DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY I
SEMESTER 1
Theory Notes

MBLA010/MBLB010/MBLC010/MBLD010

1. Evolution
2. Environmental
3. Cytology
4. Genetics
5. Embryology
6. Taxonomy & Systematics

SEFAKO MAKGATHO
HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY

 Biology I : Evolution
Table of Contents:

Section 1: Background Information: The “Evolution” of Evolutionary thinking: Page 2

Section 2: The Origin of the Earth, and of Life. Page 5

2.1 The Primitive Earth Page 5

2.2 The Origin of Life Page 5
2.2.1 Conditions favorable for the origin of life Page 5
2.2.2 Stages during the origin of life Page 6
2.3 The geological time scale Page 8
2.4 Development of complex, multicellular life Page 10
2.5 Our wandering continents Page 11

Section 3: The Mechanism of Evolution: Page 15

3.1 Evolution and genetics

3.1.1 Introduction Page 15
3.1.2 Mendelian Inheritance Page 15
3.1.3 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Page 17
3.2 Causes of Microevolution: Page 20
3.2.1 Mutation Page 20
3.2.2 Gene flow Page 20
3.2.3 Non-random mating Page 21
3.2.4 Genetic drift Page 21
3.2.5 Natural selection Page 22

Section 4: Natural Selection Page 24

4.1 Types of natural Selection Page 24

Section 5: Speciation Page 25

5.1 The Species concept Page 25

5.2 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Page 25
5.3 Types of Speciation Page 26

Section 6: Evidence for Macroevolution Page 28

6.1 Fossil evidence Page 28

6.2 Anatomical evidence Page 29
6.3 Biogeographical evidence Page 30
6.4 Biochemical Evidence Page 30

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Section 1: Background Information: The “Evolution” of Evolutionary thinking

Biblical / Pre-Darwinian Post-Darwinian

The earth is young (created in the afternoon,
on 23 October 4004 BC) The earth is old (4 to 4.62 billion years)

Species are related by descent; they are also not

Each species was created as is; species do not static over time; they can change or diverge or
change, and species do not become extinct become extinct

Species are adapted to the environment because

Species are adapted to the environment
of natural selection acting on random genetic
because they were divinely created so
variation, under certain climatic conditions

Early history:
- Even though Charles Darwin is generally believed to be the “Father” of Evolution, the idea of
evolution certainly predates Charles Darwin by more than 2,000 years. The ancient Greeks already
speculated on the possibility of evolutionary change in animals many centuries before the birth of
Christ. As early as 504-433 BC, Empedocles suggested that (1) higher forms of life gradually develop
from lower forms, (2) plants were present before animals, (3) animals with characteristics which are
suited for a particular environment replace those that are less well-adapted. (In this last point we can
see early visions of Charles Darwin’s description of Natural Selection).
- Aristotle (384-322 BC) proposed that animals are arranged in a “ladder of nature”, starting with
inanimate matter, rising up towards plants, then low animals, more advanced animals, and, finally,
humans.
- Aristotle also suggested that biological matter can arise spontaneously from dead matter. This
seemed obvious since – not having any knowledge on microbiology, and not having the technology
with which to study micro-organisms – it seemed the most likely explanation for maggots
“miraculously” appearing in rotting meat, for example.
- For several centuries, this idea had much support, until St. Augustine (354-430 AD) proposed the
Biblical account of creation as an alternative.
- This view was accepted throughout the Middle Ages, and until the Renaissance when Francesco
Redi and Spalanzani managed to disprove this view on spontaneous generation simply by covering
rotting meat with fine cloth (1688). This prevented flies from laying their eggs in the meat, and no
maggots could “spontaneously be created” inside the meat.
- Antoni van Leeuwenhoek later designed the microscope, and discovered the microscopic world, and
the exceedingly tiny and apparently primitive organisms that inhabit it (1683). The idea of
“Spontaneous Generation of living organisms from non-living matter” was rekindled for many people
by the discovery of such primitive animals.
-The discovery of the microscopic world set in motion further discoveries on the role of micro-
organisms eg. as cause of disease. Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1861 that many of the examples of
“Spontaneous generation” could be explained at the hand of non-sterile techniques used in medicine,
food-preparation, storage etc.

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The Pre-Darwinian Period:
An in-depth study of the debate on the origin on life, and the variety of life could fill a book on its own,
and would fall outside the scope of this book. Nevertheless, some discoveries / views can be
highlighted.

- Linnaeus (1700s)
- Carolus Linnaeus believed in the fixity of species (This means that species were divinely created to
look the way they do, they never change their shape, they never become extinct, and new species are
never created).
- Species were created ideally suited to their habitat.
- They had a specific spot on what he called the Scale of Nature on which the most primitive
organisms are placed low on the scale, and with increasing complexity; animals are sequentially
assigned higher positions on this ladder of life (similar to Aristotle’s “Ladder of Life”, except that
Linnaeus never believed that animals could “spontaneously be created’).
- Humans, of course, were placed on top of this ladder. They are the pinnacle, or the top, of all
animals.
- Linnaeus is well known for devising the Binomial system of Classification by which each species is
given a scientific name consisting of two parts (e.g. Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Panthera leo
etc.).

- Cuvier’s Catastrophism (late 1700s)

- Fossils proved that many animals once existed that were no longer alive – particularly animals of
kinds unlike any of those living on earth. This means that they had to have become extinct.
- This challenged the view of the Fixity of Species, since it seemed that animals could indeed
sometimes become extinct, and this contradicted many opinions on the fixity of species.
- Since layers in the earth even showed a succession of life forms, the fossil record even seemed to
imply that species could change over time.
- Different ways existed to try and explain this pattern. Many people looked at fossils of large animals,
and believed that they were animals who died in the Great Flood of Noah. Other people looked at
fossils (of dinosaurs, for example) and believed them to be creations of the Devil, etc.
- Cuvier explained this at the hand of what was later called Catastrophism (periodic local extinctions,
followed by repopulation, by closely related species from surrounding areas. In other words, sudden
geological or climatic changes may sometimes wipe out the species in an area, following which new
species are then created to replace them. A cycle of periodic extinctions in an area, followed by
repopulation from surrounding areas, could give an appearance of change occurring over time.

- Lamarck (Late 1700s)

- The central tenet of Baptiste Lamarck revolved around the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Physical characteristics developed during the life of an animal will be transferred to the children.
According to Lamarck, for example, body builders should have more muscular children than non-body
builders.
- His famous example was the origin of the Giraffe. Giraffes have to stretch their necks to reach the
upper branches of trees, to get to more nutritious leaves not reachable by shorter animals. By many
generations of stretching their necks, each generation will progressively have slightly longer necks.
- The more a giraffe stretches its neck during its lifetime, the longer the necks of its offspring will be.
By their efforts, they can therefore bestow an advantage on their offspring. For a long time (even
today), this appealed to many people on a philosophical level since it implied that people have the
ability to better themselves through their efforts. Parents who train their bodies or minds will bestow
these characteristics on their children and given them a head start over other children whose parent
did not do so; parents who read books will have children who are smarter than those who do not, etc.
-Unfortunately, absolutely no evidence exists that Lamarck was correct in his mechanism of evolution,
even though many people today – non-Biologists – tend to think of evolution in this manner.

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- Even though he was wrong, Lamarck deserves much credit since he was the first biologist to both
believe in evolution and the adaptation of animals to the local environment.

- Charles Darwin / Alfred Wallace

- Three main persons were very important in shaping the thinking of Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace who – independently from each other, and around the same time, suggested their mechanism
through which evolution could have occurred – natural selection (Charles Darwin published his famous
book, “On the Origin of Species” in 1859.
(1) Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin already discussed the mechanism of Natural
Selection with the “lunatic society” early in the 19th century.
(2) The second person shaping the thought of Charles Darwin was Charles Lyell, who proposed the
idea of Uniformitarianism (an opposite view to the view of Catastrophism held by Cuvier, as mentioned
above) in which he suggested that the same processes occurring in the world today, also acted on the
world throughout history. Geological processes are extremely slow, and geological structures are
formed only very gradually. Therefore, the earth had to be very, very old. This provided the huge
amount of time that Darwin’s theory required for evolution to have taken place (the biblical idea of the
Earth being only 6,000 years old could not have been long enough for complex animals to have
evolved through natural selection).
(3) Thomas Malthus published “An Essay on the Principle of Population”. In this he suggested that
food production by humans increased at a linear rate, while the human population increased at an
exponential rate. The human population must have (and may still) outstrip the ability of agriculture to
provide food for everybody. This means that many (of even most) people must die through famine,
war and pestilence, and that these factors curb the human population, and prevent overpopulation.
This lead Darwin to ponder the possibility that some individuals may be better at surviving than others.
- Darwin and Wallace essentially suggested that animals change over time to become adapted to their
environment. They also believed that organisms are all related through common descent.
(see later).

- Today
The Talk Origins Archive
http://www.talkorigins.org
Copyright © 1998-2007 Talk.Origins Archive
- There is still debate on whether or not evolution is true. Creationism (sometimes misleadingly
referred to as “Scientific Creationism” (the Biblical idea that the Earth was formed over 6 days, 6,000
years ago) is still adhered to as a religious principle, but it is not widely accepted as a scientific fact,
since it relies on belief and faith, whereas science relies on testing of hypothesis, and confirming or
refuting through experimentation or observation.
- Attempts are made to fuse the ideas of Scientific Evolution and Religious Creationism by means of
modern philosophies as Intelligent Design, which state that Evolution did occur, but it occurred by an
Intelligent Designer (God) directly guiding it in a specific direction.

- New Darwinism
- While details on the mechanism of evolution are still being considered, debated and researched,
few biologists doubt that Evolution occurred, and occurred through Natural Selection. The theory of
Natural Selection as proposed by Darwin has, however, become altered and updated as new
knowledge and new technologies became available. In Darwin’s time, for example, no knowledge
existed of genetics. Nobody knew about genes, how they work, or are inherited. The rapid advances in
the field of molecular genetics over recent decades provided a powerful new tool in the field of
Evolutionary Biology and was incorporated into theories on how evolution occurred, and is commonly
referred to as “Neo-Darwinism”

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Section 2: The Origin of the Earth, and of Life.

2.1) The Primitive Earth

-There is evidence that the universe started about 15 billion years ago with the “Big bang”. Our solar
system gradually formed over the last 10 billion years
- The primitive earth was fully formed by ± 4.5 billion years ago
- At that stage, the early earth was molten, and slowly cooled into several layers. Heavier elements
accumulated at the bottom (i.e. iron, nickel) to form a denser, molten, liquid core. A less dense layer of
silica minerals became the semi liquid mantle floating on top of the core. Slight cooling of the outer
layer of this mantle, combined with ongoing volcanic eruptions produced the thin crust, a layer about
100km thick, on which we live and go about our lives. (The deepest mines today penetrate several
kilometers (over 4km) into the Earth’s crust. As one goes deeper into the earth’s crust, however, the
temperatures rise sharply.
- The gravitational attraction exerted by the earth was big enough to retain some of the gases
produced by degassing of the earth so that an atmosphere formed (unlike smaller planets in our solar
system without an atmosphere). The lightest elements escaped into space while the earth was still
being formed (e.g. Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, Argon). Heavier elements were retained in our
atmosphere (e.g. gases like Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen, Suphur Dioxide, and other molecules like water
vapour, Ammonia and Silicon dioxide).
- As the earth slowly cooled, water vapour condensed into dense rain which created the oceans,
although high temperatures and continued bombardment of the earth by meteorites prevented them
from being the stable water bodies we think of today.
- At first, the earth’s atmosphere contained no free Oxygen and would as a result not have possessed
an outer layer of Ozone (which absorbs harmful radiation coming from surrounding space, especially
ultraviolet radiation from our sun). During the Archaean Period (± 3,8 billion years ago) a slight ozone
layer formed.
- Gradually the earth cooled to temperatures more amenable to supporting life.

2.2) The Origin of Life

2.2.1 Conditions favorable for the origin of life

We can speculate that – for life to have evolved on earth – four conditions must have occurred.

1) Oxygen must have been absent, or occurred only in very minute quantities. Oxygen breaks
down simple chemicals through oxidation (think, for example, of the necessity for Oxygen to break
down chemical energy during our own respiration). When a fire burns, it uses oxygen. This condition
was probably fulfilled with most of the oxygen having escaped from the primitive earth, and the
remainder having been tied up as Oxides.

2) An external source, or sources, of energy must have existed to power the process.
Fortunately, the primitive earth had no lack of these.
a) Solar radiation
b) Heat (volcanoes, meteorites impacting the earth)
c) Lightning
d) Radioactivity

3) Chemical molecules must have existed for the above energy sources to act upon (see later).

4) A huge amount of time must have been available for all of these to work together to produce the
first life forms. The earth is generally believed to be about 4.5 billion years old. The earliest fossil
evidence we have for life is about 3.8 billion years old. This means that several hundred millions years
may have elapsed between the formation of the earth and the first tangible signs of life.

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How could this life have begun?

2.2.2 Stages during the origin of life

Monomers evolved
- Oparin (1938): Suggested that simple organic compounds (e.g. nucleic acids, amino acids) could
have spontaneously been created by the earth's atmosphere, under the influence of strong energy
sources (see point 2 above)
- Stanley Miller (1953) demonstrated that this could be possible by performing an experiment in which
he combined the gases which would have existed in the earth's atmosphere (water vapour, Hydrogen,
Methane, Ammonia), sealed them in a chamber, and added electricity (to simulate lightning). A
collection of organic molecules was formed.
- As more information became available in later years on the probable composition of the early earth’s
atmosphere, this experiment was repeated many times, and it was demonstrated that many the basic
building blocks important in modern, living organisms could be created in the lab.
- Nucleotide bases of RNA and DNA
- All 20 amino acids
- Lipid molecules
- Certain sugars
- Adenosine triphosphate (the molecule responsible for energy transfer in modern organisms)
-On the primitive earth, there would have been a gradual accumulation, over a very long period time,
of these organic molecules in the shallow oceans, to produce an “organic soup”, or a “primeval soup”.

