field.
FHT-752 CR39 FLUKA

1 330 ± 130 380 ± 200 300 ± 5 Design of new PET facilities

2 430 ± 170 300 ± 160 459 ± 6
3 90 ± 40 60 ± 30 96 ± 3
The previously described MC model, validated in
4 420 ± 70 340 ± 180 475 ± 6 terms of physical and transport parameters, was
5 330 ± 130 340 ± 180 311 ± 5 used in the design and the licensing request of a new
6 27 ± 11 6±5 18.4 ± 1.0 PET facility. The details about the shielding calcula-
7 32 ± 13 19 ± 14 34.7 ± 1.6 tions can be found in previous publication(23). The
8 23 ± 9 6±5 18.5 ± 1.0 TR19 cyclotron and the first design of the cyclotron
9 55 ± 22 31 ± 19 54.1 ± 2.0 vault, including ducts for the ventilation system, the
10 45 ± 18 38 ± 22 42.6 ± 1.6 RF cables and water cooling supply, were modelled
11 190 ± 80 130 ± 70 156 ± 3 to assess the neutron ambient dose equivalent
12 22 ± 9 50 ± 29 25.6 ± 1.3
H*(10) during a dual beam irradiation.
Since the composition and the density of the local
Uncertainty is reported as 1σ.
shield were not completely known, the efficacy of the
local shield was verified by evaluating its attenuation
with the TLDs; however, its positioning is more likely factor. The cyclotron was simulated with and with-
affected by uncertainty. out the local shield and the neutron ambient dose
The ratios between FLUKA and the measurements equivalent H*(10) was scored in two points, both
obtained using the FHT-752 and the CR39 were calcu- located 1 m from the target, at 0° (beam direction)
lated for each position; then for each device an average and 90°, respectively. An average attenuation factor
over all the locations was obtained by weighting the of 146 ± 8 was found. Considering the variability in
single uncertainties. An average ratio H*(10)FLUKA/H* the composition of the mixture within the local
(10)experimental of 0.99 ± 0.12 and 1.13 ± 0.21 was found shield, this result is in good agreement with the aver-
for the neutron rem-counter and the CR39 dosemeters, age value of 100 provided by the manufacturer, thus
respectively. Considering all the factors listed above validating the modelled local shield.

4
 RP FLUKA STUDIES FOR MEDICAL CYCLOTRONS
A validated MC model is particularly useful, com-
pared with analytical methods, in cases of ‘bad
geometry’ conditions. In Figure 3, the transmission
of dose through the duct of the air exhaust is shown
as a representative example of these situations.
Alternative solutions were then studied and imple-
mented in the MC model: the position and the orien-
tation of the pipe through the wall were changed to
satisfy planning and RP requirements. Figure 3 also
shows the final configuration with no significant
transmission through the duct. The case reported
here is a typical example of critical situations in
which analytical methods fail given the complexity
of the geometry and hypothesis made on the source
term of radiation. Using a validated MC model, it is
possible to accurately reproduce both the real geom-
etry and the source of radiations without any
hypothesis. Moreover, the identification of these crit-
icalities during the design stage allows a significant
reduction of the costs of the mitigations actions to
carry out once the structure is already built.
Long-term activation of local shields and vault
walls was studied to estimate the activity after 10 y
in operation and to plan strategies for decommis-
sioning. It is particularly interesting to assess the
order of magnitude of the long half-life radionuclides
that might be managed by workers involved in the
decommissioning. Generally, the cyclotron works
some hours per day, depending on the workload of
the facility, but between irradiations long half-life
radionuclides do not decay significantly and the
effect during 1 y in operation is an accumulation of
the activity produced; the order of magnitude of the
activity of long half-life radionuclides is therefore
better reproduced by an average irradiation profile.
A 10-y irradiation was thus simulated using an aver-
age proton current of 2.3 μA, calculated taking into
Figure 3. (a) First version of the planning of the TR19 cyclotron vault: a transmission of the dose through the pipe of the
out-coming ventilation was identified. (b) Optimisation of the position and the orientation of the pipe through the wall
allowed avoiding any significant transmission of dose.
5
account a realistic workload of the accelerator. The
long-activation of the two local shielding is reported
in Figure 4. The radionuclidic inventory was assessed
at the EOB and after 4 weeks to take into account a
representative waiting time before the beginning of
the decommissioning of the site. The quantification
of long half-life radionuclides is important not only
for the RP of workers involved in the decommission-
ing, but also to assess the volume of radioactive wa-
ste. According to the Italian legislation for RP, a
mixture of radionuclides has to be treated as radio-
active waste if the sum of the ratios between the
activity concentration, expressed in Bq g−1, of a given
radionuclide and the limit activity concentration is
>1 or if radionuclides with a half-life >75 d are pre-
Downloaded from http://rpd.oxfordjournals.org/ at CERN Library on November 29, 2016
sent in the mixture. Taking into account the mass of
the local shields (~3.8 t each), the radionuclides
found to be critical resulted: 51Cr (27.7 d) 6.48 Bq g−1,
54
Mn (312.3 d) 139 Bq g−1, 55Fe (2.73 y) 160 Bq g−1
and 59Fe (44.5 d) 25 Bq g−1.
CONCLUSION
The availability of MC codes makes it possible
to revise the traditional approach in the assessment
of RP problems, in particular in the case of ‘bad
geometry’ conditions, like mazes, ducts and wall pe-
netrations. In the past, a variety of analytical and
semi-empirical models were proposed, trying to gen-
eralise the available experimental results by fitting
data or introducing correction factors of doubtful
physical meaning. Nowadays, MC codes are more
easily accessible and can be routinely applied to the
study of particles transport from high energy down
to a few keV. Yet notwithstanding the availability of
increasingly sophisticated codes and routines model-
ling complex 3D geometries, one should not lose
 A. INFANTINO ET AL.

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Figure 4. Long-term activation of local shields assessed at EOB and 4 weeks later. The two local shields are called ‘North’
and ‘South’ according to the notation used by the civil engineering in the original drawings of the facility.

sight of the need for a careful choice of the physics
and transport parameters adopted, as well as an
accurate validation of the set-up simulated by com-
parison with experimental measurements.
In this work it is discussed the application of MC
simulation to the energy range of particle accelerators
of medical interest. This work shows that it is pos-
sible to accurately predict the quantities of radio-
logical interest in the energy range of biomedical
cyclotrons, in a unitary and comprehensive approach,
more satisfactory compared with analytical methods.
The availability of an experimentally validated MC
model, in terms of physical and transport parameters
in the energy range of medical applications, makes it
possible to revise the traditional approach to the
assessment of RP problems. Currently, MC simula-
tion can therefore be considered the ‘state of art’ in
the planning of new biomedical cyclotron installa-
tions, being a powerful tool for both the optimisation
of RP and the study of feasibility and efficiency of
new radionuclides production methodologies.
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