Polymers evolve
-The next step in the evolution of life entailed these simple compounds combining into longer chains –
forming polymers.
- Sidney Fox showed experimentally that amino acids polymerise abiotically when exposed to dry heat
(or, put in other words, amino acids spontaneously produce long strings of amino acids –
polypeptides). Subsequent experiments have confirmed that simple organic compounds can combine
into polymers on hot rock or hot clay surfaces (especially if these surfaces contain minerals like Iron or
Zinc, which may act as catalysts).
- This could have happened on the early earth as well. Amino acids, plentiful in the early ocean, would
have collected in shallow puddles where they could have been cooked on clay surfaces by the sun to
produce simple polypeptides (proteinoids – small polypeptides with some catalytic properties: in other
words, polypeptides which have the ability to function as primitive enzymes). This is not implausible if
one considers that the important thing which gives an enzyme its highly specific function is the shape
(which is, in turn), simply a reflection of the order in which its constituent amino acids are linked in a
long chain.

Coacervates form
- Returning these proteinoids to water, they formed microspheres (protein balls with some properties
of a cell). Some of them can divide into two (similar to binary fission). Some of them have internal
environments different from that of the surrounding environment (a primitive type of “homeostasis”
being maintained). Some of them can absorb molecules from the surrounding environment.
- If lipids were to become available to these microspheres, they became incorporated into it as a
simple membrane.
- Oparin (previously mentioned) showed that certain dense concentrations of macromolecules can,
under appropriate conditions of temperature, ionic composition and pH give rise to units called
coacervate droplets, a special type of microsphere.
- Coacervates can absorb and incorporate molecules from the surrounding environment. These
"protocells" will have absorbed “nutrients” from the surrounding environment, and they have been

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shown to have a limited catalytic ability to break down such nutrients. (e.g. when adding Glucose
phosphate to the environment, the coacervates can absorb it, and convert it to Maltose).
- Coacervates have the ability – by absorbing molecules from around them – to grow.
- Eventually, a semipermeable membrane may form around the coacervates if lipids are absorbed
from the surrounding environment.
- They also have the ability to reproduce (to produce copies of themselves. Small buds can pinch off
from a larger coacervate to produce a smaller coacervate. This type of reproduction is seen in some
bacteria). They cannot do so spontaneously, however. This has to be induced experimentally. This
means that they can not be called alive.

Primitive cells develop

- Somehow, a jump must have occurred from coacervates to the first true cell. Possibly this occurred
due to the ability of coacervates to absorb molecules from the external environment. If self-replicating,
or catalytic RNA strands were absorbed by a coacervate, the coacervate would have turned into a
primitive prokaryotic “cell”.
- This is plausible, since RNA nucleotides, as well as longer RNA-strands, would have existed in the
surrounding oceans. Furthermore, RNA does often have self-replicating capabilities. We call such self-
replicating strands of RNA ribozymes (from a combination of RNA+enzyme – refers to RNA which
has enzymatic abilities).
- The RNA strand, once incorporated into the coacervate, would have given the coacervate the ability
to reproduce, while the coacervate would have protected the RNA strand from external damage or
degradation, giving it more stability.
- With nucleic acids having been incorporated into a “proto-cell”, biological information about an entity
could then have been stored.
- With biological information being stored, some of these structures could possibly replicate
themselves, and transfer their own phenotypes (physical characteristics) to their “offspring.
- Some of them would have been better at doing this than others. They could produce more of their
own kind. They had a Selective advantage, and could out-compete others which were not as
successful.

The origin of complex cells

- As described above, the first protocell possibly developed from a coacervate that enclosed a self-
replicating strand of RNA.
- We can not be sure when life originated on earth, but the oldest definite, unambiguous fossils
suggest that complex cells have existed by 3.5 billion years ago.
- The first cells would probably have been prokaryotic heterotrophs (organisms unable to synthesise
their own organic compounds). These cells would have had to absorb these compounds from the
surrounding environment). They would probably have used up the available sources of free nutrients,
leading to competition between them.
- Later, chemosynthetic and photosynthetic autotrophs would have evolved. They obtained energy
from oxidising inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulphide, obtaining energy from the sun, and
releasing sulphur into the atmosphere.
- The cyanobacteria were the first bacteria to evolve “modern” photosynthesis (as we know it), using
not hydrogen sulphide for photosynthesis (and releasing sulphur into the atmosphere), but water
instead (as modern plants do), and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. Traces of chlorophyll, found
in rocks, suggest that this could have happened between 3 and 3.5bya (Billion years ago).
- With the evolution of autotrophs, using energy from the sun to produce organic compounds, it was
inevitable that organisms would evolve that could feed on them, and feed on the energy-rich
compounds produced by them (between 3.5 and 2.5 bya). Because oxygen still occurred only in very
low levels in the atmosphere, these Heterotrophs had to use alternative sources to reduce
compounds and release energy (unlike most heterotrophs today which use oxygen). These
Heterotrophs include methanogens (reduced carbon dioxide to methane) and sulphate reducers
(reduced sulphate to hydrogen sulphide)

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- By 2.5-2 bya, Autotrophs were producing increasing quantities of oxygen, and it eventually become
an increasingly important component of the atmosphere. This can be observed in the geological
record from 2.5 to 1.5 bya, when iron oxides were observed in rocks in increasing quantities (before
then, free iron dissolved in water since there was no oxygen to cause iron to precipitate).
- Increasing levels of Oxygen led to several important changes, one of which was the formation of a
protective layer of Ozone surrounding the atmosphere, reducing the levels of ultraviolet radiation from
the sun. This allowed animals to live closer to the surface of the oceans (no organisms were living on
land, by this stage). Secondly, organisms using Oxygen for reduction in their metabolisms were
much more efficient than Methanogens or Sulphate reducers, and would have gradually started to
dominate the earth.
- These cells didn't have a cell nucleus; possibly only a self-replicating RNA strand. They were
therefore still prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes developed
- Cells possible developed a nucleus by invagination of the cell membrane to enclose the genetic
component of the cells. This produced the first Eukaryotes. The fossil record suggests that this may
have occurred at least around 1.5 bya, and possibly much earlier.
- Organelles then developed in these Eukaryotes according to the Endosymbiont hypothesis
- The Endosymbiont hypothesis (Schwartz and Dayhoff 1972) states that chloroplasts were once free
living, photosynthetic autotrophic prokaryotes, and mitochondria were once free living, aerobic
heterotrophic prokayotes that were ingested but not digested by a nucleated cell and a complex
symbiosis developed between the cell and its food.

2.3) The geological time scale

Most of the rocks exposed at the surface of the Earth are sedimentary--formed from particles
of older rocks that have been broken apart and transported by water or wind. The gravel, sand, and
mud settle to the bottom in rivers, lakes, and oceans. These sedimentary particles may bury living or
dead animals and plants on the lake or sea bottom. With time, the sedimentary particles become
cemented by lime, silica or iron and they turn into rock again. Gravel becomes a rock called
conglomerate, sand becomes sandstone, mud becomes mudstone or shale, and the animal skeletons
and plant pieces can become mineralized to form fossils.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the English geologist and engineer
William Smith and the French paleontologists Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart discovered
that rocks of the same age may contain the same fossils even when the rocks are separated by long
distances. They published the first geologic maps of large areas on which rocks containing similar
fossils were shown. By careful observation of the rocks and their fossils, these men and other
geologists were, for example, able to recognize rocks of the same age on opposite sides of the
English Channel.
Geologists didn’t, at first, know how old the different layers were in absolute terms. They knew
the relative order in which they occurred, and they knew that they had to have been formed over a
huge amount to time. It is only with the advent of Radiometric dating, that we were able to assign
specific ages to these individual rocks.
A time scale became established during the 1700s and 1800 based upon observation of fossils
in the rock layers in England and Europe. On this time scale, time is divided into units such as Eras
and Periods characterized by specific animals that lived at the time. These time units have been
named based upon the remains / fossils found in sedimentary rocks, and for this reason, the names of
Eras and the corresponding rocks tend to end in –zoic (e.g. Mesozoic).
Prefixes such as Palaeo- means “old”, Meso- means “middle” and Ceno- means “Recent”.
Proterozoic (Precambrian), for example will refer to “First Animals” (Protero- + -zoic). From this it
becomes easy to remember the relation of these time periods to each other.

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2.4 The development of complex life:
Little fossil evidence is available of life that occurred before the Cambrian because, many fossils have
been destroyed by volcanic activity since they were formed. Furthermore, since the rocks that were
formed during the pre-Cambrian time are so extremely old, they occur, for the most part, only in
extremely deep layers of the earth’s crust and fossils consist of imprints of generally primitive soft
bodied forms without hard components (shells or skeletons). Since those are the parts of animals
most likely to fossilise, we are left with a relatively unrepresentative sample such as the Ediacarian
fauna of what organisms lived during most of the earth’s existence. Even so, we know that
multicellular life was present around 1 bya, and, towards the end of the Proteozoic Eon (570 my ago),
and the start of the Phanerozoic, animals capable of producing hard, calcareous shells appeared.

- The Palaeozoic Era began roughly 570 million years ago, and is divided into 6 periods. The first of
these, the Cambrian, is characterised by a huge “explosion” of marine invertebrates. This explosion of
life continued into the Ordovician, when some fossilised spores of terrestrial plants tentatively seem
to suggest that life had moved onto land (in the form of algae).
- Only during the Silurian do we get the first definite signs of plants establishing themselves on land
(macrofossils); mostly mosses. Since this provided food and shelter, it allowed the first air-breathing
animals to follow them onto land. By the end of the Silurian, the terrestrial fossil record shows
evidence of fungus-eating Arthropods, and predatory scorpions and millipedes. In the sea and
freshwater, many types of fish have developed.
- During the Devonian Period, both the plant diversity and animal diversity increased. Primitive
amphibians appeared during the late Devonian.
- The Carboniferous Period is named for the huge swampy forests which covered much of the world,
filled with ferns and gymnosperms. In the Carboniferous the first Amniotes appeared – the first
Reptiles, (amniotes are vertebrates which lay eggs with shells; such as reptiles, birds and
mammals…although, of course, Mammals and Birds had not yet appeared). Amphibians were still the
dominant terrestrial carnivores at this stage.
- Amphibians were still plentiful and diverse during the Permian Period, but the reptiles diversified
and became the dominant terrestrial carnivores and herbivores. During the Permian, the therapsids
(mammal-like reptiles) appeared which eventually gave rise to the mammals and the ancestors of the
dinosaurs, birds, tortoises, lizards and snakes evolved.
- For reasons which are not known, 90% of all marine species, and 70% of the terrestrial vertebrate
genera became extinct at the end of the Permian, and within a very short period of time. This mass-
extinction ended the Palaeozoic, and gave rise to the Mesozoic Era. Possible explanations include
climatic changes, associated with decreased oxygen levels, and increased levels of Carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.

- The Mesozoic Era is generally referred to as the “Age of Reptiles”. During the three Periods of the
Mesozoic, the Triassic, the Jurassic and the Cretaceous, reptiles showed huge differentiation.
- During the Triassic Period, the two dominant groups of reptiles on land were the therapsids
(eventually to give rise to mammals) and the thecodonts (eventually to give rise to birds, crocodiles
and dinosaurs). Of importance is the origin of mammals at the end of this period, at first consisting of
small, nocturnal insectivorous mammals, but diversifying in the Jurassic and Cretaceous and
thereafter to give rise to many extinct and the present day marsupial and placental Mammals.
- The dominant vertebrates of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods were represented by a diverse
group of reptiles descendant from thecodonts known as the Dinosaurs. They dominated the earth
until they finally went extinct at the end of the Cretaceous (65my ago).
- During the Jurassic Period and the Cretaceous Period many lizards and crocodile species
appeared, as well as the earliest birds. Archaeopteryx is the earliest known bird from the fossil record
(~150mya) and evolved from reptiles during the Jurassic in southern Germany. It combined many of
the features of reptiles with those of birds (e.g. possessing teeth and a long, bony tail). Flowering
plants appear in the fossil record toward the end of the Cretaceous Period.

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.- The Cenozoic Era saw the diversification of flowering plants, mammals, insects and birds. Of great
importance is the appearance of human ancestors appearing during the late Miocene Epoch (5my
ago) and early Pliocene. Much research on this topic is still continuing, and many aspects of this
evolution are still being debated, sometimes very vigorously. A complete discussion of this, sometimes
contentious, topic falls outside the scope of this course, but some generalities are given here.
- The genus Australopithecus appeared around 4mya, fossils of Australopithecis anamensis being
known from East Africa. This species gave rise to several other species, including Australopithecus
africanus, first discovered in South Africa.
- The genus Australopithecus gave rise to the genus Homo about 2.3mya, with several fossil of Homo
habilis (handy man) being known.
- Homo erectus probably originated in Africa around 1.7mya, and spread to Europe and Asia.
- Archaic Homo sapiens (sometimes placed in a separate species, Homo heidelbergensis) descended
from Homo erectus and lived in Africa, Europe and Asia between 800,000 and 100,000 years ago.
They gave rise to modern Homo sapiens around 300,000 years ago in the Middle East and Africa.
- They then spread to the rest of the world, and here we are today.

2.5 “OUR WANDERING CONTINENTS”

Not only did life originate and diversified on earth over the past 3,5 by, but the anorganic earth
itself has also gradually changed over time. Powerful changes take place in the mantle and crust of
the earth associated with continental drift, i.e. the movement of tectonic plates. The splitting up of
large supercontinents to form the geographically isolated present day ones had a big influence on the
biogeography and evolution of plants and animals.
Before 1915, it was believed that the earth’s crust was immobile, and that the continents had
always looked the way they do today. Many anomalies to this belief were evident, however, such as
the separation of related terrestrial animals species on different continents, with no explanation of how
they managed to cross oceans. Other anomalies also became evident as people obtained more
information. Coal seams were discovered inside the Arctic circle, and evidence of earlier plant life was
found in Antarctica. This could not be explained by the present position of Antarctica at the cold South
Pole. Furthermore, it had always struck people how complementary in shape the East coast of South
America was to the West Coast of Africa. The rock formations between these coastlines were also
found to closely match up. How was this to be explained?
Following the work of geologists such as Wegener and Alex du Toit, we know today that the
continents are, in fact, not stable. They are actually moving, relative to each other, a process that has
been ongoing since the primitive earth nearly 4 bya.
The interior centre of the earth consists of a molten core of molten magma and metal. This
core is heated by, amongst others, radioactivity and pressure. This core spins continually and is
responsible for the earth’s magnetic field. Without this magnetic field, compasses would not work and
since the magnetic field also protects us against many cosmic rays from the sun, it is essential for the
survival of life on earth.
Around this core of molten magma we find a semi-liquid layer of cooler magma referred to as
the mantle, which flows by means of convection and gravitational effects, at extremely slow rates. The
crust is of the earth is fragmented into a series of large plates called tectonic plates. There are about
twelve large plates, and roughly 20 smaller ones, ‘floating’ on the outer layer of the mantle and forming
the six continents, some islands and the seafloor. The crust averages about 40km in thickness, but it
varies from place to place. It is, for example, much thinner on the floor of the ocean (maybe as little as
5 - 10km), and is thicker under the continents (as much as 65 km under very high mountains). As the
semi-liquid mantle moves, the continental crust (and thus, the continents), are carried along. As these
plates move, some plates are torn apart, or shoved together, resulting in earthquakes. You may have
heard of the San Andreas fault in California. Here, two tectonic plates form a boundary, and these two

11
plates grind against each other. This sometimes leads to earthquakes. In places the molten magma
breaks through weaknesses in the overlying crust resulting in volcanic eruptions.
During the Palaeozoic Era (Carboniferous Period) the landmasses drifted together to form a
large landmass in the Permian Period called Pangaea (fig. 1). (Pan- means “all” while Gaea means
“earth”. All the continents of the world were joined together in one single super-continent.

Fig. 1) A reconstruction of what Pangaea looked like

during the Permian. All the continents we know today were united in one, big, “supercontinent”.

At the start of the Jurassic, about 200 million years ago, Pangaea began to break up (a.) to form two
landmasses, Laurasia to the North (today North America, Greenland, Europe, most of Asia) and
Gondwanaland to the South (today Antarctica, South America, Africa, Arabia, Madagascar, India,
Australia and New Zealand). (b.) As the Jurassic wore on, India broke free from present day
Antarctica and drifted northwards (fig. 2). (c.) Towards the end of the Cretaceous the continents
composing Gondwanaland gradually broke free from one another, while (d.) India steadily moved
north as an island finally making contact with Asia about 35 million years ago. India crashed into Asia,
and as it pushed into Asia, it created the mountains known today as the Himalayas. This process is
still continuing today.

Fig. 2) Laurasia and Gondwana separated, India drifting northwards

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(e.) Laurasia finally broke up about 20 million years ago during the Miocene, and North America,
Greenland and Eurasia become separated, (f.) and Australia broke free from Antarctica (fig. 3 & 4).

Fig. 3) North America and Greenland separating from Eurasia, Australia free from Antarctica.

Fig. 4 Continents are they are positioned today. North & South America are connected, India is a part
of Asia, and Arabia has split off from Africa to form part of Asia

The continents are, of course continuing to move, and with sophisticated technology it is
actually possible to measure the rate at which continents do so.
It is predicted that Africa will eventually split into two along the fault line that is known as the
Rift valley in East Africa, and most of Africa will crash into Europe; the Mediterranean Sea will
disappear and a mountain range will form across Europe towards India. Australia will crash into Asia
or perhaps slide along the eastern edge of Asia, pushing the islands of Japan ahead of it until it
eventually crashes into Siberia. The Atlantic ocean will increase in size as North America drifts West
until the Atlantic is bigger than the Pacific Ocean. Antarctica will move North into the Indian Ocean. All
of this will, of course, take many millions of years. America is drifting West, while Australia is drifting
North, at a rate of no more than 4 cm per year. In one person’s lifetime, therefore, the continents will
move no more than one or two metres.
The influence of continental drift on the distribution of animal and plant species was moderated
by the oceans rising and dropping during the ages. During cyclical (in other words, they occur at
regular intervals) cold periods known as ice ages, much of the earth’s water is caught up as ice,
spread across the globe in the form of glaciers. With so much water in ice-form, the ocean levels are
much lower than they are during non-Ice ages, as we are living in today. The last Ice-age ended about
10,000 years ago. When the last ice-age was still present, much of Northern Europe and North
America was covered with ice. Because the sea level was much lower than today, people could walk
between France and England on dry land, or from Alaska to Russia. North- and South America, now

13
connected through Panama, were previously separate. Africa has been in contact with Europe in the
past across the Strait of Gibraltar a number of times.
The changes in sea level made it possible for organisms to move from one continent to
another at different time during the ages. In other cases organisms were isolated for long periods of
time, e.g. the marsupials of Australia.
The moving continents also resulted in climatic changes associated with latitudinal changes.
Continents, once tropical became deserts. Other continents, once close to the Arctic Circle moved
across the equator, with resulting temperature changes. As the climate changed, organisms could not
adapt, and many become extinct, leaving space in which other organisms could develop and radiate.

14
Section 3: The Mechanism of Evolution:

3.1 Evolution and Genetics

3.1.1 Introduction

When evolution happen, it is the population that change and not only a single individual.
Evolution affects both the phenotype (what the organisms of the population look like) and the genes
that control the phenotype (the genotype) of the members of the population. All the genes of a
population together is called the gene pool. In a previous section on genetics you have studied how
genes normally interact to produce the phenotype. In this section we look at the mechanisms how the
composition of the gene pool can change. The relative abundance of different genes in the gene pool
will not change during reproduction but only by the mechanisms of evolution.
In this section we will see that normally, the genes of a population remain the same generation
after generation unless evolution takes place. We will then look at the mathematical effect of evolution
on the genes in the gene pool and lastly look at the factors driving the mechanism of evolution.

3.1.2 Mendelian Inheritance

Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who revolutionized the study of Genetics in the early 1860s
(although nobody realized this until the beginning of the 1900s).

At that time, most breeders of plants and animals only knew that both parents contribute equally to the
appearance of offspring, and that offspring fall someplace in between either parent in appearance.

They mistakenly believed that this worked in a way similar to the mixing of paint. Mixing red and white
paint results in pink paint. Mixing genes for pink flowers and white flowers in the parents will result in
the offspring having pink flowers. This belief implied that the original characters/attributes of the
parents have been changed permanently. In the same way, one cannot reconstitute red paint and
white paint once they have been mixed. This is referred to as a Blending Theory of Inheritance (i.e.
parental characters are blended together in producing offspring).

The contribution that Gregor Mendel made was to show that the original characters controlling the
phenotype are not destroyed during breeding. They remain intact, and can recur in later generations.
When a red flower and a white flower produces pink offspring, that pink flower still has the ability to
produce pure red or white flowers.This is referred to as the Particulate Theory of Inheritance (i.e.
the “Units of Inheritance” which determine offspring appearance (which we now refer to as Genes),
remain distinct units).

Remember from the previous section on genetics that because you have two Homologous
Chromosomes of each type of chromosome in each cell in the body, it means that you also have two
genes occurring on these two chromosomes at corresponding positions (loci) that control the same
characteristic in the phenotype.

Originally, when you were a zygote, one gene came from your Father, and one from your Mother.

Because the genes have different origins, they may or may not be identical.
- A character like “eye colour” for example, has a large number of possible “gene states” in which it
can be found in people; e.g. blue, brown, green. These different forms of the same gene are called
Alleles

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- “Blue eyes”, “Green eyes”, “Brown eyes” are thus Alleles for eye-colour. “Short stem” or “Long
Stem” are possible Alleles for Plant length etc.

Those are the possible genes floating around in the genepool of the population. You can only have
two of them at any one time, however, because you only have 2 copies of each chromosome.

Like you heard in the section on genetics, if you have two genes that are the same, you are called
Homozygous for that Character. If they are not the same, you are Heterozygous for that character.
Note as well that it is possible to be Homozygous for one gene (e.g. eye colour) but Heterozygous for
a different gene (e.g. hair colour).

What happens during Meiosis?

Homologous Chromosomes separate!

What does this mean?

It means that one copy of each gene goes towards one sperm cell / egg cell, while another copy goes
to another sperm cell / egg cell.

Example 1
A male has the gene for “Blue eyes” on one copy of Chromosome 1, while he has the gene for “Brown
eyes” on its’ Homologous Chromosome (thus being Heterozygotic for eye colour).
Meiosis occurs. After Meiosis 1, he will have two sex cells, one of which will contain the gene for “Blue
eyes” while the other contains the gene for “Brown eyes”.
After Meiosis 2, in the male, you will have two sperm cells with the gene for “Blue eyes” and two
sperm cells that contain the gene for “Brown eyes”.
The individual will therefore produce sperms with a 50:50 ratio for Blue-eyes : Brown-eyes.
In other words – after fertilization, he will have a 50:50 chance of producing offspring containing either
gene.

During fertilization, and the creation of a zygote, it is completely random whether the sperm that is
involved in fertilization is one containing the “Blue-eyes” gene, or one containing the “Brown-eyes”
gene.

Fertilization, of course, requires an egg as well.

Imagine the female in our example is Homozygous for this attribute. She received a “Brown-eye” gene
from each of her parents, meaning that each of her Chromosome 1’s has a “Brown-eye” gene.
Following Meiosis 2, all her egg cells will therefore carry the “Brown-eye” gene, since there is no way
for any of her egg cells to carry anything else.
100% of all of her offspring will therefore receive a “Brown-eye” gene from her.
While the father therefore has a 50:50 possible ratio for Blue eyed vs. Brown eyed offspring, the
mother has a 100% chance of producing Brown-eyed offspring.

What will the offspring look like?

- Naturally, there is no way in the world that you can predict which gametes, out of all the millions
produced by you, will be the exact one involved in producing a zygote. You can only determine the
likelihood / probability of a certain outcome.

In this case, (because each parent contributes an equal amount to the next generation), the offspring
will have the following possible appearances.
50 % will be Heterozygous, with one copy each of “Brown-eyes” and “Blue-eyes” respectively, on the
two homologous chromosomes.

16
50% will be Homozygous, with both chromosomes in the Homologous pair carrying the gene for
“Brown-eyes”.

- As you know from the section on genetics, it is custom not to write out lengthy names for Alleles.
One usually refers to them with letters; the dominant one is referred to with a capital and the recessive
with lower case letters.
- “Brown-eyes” Allele can therefore be written as B and the “Blue-eyes” Allele as b.

- In the above example, all the Offspring will have Brown eyes because of complete dominance of the
B allele over the b allele. The chances of the Phenotype is therefore “100% Brown eyes”. The
genotype, however, can be determined using a Punnet diagram and in this example would be is
written as - 50 BB : 50 Bb. This is usually simplified to 1 BB : 1 Bb.
- In simple terms this means that, while we have no way of knowing for certain which genes will be
transferred to the offspring, we know that
1) all of them will have brown eyes
2) on average, we would expect half of any children to be Heterozygous and half to be Homozygous.

3.1.3 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

How can we observe that evolution is taking place?

- We can do that by looking at allele frequencies in the gene pool, and how allele frequencies change
over time, from one generation to the next.
- If allele frequencies change over generations, this will change the phenotypes in the population.
Small changes in the allele frequencies accumulating over a few generations we refer to this as
Microevolution

(e.g. Industrial Melanism).

- Microevolution can accumulate and eventually result in large changes in the phenotype (i.e.
Microevolution can lead to Macroevolution – large phenotypic changes leading to completely
different types of animals).

What do we actually mean by Allele Frequencies?

Example 2:
Imagine a population has 100 diploid rabbit individuals. Each of these therefore has two copies of
each gene – Let us consider only one gene at a time; fur colour
That means that there are 200 alleles in the population which control fur colour
Let’s imagine further that there are only two alleles for fur colour: black and grey

This means that the 200 genes in the population that control fur colour, all control only for two
colours…either black fur or grey fur.

Imagine further that in this entire population, ¼ of the individuals are Homozygous for Black; the
dominant allele (i.e. BB)
½ are heterozygous (i.e. Bb) while ¼ are homozygous for the recessive allele (i.e. grey, bb).

In other words, in the population of 100 individuals, 25 are BB, 50 are Bb and 25 are bb.

We now determine allele frequencies as follows:

Number of B alleles in the population:

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Number of B alleles Number of b alleles
BB 2B x 25 = 50 BB 0b x 25 0
Bb 1B x 50 = 50 Bb 1b x 50 50
bb 0B x 25 =0 bb 2b x 25 50
Total B 100 Total b 100
We can see that there are indeed 200 alleles.

What is the frequency of the B and b alleles?

Number of B alleles Number of b alleles

= Total # of alleles = Total # of alleles

= 100 = 100
200 200

= 0.5 = 0.5

So, 0.5 of all the alleles in the population available for fur colour are B and 0.5 are b.

Let’s assume for the moment that there is no selection, and that all of them have an equal chance of
being transferred to the next generation. What will the next generation look like?
Draw up a Punnett diagram:
(This Punnett Diagram differs from the previous Punnett Squares in that in this case we do not
calculate the expected Phenotypic/genotypic ratio for the next generation for an individual crossing,
but for the entire population).

O.5 B 0.5 b

0.5 B 0.25 BB 0.25 Bb

0.5 b 0.25 Bb 0.25 bb

This means that the next generation of the population is expected to look like this:
25 % of all individuals will be BB,
50% (25%+25%) will be Bb,
25% will be bb.

What do we conclude from this?

- Sexual Reproduction alone cannot change allele frequencies in a population

- Dominance does not change allele frequencies.

Example 3
Let’s look at another, more complex example:
Imagine a population, still with 100 individuals

But this time:

36 are BB, 48 are Bb and 16 are bb.

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Calculate the allele frequencies, as well as the expected gene frequencies for the next generation:

Step 1: Determine the Allele frequencies:

We know that there are still 200 alleles of either B or b in the population.

Number of B alleles Number of b alleles

BB 2B x 36 = 72 BB 0b x 36 0
Bb 1B x 48 = 48 Bb 1b x 48 48
bb 0B x 16 =0 bb 2b x 16 32
Total B 120 Total b 80

Frequency of Allele B: 120 / 200 = 0.6

Frequency of Allele b: 80 / 200 = 0.4

Step 2: Draw up a Punnett Square to calculate the expected genotypes for the population for the next
generation:

O.6 B 0.4 b

0.6 B 0.36 BB 0.24 Bb

0.4 b 0.24 Bb 0.16 bb

We therefore expect that the next generation will consist of 36% BB individuals, 48% Bb and 16% ll.

So…what does all this tell us? What does it mean?

- It is clear that being dominant or recessive in itself does not make an allele more or less likely to be
transferred to the next generation.
- Sexual reproduction in itself does not change the gene pool of a population.

In 1908, a British called Hardy and a German called Weinberg determined, independently of each
other, what is today referred to as the Hardy-Weinberg Principle.
This states that the Allele frequencies in a population will not change, from one generation to the next,
unless evolution has occurred.

Two generations of a population are in equilibrium if the gene frequencies in them are the same.
Allele frequencies will occur in an equilibrium from one generation to the next, according to the
following formula

p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (and simple probability theory states that (p + q = 1)

p² is the frequency of homozygous, dominant individuals

p is the frequency of the dominant allele
q² is the frequency of the homozygous, recessive individuals
q is the frequency of the recessive allele
2 pq is the frequency of the heterozygous individuals
This formula allows us to calculate the expected frequencies of alleles from one generation to the
next, as long as the population occurs in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

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Successive generations of a population will remain in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium as long as
the following conditions are met:

1) No mutations occur in the population

2) No gene flow occurs (there is no migration into the population, of out of the population)
3) Random mating occurs – all individuals have an equal chance of reproducing, and mate
choice is not influenced by genotypes or phenotypes
4) No genetic drift occurs. The population is very large, and no changes in allelic frequencies
occur due to chance
5) No selection occurs. All genotypes have an equal chance of surviving

As long as these conditions are met, a population will remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Obviously, in real populations, these conditions are unlikely to be met. One or more will be violated.
If the gene frequencies calculated by the above formula after some time has changed, the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium does not exist; it means that evolution has occurred in the population.

3.2 Causes of Microevolution:

The conditions that have to be met for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium have
already been introduced.
(in other words, conditions for the allele frequencies to remain the same from one generation to the
next).

This implies that the opposite conditions can cause the population to undergo deviations from Hardy-
Weinberg Equilibrium (i.e. cause microevolution)

The factors that can cause microevolution are therefore:

1) Mutation
2) Gene Flow
3) Nonrandom mating
4) Genetic Drift
5) Natural Selection

Any of these factors can cause evolution:

3.2.1 Mutation:
- Mutations create new alleles, and therefore constitute the source of new variation in a population.
- Most mutated alleles tend to be harmful to a greater or lesser extent. Some are, however, beneficial.
Some mutations are neutral (i.e. they have no apparent effect).
- Furthermore, it may be that a mutation is harmful in one environment, but beneficial under eg.
another set of climatic conditions.
- Once alleles have mutated, Genetic Recombination (independent assortment, crossing over and
sexual reproduction) is important in spreading the mutation through the population. This will happen if
the new mutated gene has a selective advantage.

3.2.2) Gene flow:

- Species are divided into populations. These populations are sometimes in contact with each other
when migrating individuals move from one population to another. When such individuals reproduce,
genes from one population can be spread to another population (e.g. a mutation created a new allele
in one population, and this allele is taken to another population by a migrating animal).

20
- If it happens too often, though, it can reduce the differences occurring between populations (i.e.
reduce the chance of speciation occurring...we'll touch on this topic again later).

3.2.3) Non-random mating:

- Random mating occurs when individuals mate purely by chance, and their phenotypes do not play a
role. This usually does not happen, and phenotype does influence mate choice. Three examples of
non-random mating:
- Inbreeding (between humans, animals or plants). Individuals mating with closely related individuals.
This does not alter Allele Frequencies in the population, but does increase the incidence of
homozygous individuals and reduces the incidence of heterozygosity at all loci.
Many genetic disorders in humans are recessive, and if heterozygosity is reduced, dormant (hidden)
recessive alleles will be expressed with greater frequency.
-Assortive mating occurs when individuals tend to mate with individuals with a similar phenotype
(e.g. in humans, tall people tend to mate with individuals who are also tall). This causes the population
to subdivide into two phenotypic classes, between which gene exchange will be reduced
-Sexual selection occurs when males compete for the right to reproduce, and females choose to
favour males with a certain phenotype.
The elaborate tail of a peacock is where female choice leads to selection
The size difference in elephant seals between males and females is an example where female choice
does not play a role.

3.2.4 Genetic Drift

- Genetic Drift is when allele frequencies in a population change due to chance alone. This factor is
probably described best at the hand of the following non-biological analogy:

Imagine you have a bottle with 1000 blue marbles and 1000 red marbles. If you draw 200 marbles at
random, the likelihood is that you will draw close to 100 of each. Based purely on chance, you may
draw 90 of the red marbles and 110 of the blue ones, or 95 blue and 105 red. The exact proportion
does not matter, and will fluctuate randomly if you repeat the experiment. The next time you will
expect to draw different proportions of red and blue marbles. But, you will always expect to draw
almost equal numbers.

If, however, you have only 10 blue and 10 red, and you draw a total of 4, it is very possible that all will
be either blue or red. You will thus have lost the other.

With alleles the situation is similar. If the population is very big, the chances are that in each
generation you will have a good representation of all the alleles in the population. By chance,
however, it is possible that you can lose rare alleles (if one or more allele is lost, the others become
fixed in the population).
In a small population, it can even occur that rare alleles become fixed, and more common ones are
lost.
This process is completely random.

Loss of alleles can, of course, be reversed by gene flow from another population, or if a mutation
restores the lost allele. Without gene flow or mutation replacing the allele, however, it is lost
permanently.

Two main types of Genetic drift occurs.

a) Bottleneck Effect:
If a population suddenly undergoes a very severe population reduction (overhunting, sudden
climate change, fire etc.), and then increases afterwards, the alleles that are available are probably
very unrepresentative of the original alleles.

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Cheetahs for example have reasonably high population numbers, but they have very low genetic
diversity. It is postulated that they have, at some point in the past, suffered a very severe reduction in
numbers. The current population is the result of those few individuals who survived having
reproduced.

b) Founder Effect:
When alleles, or certain combinations of alleles occur at a higher frequency in an isolated population
than it does in the rest of the general population.
When a few individuals from a large population colonize a new habitat, they very possibly may
not have the same allele frequencies as the original population.

e.g. In the human population, there is a recessive allele which creates a form of dwarfism (involving
only the arms and legs) as well as polydactilism (more than 5 fingers on a hand). In the general
population, this occurs in about 1/1000 individuals. In the Amish in Pennsylvania, however, this can
occur in as many as 1/14 individuals because the original Amish (by chance) had this recessive allele
in a large frequency, and since they tend not to marry outside their own small community, this allele
has remained common in the population.

3.2.5) Natural Selection (very important factor)

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace both, at the same time, but independently, proposed that
evolutionary change could be explained if Natural Selection is taken as the mechanism. Natural
Selection works as follows:
(Preconditions 1-3 lead to consequence 4-5)

1) Organisms have heritable variations:

- Members of a population differ from each other in many physical attributes. Often, these attributes
are heritable
-Darwin never knew about Mendel’s experiments. He never knew how variations came to be, or how
they are inherited.
- He just knew variations had to occur completely at random.
- Today we know how variation arises - genetic mutations create new alleles and genetic
recombination creates new combinations of alleles.
- We also know that these occur at random. (By this, we mean that mutations do not occur with any
purpose or direction or anticipation…if the environment suddenly became colder, you do not find
mutations for thicker fur suddenly occurring more regularly).

2) Organisms struggle to exist

- In a population, many more individuals are born than can be supported by the environment.
-Thomas Malthus, in Darwin’s time, stressed the reproductive potential of humans, and the inability of
food production to keep pace with human population growth.
- This occurs in animals as well; if a population keeps on increasing, clearly the population numbers
will eventually outstrip available resources unless many, or even most of the individuals do not survive
to reproduce.
Which ones survive?

3) Organisms differ in Fitness

- Some of the individuals in a population have – by virtue of their heritable attributes – a greater ability
to survive and reproduce than others.
-Fitness is the Reproductive success of an individual relative to other individuals in a population
- Animals differ in appearance or physiology. They don’t have the same colour, or fur thickness, or
running speed, etc. These differences give some individuals a greater or lesser chance of surviving.

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- Animals that run fast, for example, are more likely to escape predators, and will produce more young
since slower animals don’t survive to be able to produce young.
- Desert plants or animals that have greater ability to conserve water will be more likely to survive and
produce offspring.

4) Inheritance of fitness
- These attributes favourable for survival are inherited, which means the offspring will also carry the
genes for speed, or water conservation, etc.
-Their offspring will also have these attributes, so that an increasing proportion of individuals over
succeeding generations also carry these attributes

5) Adaptation
-Gradually, a population of animals will become adapted to its environment.
- The environment is changing all the time, which means that Natural Selection occurs continuously,
though not always in the same direction (the same physical attributes aren’t always selected for).
- At the same time, mutations continue to create new diversity, so that there is always a pool of new
genetic diversity available.
-The result of natural selection is a population increasingly adapted to the local environment.

23
Section 4: Natural Selection
Remember that this involves certain individuals being better at surviving, or reproducing, than others
by virtue of inherited characteristics that give them some advantage over other individuals in the
population.

Remember how Natural Selection works?

1) Individuals in a population differ from each other and show variation
2) The environment has limited resources and opportunities for survival
3) Some animals survive and reproduce more successfully.
4) They pass their characteristics on to the next generation so that the characteristics of the population
change
5) By interfering with individuals who are poorly adapted to the environment from breeding/surviving,
and/or assisting individuals who are well adapted in surviving/reproducing, natural selection will cause
the next generation to possess a larger proportion of well-adapted individuals in the population.

Gradually, Natural Selection will result in a population that is adapted to the biotic and abiotic
environment. The biotic environment is the living component of the environment: organisms which
eat you, are eaten by you, compete with you for food or space, etc.
The abiotic environment includes the non-living component of the environment, e.g. rainfall or
temperature.

4.1 Types of natural Selection

- Most physical (phenotypic) characteristics upon which Natural Selection operates results from large
numbers of genes, each possessing several different alleles.
- Genes interact to produce a certain phenotype, since many physical characteristics are too complex
to be controlled by only one or two genes.
- In a large population, if one measures a physical attribute (for example size), and plots it on a graph,
the frequency distribution will have the appearance of a bell-shaped curve.

Three types of Natural Selection occur:

1) Directional Selection
When an extreme phenotype is favoured by Natural Selection, and the distribution curve of the
population is shifted in that direction
This can occur when a population is adapting to the environment (e.g. increased size of the modern
horse, drug resistance of bacteria or agricultural pests, Industrial melanism – as discussed earlier).

2) Stabilising Selection
When an intermediate phenotype is favoured. Extreme phenotypes are selected against.
-When certain aspects of the environment remain very constant, over a long time, then animals are
well adapted to the environment, and prevented from deviating too much from the average (e.g.
human birth weight). Another example could be bird's wingspan. Birds can possibly have wings that
are long, intermediate, or short. If their wings are too short, they can't fly. If their wings are too long,
they cannot manoeuvre. Both of these types will be selected against, and only the intermediate types
will be selected for. This will stabilise wingspan within a narrow range.

3) Disruptive Selection
Two or more extreme phenotypes are favoured over intermediate phenotypes. Two distinct
phenotypes are produced.

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Section 5: Speciation

- What is meant by speciation? Speciation is the splitting of one species into two or more, or the
transformation of one species into a different species over time.

- Speciation is the result of accumulated microevolution (i.e. the changing of allele frequencies
as discussed in previous lectures).

5.1 The species concept

But what is meant when people speak about a species? Not as obvious as one would think and largely
a matter of human opinion.

- We generally use the Biological Species Concept to define a species:

A species comprises all the members of a population, or a group of populations who:
- share a common gene pool
- who can interbreed with each other
- produce viable, fertile offspring
- and are reproductively isolated from all other species.

- Homo sapiens: although populations are very widely distributed and show great differences in
physical attributes, they share a common gene pool – gene flow between them does occur (...or can
potentially occur...) and they can reproduce to produce viable offspring. The human species is
therefore a good biological species.

- A male Donkey and female Horse can interbreed to produce the Mule, but the mule is infertile. They
therefore belong to different species.

5.2) Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

It is clear that to belong to different species, populations/individuals need to be reproductively isolated

from each other. In other words: for two species to be separate, no gene flow is allowed between
them. This does not necessarily mean individuals have no contact with each other; it only means that
they are unable to successfully produce offspring together, even if there is contact.

In nature, gene flow is prevented by Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms.

- A reproductive isolating mechanism is any Structural, Functional or Behavioural attribute that
prevents successful mating between individuals.
- We can divide these into Prezygotic and Postzygotic Isolating mechanisms. A zygote, you will
recall, is the Diploid product that is formed when an Egg cell and a Sperm cell fuse together
- Prezygotic mechanisms – prevent mating from occurring, or prevent successful fertilisation even if
mating is attempted.
- Postzygotic mechanisms – prevent the offspring of individuals from different species (we call such
offspring hybrids) from surviving, or reproducing even if they survive.

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5.2.1 Prezygotic Mechanisms

- Geographical isolation: Populations are separated from each other by means of impassable barriers
(e.g. finches in the Galapagos islands; many islands, all of them separated from each by water).

- Habitat/Ecological Isolation: Species occur in different areas, and therefore do not come into contact
with each other to mate (even if they occur in the same area, they may inhabit different areas inside
that area, e.g. different layers in the forest canopy.

- Temporal/Seasonal Isolation: Species may occur in the same area, but may be active at different
times of day, and not come into contact with each other to be able to breed. Many species also have
very specific mating periods/seasons, and if two species have different breeding seasons / times, they
cannot reproduce, even if they occur in the same area.

- Behavioural Isolation: Many animals have complex mating calls (birds or crickets) or mating dances,
or they release chemical attractants into the air (called pheromones) which are recognised only by
other members belonging to the same species.

- Mechanical Isolation: This can occur when animal or plant genitalia are incompatible, or do not
match, e.g. male dragonflies have to grasp females before they can mate, but their grasping "arms"
(claspers) can only hold females of their own species.

- Gamete isolation: Even if two individuals of different species mate, it is still possible to prevent
fertilisation since sperm cells often cannot survive in the reproductive tract of another species, or the
sperm cell does not recognise the egg cell, or cannot fuse to it because the egg cell has an
incompatible cell membrane (remember that the sperm cell head is covered by an acrosome that
carries enzymes needed by the sperm cell to penetrate the egg).

5.2.2 Postzygotic Mechanisms

- Zygote mortality: The sperm and egg cells fuse to form a zygote, but the zygote fails to develop
further (i.e. dies without developing into a foetus).

- Hybrid sterility: The hybrids survive, but are infertile and cannot reproduce, e.g. crossing a female
horse and a male donkey produces the mule. Even though a mule may be healthy otherwise, it cannot
produce functioning sex cells.

- F2 fitness: The Hybrids survive, and are even fertile, but their own offspring in turn (i.e. the F2
generation) are weak / have reduced fitness, and may not be able to compete successfully with other
animals for food, shelter or breeding mates.

5.3) Types of Speciation

- Allopatric speciation – occurs when a population is geographically isolated from other populations
and gene flow stops.
- Variations due to mutations, genetic drift and natural selection build up causing first post-zygotic and
then pre-zygotic reproductive isolation to occur.
e.g. adaptive radiation

- Sympatric Speciation – Occurs when a population develops into two or more reproductively
isolated groups without prior geographic isolation.

26
e.g. through Disruptive selection, competitive speciation, polyploidy

- Parapatric Speciation – One species has a wide geographic distribution, and because of this, not
all the populations making up this species live under the same environmental conditions (e.g. some
populations live in drier conditions, some populations have to adapt hunting strategies to feed on
different prey, etc.).
Because of this, selection for different phenotypes occurs in different populations, and
populations will slowly diverge from each other, even though they are still in contact with each other,
and gene flow still occurs between them.

Allopatric speciation is generally accepted to be the most important means of speciation in

nature

27
Section 6: Evidence for Macroevolution

6.1 Fossil Evidence

Firstly, it may be useful to recap what a fossil is, and how it may be formed:
Introduction

Fossils are the remains of plants and animals that lived long ago. Fossils range in age from
thousands of years to many millions of years. The earliest fossils of multicellular organisms date from
around I billion years ago. Evidence has been found that bacteria may have existed more than to 2.5
billion years earlier.
The vast majority of animals that die simply disappear when they decompose, and no physical
trace remains. About 1 in a million of organisms that die in an area where the conditions are just right
for fossilization.
It is usually the hard parts of organisms such as bones or shells that fossilize. While it does
happen, and has happened, it is much less likely for soft tissues to become fossilised.
A fossil can also be an indirect trace of an animal or plant’s existence, such as footprints. They
can also, however, include full skeletons of e.g. the Mesozoic dinosaurs. From such a skeleton, or
even a small part of a skeleton, it is possible to deduce much about the animal. Not only is it possible
to determine what the animal looked like, one can also find out much about the life-style and diet of
the animal.

How can an animal become fossilised?

Process

Naturally, the animal first has to die. Sometimes animals are killed by a flash flood that also
cover them with sediment. If an animal dies in an aquatic environment it will then sink to the bottom,
where it is slowly, during the course of months, covered with sand and silt. This protects the animal (or
remains of an animal) from scavengers. A land animal can also undergo the same process by being
caught in a mud-slide or during flooding of the overbank environment and covered with mud, or by
sinking in a swamp. In this manner a shell, skeleton, or body can become covered under several
metres of sand or mud.
Gradually the chemicals in the shell/bone undergo changes. It slowly decays, and water
passes through the remains. This water may contain dissolved rock minerals (Calcite, Iron, Silica)
which slowly permeates the biological remains, and replaces the biological chemicals.
Over millions of years, the original shell or bone is completely replaced by minerals. What
remains is a rock-like mineralized exact replica of the original animal or plant structure. In rare
instances do traces of the original biological material such as DNA become preserved inside fossils.
Naturally, it also loses all traces of its original colour during this process.
Following many millions of years, this object may lie under several hundred metres of sand /
silt that changes into sedimentary rock. The surface of the earth does not remain static, however.
Tectonic movement of the earth’s plates, earthquakes, volcanoes and erosion can elevate deeper
parts of the earth’s surface. A gradual cycle of erosion will then start wearing away the upper layers of
the earth, thereby exposing rock layers which had been hidden for many millions, or hundreds of
millions of years. By these means, deeper layers of the earth, along with any fossils occurring in them
can be exposed.
Examining these fossils, the progress of evolution can be gauged directly. How does this
work?

- Sediments are deposited continuously, so that layers are formed in the earth.

28
- The deeper any particular layer beneath the surface, the older it is. Therefore, fossils found deeper
underground are older than those found closer to the ground.
- Very much in evidence is the succession of life forms from simple forms (deep geological layers)
to the very complex (closer to the surface).
- Fossils in different layers are observed to have changed, but the similarity in form allows us to link
them in a historical sequence and place them in their proper geological context.
- Put in a different way; if we were to examine rocks, beginning with the youngest rocks, and
progressively examining deeper (and hence, older) layers of rock, we will initially see evidence of
human civilisation and activities, evidence of recent animals, etc. Progressively examining older
(deeper) layers of rock, we will come to a level where no fossils of humans are present. If we continue
backwards in time (…examine deeper layers), we will successively come to levels where no fossils of
flowering plants are present, no birds, no mammals, no reptiles, no four-footed vertebrates, no land
plants, no fishes, no shells, and no animals at all, in that order.

- So, not only do fossils provide evidence of animals changing over over immense amounts of time, it
is also of interest that we find transitional fossils – fossils which combine the appearance of different
animals; reptile-like birds, amphibious fish, amphibians looking like reptiles, and mammal-like reptiles
(therapsids).
- These intermediate fossils, for example suggests that Amphibians evolved from fish, Reptiles
evolved from Amphibians and Mammals and Birds evolved from Reptiles.
- The fossil record is sometimes not complete, but in many cases it is very complete, and allows us to
trace the evolution of specific animals very precisely. The evolution of the horse (Equus) evolving
from Hyracotherium, a small forest dwelling animal the size of a large dog (roughly 35kg) is such an
example.
- The evolution of the whale has also, for example, been traced with some evidence to 4-legged
land-living animals, mesonychians, who gradually started adapting to swimming in shallow seas 50-60
million years ago.
-Anatomical evolution of the genus Homo is abundantly documented in the fossil record in East and
southern Africa.
- Many extinct branches of modern groups of plants and animals are evident. An example is
Glossopteris, a tree sized conifer whose fossils are found on all the Gondwanan continents but that
has left no living descendants.

6.2 Anatomical Evidence

- Homologous structures (homologous = corresponding) are structures whose basic anatomical
structure developed once in history in a common ancestor,
-e.g. the forelimb of vertebrates, which is used for flying (birds and bats), swimming (whales and
seals), running (horses, cats, dogs), climbing (arboreal (tree living) lizards), swinging (monkeys),
digging (moles) etc.
-Despite dissimilar functions, the forelimbs all have the same bones, arranged in a similar way, as well
as the same muscles.
- The most plausible explanation for this is that the basic forelimb plan belonged to a common
ancestor; the structure was then gradually modified by selective pressures to adapt to specific
habitats/behaviours.

-Analogous structures (analogous= similarly shaped non- corresponding structures), are structures
serving the same function, but without a common ancestral structure. E.g. wings of birds and insects,
or flippers of seals and fins of flying fish.
-Analogous structures show that over time, unrelated structures of different organisms adapt to have
an equal function in the same available habitat.

29
- Vestigial Structures – Reduced anatomical structures that serve no purpose, and that are not
functional. They occur, however, in functional form in related species, and they presumably also
served a function in the own body at some point in the distant past.
- The best explanation for them is that the structures have been selected against until they no longer
can function, but they are still useful in related species. Vestiges therefore show that the forms in
which they occur are related by evolution to the forms where these organs are still functional.
- E.g. humans have a tailbone, but no tail
- Whales have very reduced thigh bones and a pelvic girdle, even though they no longer use
them, nor are they visible externally.
- Many snakes also still have remnants of a pelvic girdle and hind legs, even though they
no longer use them.

- Embryonic development
- During embryonic development, stages resemble the adult condition of more primitive life forms.
- All vertebrates including H. sapiens show a post-anal tail and pharyngeal pouches in early stages of
development.
- The most likely explanation for the presence of these structures in the embryonic development of
humans is that fishes are our ancestors.
- Similar to apes, we as humans usually lose our tails before we are born.
- Pharyngeal gill pouches are homologous with gill slits of fish and become modified into tonsils and
the thymus and parathyroid glands in humans.
-The middle ear ossicles in mammals developed from elements of the lower jaw and jaw articulation- a
development process seen in the embryology of mammals and the therapsid fossil record.

6.3 Biogeographical Evidence / Patterns of distribution / Parallel adaptation

- Similarities in widely separated species on different continents of the same genus suggest a common
ancestry, while differences between obviously related species in close proximity suggests isolation
and independent evolution.
- eg. Large catlike species occur all over the world, but they are separated by impenetrable barriers
like oceans. e.g. the Jaguar in South America, and the Leopard in Africa and Asia and the Tiger in
India. Their similarities suggest a common ancestry, but differences suggest that they have been
diverging for millions of years.
- Biogeography might suggest that they started diverging genetically when the African and South
America continents drifted apart.
- Biogeography thus looks at things like plate tectonism to explain how and when these species could
have diverged.
- Marsupial animals in Australia and placental animals in the rest of the world, which have been
geographically isolated for millions of years, have both developed similar ecotypes in similar niches.
- Similarly, islands tend to have few, but unique resident species. These species are often similar, yet
obviously different from species in other, neighbouring islands (e.g. finches in the Galapagos Island
where many species on islands close together appear very similar, but with slight differences as they
adapted to specific habitats).

30
6.4 Biochemical Evidence / Molecular record
- Almost all living organisms use the same basic biochemical pathways and organic molecules such
as respiration and ATP.
- DNA and proteins formed during a similar process of protein synthesis form the building blocks of all
organisms. Proteins consist of the same 20 different amino acids which are arranged in sequence.
- DNA controls the arrangement of amino acids in proteins, and genetic mutations change the
sequence of amino acids, and hence, the structure of the protein.
- A great many genes are shared by all animals – humans share many genes with very primitive
animals, especially developmental genes (i.e. genes responsible for body form before birth, during
gestation).
- It is possible to compare the degree to which important genes, or gene products (proteins) differ. As
would be expected from evolutionary theory, the more closely related animals are, the more similar
their genes/proteins. The genes of humans and the genus Pan (chimpanzees and gorillas)
corresponds nearly 98%, indicating a common ancestry.

31
 BIOLOGY 1
FIRST SEMESTER

Ecology and
Environmental Health

Compiled by: Prof E van Heerden &

Mr MR Moshe
Adapted by: Mr NM Mogale

Lecturer: Mr C Mavimbela

SEFAKO MAKGATHO
HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
Ecology and Environmental Health
Chapter 1: Ecology
1. Introduction
Ecology, put simply, is a branch of biology that examines the interactions of organisms with their environments. Ecologist
study the patterns of distribution and abundance of organism in nature and how these patterns are maintained in the short
run, and how they change during the course of evolution (Arms and Camp, 1987).

The word ecology was coined by a German zoologist called Ernst Haeckel in 1866 and is derived from two Greek words
namely “oikos” meaning home or house and “–ology” meaning the “study of”. Ecology, is defined by Begon, et al (2006)
as;

The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their
natural environment.

The environment of an organism includes its physical properties or factors, which can be described as the sum of local
abiotic factors (e.g. sunlight, temperature, water, and soil), chemical factors (e.g. composition of air, soil, and substances
dissolved in water) and biotic factors (e.g. other living oragnisms sharing a habitat). The interactions between organisms -
as articulated in the definition above - are further expressed by Mader (1998) as determinants of the distribution and
abundance of organisms at a particular locale and over the earth’s surface.

2. Levels of Ecological Organization

Ecology is sub-divided into a hierarchical system involving the biosphere at the highest level of organization, which is
immediately followed by the ecosystem, then community, population, habitat and lastly individual.

BIOSPHERE
ECOSYSTEM
COMMUNITY
POPULATION
HABITAT
INDIVIDUAL

Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of ecological organization

2.1. Individual level

Ecology can be studied at a wide range of levels from a small scale to large one (Mader, 1998). At its lowest scale - the
individual level - ecologist studies how an individual organism is adapted to its immediate environment. An example in this
case would be a newborn ungulate calf which has to learn how walk in a few minutes to enable it to outrun predators. If
adaptation does not occur, predation is a likely consequence.

Another classical example is the famous peppered moths (Biston betularia) observational study in England around the
19th Century. This at the same time is an expression of evolutionary change by means natural selection. Other example
includes as part of behavioural ecology – imprinting and operant conditioning. Read more on peppered moths and their
differential adaptation to the environment and the significance of imprinting for adaptation and survival of individual(s) to
their environment.

1
2.2. Habitat Level

A habitat in this case refers to a place where an organism lives (Arms and Camp, 1987) and reproduces in its
environment. Each species occupies a particular position in the community both in the spatial (where it resides) and
functional sense (what role it plays). A practical example of a habitat would be the forest floor, ocean edge or stream.
Every habitat is characterised by particular ranges of temperatures, humidity, soil, vegetation structure, food type,
competitors, predators and other factors that make up the organisms environment (Mader, 1998).

As has been mentioned above that not only does an organism occupy a particular habitat, it also has some role to play
within that habitat. This functional element brings about the concept of ecological niche of an organism which is defined
as the role the organism plays in its community including its habitat and its interactions with other organisms. The niche
includes the resources an organism uses to meet its energy and nutrient requirements and survival demands.

Also what is important to note is that because a niche of an organism is affected both by abiotic a (climate and habitat)
and biotic factors (such as competitors, parasites, predators), ecologists distinguish between the fundamental and
realized niches. The former implies the conditions under which an organism can potentially survive and reproduce whilst
the latter deals with the actual set of conditions under which the organism exists in nature.

2.3. Population Level

A population is defined by Mader (1998) as the existence of all organisms of the same species within a specified area. At
this level of study, an emphasis is based on the factors that affect growth and regulation of population size. Ecology as a
science not only studies the factors that affect growth and regulation of populations but also the distribution of organisms
in terms of where and why they are located in a particular place at a particular time.

2.3.1 Characteristics of Populations

At any one point in time, populations have a certain size. Population size in this case is defined as the number of
individuals contributing to the population’s gene pool.

2.3.1.1. Factors affecting the size of a population

The numerical size of a population at any one time depends upon a balance between natality (births), mortality (deaths),
emigration (movement of individuals out of a defined population) and immigration (movement of individuals into a defined
population). Imagine a glass of water being your population, any addition of water to the glass will subsequently increase
the volume of the water. Factors acting in this way will include natality and immigration while the reverse would include
the reduction of water by means of drinking or spillage, which subsequently would reduce the volume of water in the
glass. Such factors would include mortality and emigration.

Natality
Immigration Mortality
Emigration

Increase population size Decrease population size

Population size

Figure 2: Diagrammatic representation of factors influencing population size

2
Population size at any one point in time would depend upon a balance between Natality and Immigration which adds
individuals to the population and Death and Emigration which remove them. The change in the size of a population can
be expressed in this form below:

Change in Population size = (Natality + Immigration) – (Mortality + Emigration)

Under ideal conditions, populations can grow rapidly to exponential proportions and this phenomenon is called
exponential growth (see Figure 3, below). This is most likely if populations increase in numbers without any form of
regulation to their growth. To realize this form of growth, populations would require such factors as superabundance of
food and space and lack of interference from members of other species. These factors subsequently enhance the biotic
potential of a population which is described as maximum rate of population growth.

Exponential Growth of a Hypothetical Population

12000

10000

8000
Number of Individuals

6000

4000

2000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number of Years

FIGURE 3: A graph showing exponential population growth

Even though exponential growth occurs in nature – and does not necessarily mean that the population is growing at its
biotic potential - most of what is apparent is the outcome of the interaction between a population biotic potential and
various environmental circumstances which in more ways than one, restrict the actual growth rate. An example of
exponential growth in nature occurs as a consequence of species imported, intentionally or accidentally into an area of
abundant resources and lack of competitors or natural enemies.

Can a population grow exponentially indefinitely? No population can grow exponentially for long since this phenomenon is
highly dependant on its carrying capacity. This term denotes the number of individuals of a particular species that can be
supported by a particular environment. When a population reaches this size it may stabilize with fluctuations above or
below the carrying capacity. The curve describing this phenomenon is called a logistic curve or an S-shaped curve. The
most important question to ask in this regard is why a population cannot grow exponentially indefinitely? The answer lies
in the biotic potential and the carrying capacity. If so, then which factors acts upon either the biotic potential or the
carrying capacity of a population?

2.3.1.2. Factors affecting biotic potential of a population

If you recall, under ideal conditions, an explosive population should have such factors as abundance of food, space and
lack of interaction with members of other species. But in reality, the situation is different thus.

Factors affecting or regulating the growth of any population can be classified into two broad categories namely density-
dependant and density independent. Density-dependant factors are such factors, that, in order to be operational; they
depend on the density (the number of individuals per unit area) of the population while the latter can take place without
the density of the population.

3
Density dependant factors, as shown in Figure 4 below includes such factors as competition for resources for instance
food and space, predation and disease. On the other hand, density independent factors would summarily include abiotic
factors such as natural disasters.

FIGURE 4: Showing the relationship between limiting factors on the size of a population

Competition particularly in large populations is unavoidable due to limited resources available to satisfy the needs of the
individual members of the population. This renders such competitive practices density dependant. Food is a limiting factor
and in essence as a resource it is not endless. Competition for this limited resource may arise between species within the
same population or between different species. This is called intraspecific (within species) and interspecific (between
species) competition, respectively. Space on the other hand is a limited resource and this is evident in the fight against
territory amongst animals. This kind of competition is referred as contest competition. It is noteworthy that possession of
territory may not be of value in itself but it invariably guarantees the territory holder reasonable supply of space, food and
mate.

Predation and diseases are density dependant factors in a sense that disease causing organisms are most likely to
encounter a host and a predator its prey. Overcrowding in populations creates an environment that promotes the
transmission of infectious disease due to close proximity of the hosts.

Density independent factors which regulates the size of the population emanates largely from natural events as a
consequence of adverse climatic condition. Such climatic conditions may include, amongst others, floods, storms,
earthquake, tsunamis, hurricane, drought and natural fires.

2.3.2. Species Interaction

Species interact in different ways and this may also have an impact in the relative distribution and abundance. Member of
two different populations may interact in a symbiotic relationship. There are 3 forms of symbiotic relationship that may
exist and they include parasitism, commensalism and mutualism.

Parasitsm is similar to predation in that an organism called a parasite derives nourishment from another called host just
as predators derived nourishment from their prey. Parasites in this case would include viruses (HIV), protists (malaria)
and bacteria (Streptococcus) that reproduce inside a human host. Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship where one
species is benefiting and the other in neither benefiting nor harmed. These benefits can range from provision of home
(barnacles attached to whales or horseshoe crabs), transportation, and protection form predation (clown fish living in sea
anemones) etc. In mutualism both species benefit from the relationship. This relationship also helps organisms to obtain
food or avoid predation. Examples would be 1) bacteria that reside in the human gastro-intestinal tract are provided with
food and they in turn provide us with vitamins and 2) the relationship between most plant roots and mycorrhizae.
Mycorrhizae increase mineral solubility in the soil and increase nutrient uptake for the plants.

2.4 Community Level

Populations do not occur in isolation, they form part of a community. A biological community is defined by Mader (1998)
as an assemblage of populations interacting with one another within the same environment.

4
2.4.1. Characteristics of a community

A community is characterised by the following four elements. These include, size, boundary, diversity and abundance.

Communities tend to differ from each other in terms of size. No two communities may have the same size. A community
in itself does not remain the same through out its existence. It fluctuates in size and composition with time. It is sometime
difficult to have clear delineating boundaries between different communities yet composition of species may bring about
such a difference.

Composition as a characteristic feature of a community refers to the listing of the various species in that community.
Diversity on the one hand includes two elements, namely the number of species and the relative abundance of individuals
of different species. For an example, the fynbos biome in South Africa is regarded as having the highest flowering plant
diversity despite its relative size. It is the only one in the world to have about 6 floral kingdoms.

2.4.2. Factors maintaining composition and diversity of species.

It goes without saying that species in a community may change both in time and space which can affect the number of
species and their abundance. Some of these factors include competition and predation. Competition and predation,
particularly by dominant species over others may lead to their possible extinction or removal from the community.
Competition is mostly operational when species utilize same food source and there exist no specialization between
species. Predation by dominant and efficient species may monopolize all available prey and also by preventing one prey
species from eliminating other through competition. The fact of the matter is that this phenomenon is not always the case.

What maintains species diversity and prevents one or more species in a trophic level from eliminating the other through
competition? First, is that when species are in potential competition for a food supply, the resource may be subdivided in
some way for instance specialization. Different species may feed on a particular range within the community or even
during different times. Variety of habitats in a community characterized by its own diversity may attract different species.

Another cause of diversity may be the creation of different habitats within a region by periodic disturbance. A community
that forms if the land is undisturbed and that perpetuates itself for as long as no disturbance arises is called the climax
community. When this climax community is disturbed - either by natural forces or man-made activities such as floods and
fires or removal and overexploitation respectively, it begins the process of returning to its original state by a process
known as ecological succession that produces a climax community again.

There exist two types of ecological succession, namely primary and secondary. The former takes place in a barren or
lifeless land with limited soil or no soil at all. This makes the process extremely slow in that soil is absent. This situation is
evident when new islands rise out of the sea, or when glacier retreats or a mountainside caves in. Soil will eventually be
created by the interaction of carbonic acid (formed when atmospheric CO2 dissolves in water) in the rain and wind thus
breaking down rocks into fragments. Secondary succession is the series of community changes that takes place in
disturbed areas that have not been totally stripped off their soil. It is the most widely occurring phenomenon than primary
succession. It is important to note that ecological succession is a process that takes place over relatively long periods with
secondary succession being the least with about a few years to a hundred (Arms and Camp, 1987).

The third cause of diversity of species within communities lies with the climate. Mader (1998) asserts that F.E. Clements
who proposed a climax-pattern model of succession believed that climate in particular has a profound effect on species
diversity. It determines whether a desert, grassland or a forest will result in a particular area which in return would attract
species suitable for that environment. N.B., this will be explored further in the section dealing with biomes and what
makes them unique from each other.

Patchiness also has an effect on diversity and may result from irregular distribution of light gaps in a forest and attract
different species of birds or other animals. Patchiness may result from uneven distribution of light, moisture, nutrients
within a community and from minor disparities in topography.

2.5. Ecosystem Level

An ecosystems is said to consist of a community (group of living organisms) and the physical environment (Starr and
Taggart, 1989 ) and chemical environment (Mader, 1998) in which they live. The living organisms are the biotic
components of the ecosystem while the physical and chemic environment forms the abiotic component. In an ecosystem,
living things are classified by the ways in which they source out their food; autotrophs and heterotrophs each occupying
its own trophic level. In an ecosystem, organisms interact with each other and the environment. According to Star and
Taggart () this interaction is characterized by 1) the flow of energy and 2) a cycling of materials both of which have a

5
consequence for community structure and the environment. To elucidate further on the understanding of an ecosystem, a
dice may be a excellent example whereby all of the 6 sides each represent an ecosystem with the numbered dots 1 to 6
each representing a particular community. The dice in itself may as well be the biosphere.

2.5.1. Basic components of an ecosystem

Components of an ecosystem can be subdivided into the biotic and abiotic componets. The biotic components includes all
living organisms while the abiotic components includes water, carbon dioxide, various minerals, oxygen and continous
supply of energy from the sun.

2.5.1.1. Biotic components of an ecosystem

Figure 5: Diagram showing the biotic components of an ecosystem

As has been previously indicated, all living organisms in an ecosystem form its biotic component and are accordingly
classified by how they access their food. There are two main broad classifications or subdivisions of living organisms
within an ecosystem and they include autotrophs (produce their own organic nutrients for themselves and other members
in the community) and heterotrophs (feed on organic materials produced by other organisms i.e. autotrophs).

Autotrophs produce their own food or organic nutrients for themselves and others; therefore they are regarded as primary
producers. These autotrophs can further be broken down into chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs where the latter
includes bacteria that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds such as nitrite, ammonia and sulphides to
synthesize carbohydrates. The former are photosynthesizers which uses energy from the sun, water and atmospheric
carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids and so forth.

Heterotrophs are consumers of the preformed organic nutrients. They are classified into herbivores (animals that graze
directly of plants), carnivores (feed on other animals), omnivores (animals that feed on both plants animals) and
detritivores ( organisms that feeds on detritus – decomposing particles of organic matter). Within detritivores are
decomposers which break down dead organic matter into simple inorganic substances that are released back into the
ecosystem and can be taken up again by producers.

2.5.1.2. Abiotic components of an ecosystem

Figure 6: Diagram showing the abiotic components of an ecosystem

The flow of energy and cycling of nutrients forms the abiotic component of any ecosystem. With a few exceptions,
ecosystems are related by their common dependency on solar energy and shared pool of inorganic nutrients (e.g. carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus) making up about 98% of total body weight of organisms.

Autotrophs synthesise organic nutrients from available inorganic nutrients (carbon dioxide, water and solar energy)
through photosynthesis. These organic molecules are used as source of energy. Energy from the sun is converted into a
useful form by autotrophs for heterotrophs. This phenomenon resonates well with the laws of thermodynamics (first law)
in that energy cannot be created or destroyed. This gives a clear indication and supports the premise that an ecosystem
is not self sustaining; it relies heavily on a continuous source of energy. The second law state that with every

6
transformation of energy from one level to another, some energy is degraded or lost between such levels as heat. The
energy that is produced by plants (gross productivity) is used to satisfy cellular their needs and is thus lost as heat. The
remaining energy (net productivity) becomes available for heterotrophs to use and in most cases it is reduced to about
55%. Secondary and tertiary consumer will use this energy for cellular respiration (which is subsequently lost as heat) and
increased body weight. The latter use of energy is called secondary productivity.

Nutrient cycling as part of the abiotic component of the ecosystem in which inorganic nutrients enter the ecosystem by
way of global cycles shall be dealt with in greater depth in the subsequent section on biogeochemical cycles.

2.5.2. Structure of Ecosystems

According to Starr and Taggart (1989), ecosystems are structured in accordance to the feeding relationship amongst its
component members each belonging to a particular hierarchical level of energy transfer called the trophic level (from
“troph”, meaning nourishment). Trophic level to which an organism belongs is an indication of its relative distance away
from plants (primary producers) in the food chain. They are functional categories useful in discussing energy flow and
nutrient cycling in ecosystems.

Accordingly, organisms that are closest to the primary source of energy for which plants are in this case, occupy the first
trophic level. Other organisms that would feed directly on the plants for instance primary consumers or herbivores would
occupy the second trophic level and secondary consumers would occupy the subsequent level. These create what is
known as a food chain. An example would be;

Leaves  Caterpillars  Mice  Snakes  Hawks.

The feeding relationship amongst component members in an ecosystem does not necessarily reflect a linear, simplistic
and isolated relationship. Such feeding relationships in nature; are highly complex and reflects an intricate network or web
of overlapping food chains. These interconnected feeding relationships gives rise to what is termed food webs. This is
defined as network of crossing, interlinked food chains, encompassing primary producers and an array of consumers and
decomposers.

It is important to note and as has been previously indicated in the previous section that, when one organism feeds on the
other, energy is transferred and some is lost. The energy relationship between trophic levels is usually portrayed by
ecologists in a form of an ecological pyramid whose building block designate various trophic levels. It is designed to show
the biomass or productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. There are 3 types of pyramids which include that
of numbers, biomass and energy.

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Primary Producers

Figure 7: Diagrammatic representation of a Ecological Pyramid

A pyramid of numbers tells how many organisms there are in each trophic level. The number of primary producer ought to
be high in order to support organisms at the subsequent trophic level because not all of the food eaten is useful. Energy
efficiency drops as the trophic level ascend. The number of organism occupying the highest trophic level ought to be few
so they can benefit from the available energy.

A pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the amount of biomass
present at each trophic level. Typical units for a biomass pyramid could be grams per m2, or calories per m2. Biomass
pyramids provide a single snapshot in time of an ecological community.

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The pyramid of energy also called the pyramid of productivity is one such useful pyramid in ecology. It shows the
production or turnover of biomass at each trophic level. Instead of showing a single snapshot in time, productivity
pyramids show the flow of energy through the food chain. When an ecosystem is healthy, the pyramids look standard like
the one in Figure 7. This is because in order for the ecosystem to sustain itself, there must be more energy at lower
trophic levels than there is at higher trophic levels. This allows for organisms on the lower levels to maintain a stable
population, but to also feed the organisms on higher trophic levels, thus transferring energy up the pyramid. It is important
to note that there is a 10% rule in ecological pyramids of energy and biomass. It states that, in general, the amount of
energy from one level to another is reduced by a magnitude of 10; the rest goes to metabolic process and is lost as heat.
For example, if an average of 1000kg of plant material is consumed by herbivores, about 100 kg is converted to herbivore
tissue, 10kg to secondary consumers (minor carnivore) tissue and 1kg to tertiary consumers (major carnivores)

2.5.3. Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical cycles or nutrient cycles are pathways by which chemical elements or molecule moves through both
biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) components of Earth. In effect, the elements
are recycled, although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the elements are accumulated or
held for a long period of time. Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism
to another and from one part of the biosphere to another through the biogeochemical cycles

Although the productivity of an ecosystem may be limited by the supply of sunlight or availability of water, in many cases it
is limited by the availability of inorganic nutrients. It is indicated by Arms and Camp (1987) that living organisms require 6
elements in relatively large quantities. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Those needed
in smaller amount include sodium, potassium, manganese, calcium, iron, magnesium, chlorine, iodine, cobalt and boron.
The movement of nutrient elements through the biosphere or any particular ecosystem by the physical process of erosion,
deposition, evaporation and precipitation and by biological processes of uptake and release characterize biogeochemical
cycles. They are called cycles because the inorganic nutrients can be used over and over again by the ecosystem unlike
solar energy.

There are many biogeochemical cycles but the most well-known and important biogeochemical cycles, for example,
include the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the oxygen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, and the water cycle.

2.5.3.1. Carbon cycle

Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major sinks: - (1) as organic molecules in living and dead organisms found
in the biosphere; (2) as the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; (3) as organic matter in soils; (4) in the lithosphere as
fossil fuels and sedimentary rock deposits such as limestone, dolomite and chalk; and (5) in the oceans as dissolved
atmospheric carbon dioxide and as calcium carbonate shells in marine organisms.

All life is based on the element carbon. Carbon is the major chemical constituent of most organic matter, from fossil fuels
to the complex molecules (DNA and RNA) that control genetic reproduction in organisms. Yet by weight, carbon is not
one of the most abundant elements within the Earth's crust. In fact, the lithosphere is only 0.032 % carbon by weight. In
comparison, oxygen and silicon respectively make up 45.2 % and 29.4 % of the Earth's surface rocks.

Ecosystems gain most of their carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. A number of autotrophic organisms have specialized
mechanisms that allow for absorption of this gas into their cells. With the addition of water and energy from solar
radiation, these organisms use photosynthesis to chemically convert the carbon dioxide to carbon-based sugar
molecules. These molecules can then be chemically modified by these organisms through the metabolic addition of other
elements to produce more complex compounds like proteins, cellulose, and amino acids. Some of the organic matter
produced in plants is passed down to heterotrophic animals through consumption.

Carbon dioxide enters the waters of the ocean by simple diffusion. Once dissolved in seawater, the carbon dioxide can
remain as is or can be converted into carbonate (CO3-2) or bicarbonate (HCO3-). Certain forms of sea life biologically fix
bicarbonate with calcium (Ca+2) to produce calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This substance is used to produce shells and
other body parts by organisms such as coral, clams, oysters, some protozoa, and some algae. When these organisms
die, their shells and body parts sink to the ocean floor where they accumulate as carbonate-rich deposits. After long
periods of time, these deposits are physically and chemically altered into sedimentary rocks. Ocean deposits are by far
the biggest sinks of carbon on the planet.

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 Figure 8: The carbon cycle [source: Clegg & Mackean, 2000].

Carbon is released from ecosystems as carbon dioxide gas by the process of respiration. Respiration takes place in both
plants and animals and involves the breakdown of carbon-based organic molecules into carbon dioxide gas and some
other compound by products. The detritus food chain contains a number of organisms whose primary ecological role is
the decomposition of organic matter into its abiotic components.
Over the several billion years of geologic history, the quantity of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere has been
steadily decreasing. Researchers theorized that this change is in response to an increase in the sun's output over the
same time period. Higher levels of carbon dioxide helped regulate the Earth's temperature to levels slightly higher than
what is perceived today. These moderate temperatures allowed for the flourishing of plant life despite the lower output of
solar radiation. An enhanced greenhouse effect, due to the greater concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere, supplemented the production of heat energy through higher levels of longwave counter-radiation. As the sun
grew more intense, several biological mechanisms gradually locked some of the atmospheric carbon dioxide into fossil
fuels and sedimentary rock. In summary, this regulating process has kept the Earth's global average temperature
essentially constant over time.

Carbon is stored in the lithosphere in both inorganic and organic forms. Inorganic deposits of carbon in the lithosphere
include fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, oil shale, and carbonate based sedimentary deposits like limestone.
Organic forms of carbon in the lithosphere include litter, organic matter, and humid substances found in soils. Some
carbon dioxide is released from the interior of the lithosphere by volcanoes. Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes enters
the lower lithosphere when carbon-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks are subducted and partially melted beneath
tectonic boundary zones

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2.5.3.2. Water cycle

The water cycle is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of water between the biosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere. Water on this planet can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs:
atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater.

Figure 9: Water Cycle.

Water moves from one reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition,
runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. The oceans supply most of the evaporated
water found in the atmosphere. Of this evaporated water, only 91 % of it is returned to the ocean basins by way of
precipitation. The remaining 9 % is transported to areas over landmasses where climatological factors induce the
formation of precipitation. The resulting imbalance between rates of evaporation and precipitation over land and ocean is
corrected by runoff and groundwater flow to the oceans.

The oceans dominate the planetary water supply. Approximately 97 % of all the water on the Earth is in the oceans. The
other 3 % is held as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, lakes, soil, the atmosphere, and within life.

2.5.3.3 The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems. Nitrogen is used
by living organisms to produce a number of complex organic molecules like amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The
largest store of nitrogen is found in the atmosphere where it exists as a gas (mainly N2). The atmospheric store is about
one million times larger than the total nitrogen contained in living organisms. Other major stores of nitrogen include
organic matter in soil and the oceans. Despite its abundance in the atmosphere, nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient
for plant growth. This problem occurs because most plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: ammonium ion
(NH4+) and the ion nitrate (NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as inorganic nitrate from the soil solution.
Ammonium is used less by plants for uptake because in large concentrations it is extremely toxic. Animals receive the
required nitrogen they need for metabolism, growth, and reproduction by the consumption of living or dead organic matter
containing molecules composed partially of nitrogen.

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Figure 10: Nitrogen cycle.

Within in most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead organic matter. This organic nitrogen is
converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the biogeochemical cycle via decomposition. Decomposers, found in the
upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in organic matter from ammonia (NH3) to ammonium salts (NH4+).
This process is known as mineralization and it is carried out by a variety of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi.

Nitrogen in the form of ammonium can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay particles in the soil. The ion of ammonium
has a positive molecular charge is normally held by soil colloids. This process is sometimes called micelle fixation.
Ammonium is released from the colloids by way of cation exchange. When released, most of the ammonium is often
chemically altered by a specific type of autotrophic bacteria (bacteria that belong to the genus Nitrosomonas) into nitrite
(NO2-). Further modification by another type of bacteria (belonging to the genus Nitrobacter) converts the nitrite to nitrate
(NO3-). Both of these processes involve chemical oxidation and are known as nitrification. However, nitrate is very soluble
and it is easily lost from the soil system by leaching. Some of this leached nitrate flows through the hydrologic system until
it reaches the oceans where it can be returned to the atmosphere by denitrification. Denitrification is also common in
anaerobic soils and is carried out by heterotrophic bacteria. The process of denitrification involves the reduction of nitrate
into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases then diffuse into the atmosphere. This process is
important to the bacteria because it supplies them with oxygen for respiration.

Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere. Small proportions enter
the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority, however, is biochemically fixed within the soil by
specialized microorganisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, and cyanobacteria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and
some other kinds of plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacterial. In exchange for some
nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist
in a moist environment. Scientist estimate that biological fixation globally adds approximately 140 million metric tons of
nitrogen to ecosystems every year.

The activities of humans have severely altered the nitrogen cycle. Some of the major processes involved in this alteration
include:

• The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops has caused increased rates of denitrification and leaching of nitrate
into groundwater. The additional nitrogen entering the groundwater system eventually flows into streams, rivers,
lakes, and estuaries. In these systems, the added nitrogen can lead to eutrophication.
• Increased deposition of nitrogen from atmospheric sources because of fossil fuel combustion and forest burning.
Both of these processes release a variety of solid forms of nitrogen through combustion.
• Livestock ranching. Livestock release large amounts of ammonia into the environment from their wastes. This
nitrogen enters the soil system and then the hydrologic system through leaching, groundwater flow, and runoff.
• Sewage waste and septic tank leaching.

2.5.3.4. The phosphorous cycle

The major reservoir for phosphorus is sediments in the rock. Unlike carbon and nitrogen, this cycle has essentially no
atmospheric component. However, the little phosphorus that may get into the atmosphere can be converted to phosphoric

11
acid and contribute to acid rain. Phosphorus is initially made available to living organisms through weathering of the rock
or sediment that it is stored in.

Phosphorus is found in the environment as a form of soluble phosphate ions. These ions tend to bind to clay particles in
the soil. Therefore, phosphate that is applied to soil in the form of fertilizer or waste rapidly becomes bound to soil
particles and then does not leach through the soil into the ground water. This property of phosphate is responsible for a
couple of important situations. One is that phosphorus can build up to very high and even toxic levels in the soil. This is
related to another issue as well - pollution.

Phosphorus is a major surface water pollutant and is responsible in large part for the severe algae bloom observed on
many rivers, ponds and lakes. This causes eutrophication of lakes and depletes them of oxygen, killing fish and other
organisms. However, since phosphorus does not dissolve into the water and flow into surface water, how does it get there
in high enough levels to cause the severe pollution problems? The answer is that it gets there by soil erosion. Soil
particle that contain phosphorus are eroded into these lakes and streams causing the phosphorus to build up to high
enough levels to cause problems. Therefore, soil erosion not only depletes our soil resource, but also contributes greatly
to water pollution.

Figure10: The phosphorus cycle [source: Clegg & Mackean, 2000].

Phosphorus enters the living component of its cycle by plants taking up phosphate ions through their roots and animals
licking or eating phosphorus containing rocks/soil. This phosphorus is incorporated into living tissue. Very important
groups of molecules that require phosphorus as part of their structure are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acids), which is the
genetic material of living organisms, and RNA (ribonucleic acids), which contain the genetic messages to be translated
into proteins as well as the protein synthetic machinery. In animals, a major requirement for phosphorus is for bone
formation. Phosphorus is incorporated into living organisms and is passed on through the trophic levels in the ecosystem
just like carbon and nitrogen. This phosphorus ultimately enters the detritus food web from excreted waste or death of
organisms and is returned to its major storage reservoir in the soil and sediment.

2.6. Biosphere level

The biosphere is an entire realm in which organisms live – the water of the earth, surface rocks, soils and sediments of its
crust and the lower region of surrounding air (Starr and Taggart, 1989). The biosphere simply put, includes 3 component
entities namely the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the sum total of all liquid and frozen water on or near the earth’s surface. This includes oceans and
smaller water bodies, ground water, polar ice caps and the amount captured in the air. The atmosphere is a region of

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gases, air borne particles and water vapour developing on the earth. About 80% of its total mass is distributed within 17
km of the earth’s surface.

2.6.1. Climate and the Biosphere

The biosphere has a collection of ecosystems that range in size and mix of biotic and abiotic components. These different
types of ecosystems are influenced profoundly by climate. Climate refers to the prevailing weather conditions including
temperature, humidity, wind velocity, degree of cloud cover and rainfall.

An important question would be what shapes or influences climate. The answer to that lies within the four important
amongst many factors which have an influence. These include and not limited to;

1. Variations in the amount of incoming solar radiation;

2. The tilting of the earth and its daily rotation on its axis as it circulates the sun;
3. Global distribution of continents and oceans and;
4. Topographic features (landscape and its elevation).

Interplay among these factors produce prevailing winds and water current which influences global weather patterns.
Global weather patterns or climate, in turn, affect the soil, relative humidity, temperature which also in turn determines
abundance and distribution of organism in the biosphere.

The preceding paragraph is extremely important in that the comprehension of the relationship between the above-
mentioned factors is the key in unlocking amongst the sweet-spots of ecology. The central goal of modern ecology as
clearly articulated by Mader (1998), is in the explanation and prediction of the distribution and abundance of organisms in
the biosphere. What factors brought about the mix of plants and animals in a tropical forest at one latitude and a desert in
another. While ecology is useful in and of itself, it has a wide range of unlimited application possibilities such the
management of wildlife to prevent extinction, maintenance of cultivated food source and ability to predict the course of
illnesses e.g. HIV/AIDS or Asbestosis. This also will help you to understand the devastations against our earth, created by
man in the quest to satisfy his needs or rather wants.

Ok!, before we get carried away…, let’s come back and continue with the factors mentioned above.

Climate is dependant on the sun. Near the equator, the sun rays strike the earth almost vertically giving tropical regions
much more of the suns energy - for which ecosystems depends on – than it is enjoyed by other regions outside the
tropics which receive oblique rays. Because of the tilt of the sun on its axis - in non-tropical areas - seasons will vary at
different time of the year. This is why when it is summer in the southern hemisphere; it is always winter in the northern
hemisphere. The sun is also responsible for the general temperature. Higher or optimum temperatures allow organisms to
grow faster. The range of temperatures in an area imposes strict limits on the kind of organisms that live there. The other
important component of climate which is dependant on temperature and sunlight is moisture. Warm air holds more
moisture than cool air. As air cools some of its moisture condenses as rain, snow or dew. At the equator, heated air rises
and moves towards the northern and southern poles and sinks back to earth again becoming warmer and soaking up
more moisture. The descent of this dry is the reason for the formation of deserts in other parts of the world. Let us take a
closer look at the mechanisms and the profound effect global air and ocean circulations together with the influence
topography have on the distribution and composition of biomes in the biosphere.

2.6.1.1. Air circulation.

As has been previously indicated, sun rays strike the equator almost vertically and obliquely towards the poles thus
creating different heating effect. Air is heated more at the equator that the poles. At the equator – the onset of patterns of
air circulation – warm equatorial air rises and moves northwards and southward towards the poles. This pattern is
modified by two factors which subsequently give rise to world wide belts of prevailing easterly and westerly winds.

At the equator, land gives off the absorbed heat from the sun to the air which rises; creating low atmospheric pressure.
The pressure difference creates winds which interrupts overall air movement form the equator to the poles. The rotation of
the earth on its axis from east to west prevents the air to move directly from equator straight to the poles. Air moving north
from 30° north latitude is deflected to the east while that from the south, is deflected west at the same latitude. Important
to note is that at the same time, the very same warm air from the equator evaporate water and as it ascends it cools (the

13
higher you go, the colder it becomes) down thus releasing that moisture in the form of precipitation or rain. The greatest
amount of rain is near the equator. This is the reason why you find forests at and around the equatorial line. As the rising
air flows towards the poles, it sinks back towards the earth surface and reheats at 30° latitude north and south. As it
reheated it become drier than it was before with little moisture to spare, releasing only low precipitation than before. The
greatest deserts in Africa, Australia and the Americas are found at these latitudes due to the influence of the amount of
rain fall. The air will ascend beyond the 60° latitudes towards the poles with almost no moisture.

2.6.1.2. Ocean Currents

Ocean plays a major role in redistributing heat in the biosphere. Water tends to be warmer at the equator and much
cooler at the poles because of the uneven distribution of sun rays as it was previously indicated. The earth rotation,
prevailing surface winds and variations in water temperature tend to give rise to currents and surface drifts that tend to
move parallel with the equator.

Figure 11: Diagrammatic representation of the flow of ocean currents

(Sourced from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Ocean_current_2004.jpg)

Land masses play a major role in modifying the movement of the ocean currents. There are two circular water
movements referred to as gyres - that are created as a result - which circulates clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The two are separated by the equatorial countercurrent at the equator.

Gyres move warm water at the equator to the north and south and vice-versa creating what has been recently termed
global conveyor belt. This is appreciably explained in the video named “An inconvenient truth” you will be shown in your
practical session which hinges upon global warming and its impact on the biosphere.

Important to note is that the warm waters spawn moisture laden fog and clouds that moderate temperature and lead to
abundant rainfall whereas the cold waters particularly in the western side of Africa, North and South America influences
regional climates particularly near the coast. As cool air masses from above those waters move inland, they moderate the
temperature even of the hottest desert region. To understand this read more, about the coolest weather of Swakopmund
and Walvis Bay (a desert region in the west coast of a dry and hot country, Namibia.)

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2.6.1.3. Effects of Topography

Regional climates are influenced by more than patterns of sunlight, atmospheric and oceanic circulations and rainfall.
They are also influenced by the distribution of mountains, valleys and other topographical features. Mountains are one
feature that greatly affects the climate. Air particularly warm air from the sea is blown and ascends as a result of the
influence of the mountain which cools as it rises; thus realising moisture in the form of rain.

This happens especially on the side of the mountain called the windward side (side from which the wind is blowing). It
receives more rainfall than the other side referred to as the leeward side (direction not facing the wind). On this side, the
air descends and pick up moisture but release no precipitation as most of its have been shed on the windward side. The
result of this phenomenon (rain-shadow effect) is the creation of an arid region which is clearly distinct from the windward
side.

2.6.2. Biomes of South Africa

A biome is a largest biogeographical unit of the biosphere. This term was initially used to refer to terrestrial communities
but it can also apply to aquatic communities for instance wetland. A biome is characterized by a unique composition of
both plants and animals accustomed to live under certain environmental environment for which climate has an overriding
influence. Patterns of biomes distribution is related to temperature and moisture. This is the reason why desert biomes as
compared tropical rainforest have the least amount of annual precipitation.

Figure 12: A map showing major biomes of South Africa

(Source: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, South Africa)

South Africa comprise of about seven biomes in total which include the Forest, Fynbos, Grassland, Nama Karoo,
Savanna, Succulent Karoo and a Thicket.

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2.6.2.1. Forest Biome

Figure 13: Map showing the Forest biome

Forests are restricted to frost-free areas with mean annual rainfall of more than 525 mm in the winter rainfall region and
more than 725 mm rainfall in the summer rainfall region. They occur from sea level to over 2 100 m above sea level.
Forests rarely burn, mainly due to the high humidity - under extremely hot and dry (berg wind) conditions fires may occur
and destroy the forest structure.

Forests tend to occur in patches, few of which cover areas greater than 1 km², with areas greater than this only common
along the Garden Route and Lowveld Escarpment. Even added together, forests cover less than 0.25% of southern
Africa's surface area, making this the smallest biome on the subcontinent.

The canopy cover of forests is continuous, comprising mostly evergreen trees, and beneath it the vegetation is multi-
layered. Herbaceous plants, particularly ferns, are only common in the montane forests, whereas lianas and epiphytes
are common throughout. The ground layer is almost absent due to the dense shade. On the edges of the patches are
distinctive communities, the so-called fringe and ecotonal communities, which are able to tolerate fire.

Some 649 woody and 636 herbaceous plant species are recorded from forests. However, forests are not floristically
uniform. Three separate forest types are recognized in this account. Specialized forests that occur in small areas and very
sporadically - such as mangrove, swamp and fringe forests are not separated from these three types.

Partly because of their rarity, their grandeur and their setting, forests are an important tourist attraction in South Africa.
They have been exploited in the past for valuable timber, including Black Stinkwood Ocotea bullata and Outeniqua
Yeliowwood Podocarpus falcatus. Some forests were removed for the establishment of exotic plantations. A major plant
invader of forests is Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon.

Forest conservation has two facets: the maintenance of components and critical processes in the forests - which requires
the conservation of the large mammals and birds which disperse seeds and maintain gap processes which allow
succession within the forests - and the maintenance of gene flow - which requires allowing seed dispensers and
pollinators to move along the corridors between forest patches. Thus the proclamation of isolated stands of forests as
reserves may be insufficient for their conservation. Sustainable use of forests may require that their fauna be effectively
conserved!

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Thicket Biome

Figure 14: Map showing the Thicket biome

Synonyms: Subtropical Thicket, Subtropical Transitional Thicket.

According to Low and Rebelo (1996), there is no formal "Thicket Biome" recognized in the scientific literature. However,
they felt that the vegetation which replaces forest - where a degree of fire protection is still evident, but rainfall is too low -
did not fit within the "Forest" type as it does not have the required height or the many strata below the canopy. Nor is it a
"Savanna" type, in that it does not have a conspicuous grassy ground layer.

Subtropical thicket is a closed shrubland to low forest dominated by evergreen, sclerophyllous or succulent trees, shrubs
and vines, many of which have stem spines. It is often almost impenetrable, is generally not divided into strata, and has
little herbaceous cover. Because the vegetation types within the "Thicket Biome" share floristic components with many
other phytochoria and lie within almost all the formal biomes, Thicket types have been referred to as "transitional thicket".
Thicket types contain few endemics, most of which are succulents of Karoo origin (e.g. Plakkies Crassula spp. and Sheep
Fig Delosperma spp.). A complete list of characteristic species of subtropical thicket and subdivisions into different types
can be found in Everard (1987).

Savanna Biome

Figure 15: Map showing the Savanna biome

The Savanna Biome is the largest Biome in southern Africa, occupying 46% of its area, and over one-third the area of
South Africa. It is well developed over the lowveld and Kalahari region of South Africa and is also the dominant vegetation
in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

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It is characterized by a grassy ground layer and a distinct upper layer of woody plants. Where this upper layer is near the
ground the vegetation may be referred to as Shrubveld, where it is dense as Woodland, and the intermediate stages are
locally known as Bushveld.

The environmental factors delimiting the biome are complex: altitude ranges from sea level to 2 000 m; rainfall varies from
235 to 1 000 mm per year; frost may occur from 0 to 120 days per year; and almost every major geological and soil type
occurs within the biome. A major factor delimiting the biome is the lack of sufficient rainfall which prevents the upper layer
from dominating, coupled with fires and grazing, which keep the grass layer dominant. Summer rainfall is essential for the
grass dominance, which, with its fine material, fuels near-annual fires. In fact, almost all species are adapted to survive
fires, usually with less than 10% of plants, both in the grass and tree layer, killed by fire. Even with severe burning, most
species can resprout from the stem bases.

The grass layer is dominated by C4-type grasses, which are at an advantage where the growing season is hot, but where
rainfall has a stronger winter component, C3-type grasses dominate.

The shrub-tree layer may vary from 1 to 20 m in height, but in Bushveld typically varies from 3 to 7 m. The shrub-tree
element may come to dominate the vegetation in areas which are being overgrazed.

Most of the savanna vegetation types are used for grazing, mainly by cattle or game. ln the southernmost savanna types,
goats are the major stock. In some types crops and subtropical fruit are cultivated. These mainly include the Clay Thorn
Bushveld (14), parts of Mixed Bushveld (18), and Sweet Lowveld Bushveld (21). Urbanization is not a problem, perhaps
because the hot, moist climate and diseases (sleeping sickness, malaria) hindered urban development.

Conservation of savanna is good in principle, mainly due to the presence of the Kruger and Kalahari Gemsbok National
Parks within the biome. Similarly, in neighboring countries, large reserves occur, such as Etosha, Gemsbok, Chobe and
Hwange National Parks and the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. However, this high area conserved in South Africa,
belies the fact that half of savanna vegetation types are inadequately conserved, in having less than 5% of their area in
reserves. However, much of the area is used for game farming and can thus be considered effectively preserved,
provided that sustainable stocking levels are maintained. The importance of tourism and big game hunting in the
conservation of the area must not be underestimated

Nama Karoo Biome

Figure 16: Map showing the Nama Karoo biome

The Nama Karoo Biome occurs on the central plateau of the western half of South Africa, at altitudes between 500 and 2
000 m, with most of the biome failing between 1 000 and 1 400 m. It is the second-largest biome in the region.

The geology underlying the biome is varied, as the distribution of this biome is determined primarily by rainfall. The rain
fails in summer, and varies between 100 and 520 mm per year. This also determines the predominant soil type - over
80% of the area is covered by a lime-rich, weakly developed soil over rock. Although less than 5% of rain reaches the
rivers, the high erodibility of soils poses a major problem where overgrazing occurs.

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The dominant vegetation is a grassy, dwarf shrubland. Grasses tend to be more common in depressions and on sandy
soils, and less abundant on clayey soils. Grazing rapidly increases the relative abundance of shrubs. Most of the grasses
are of the C4 type and, like the shrubs, are deciduous in response to rainfall events.

The amount and nature of the fuel load is insufficient to carry fires and fires are rare within the biome. The large historical
herds of Springbok and other game no longer exist. Like the many bird species in the area - mainly larks - the game was
probably nomadic between patches of rainfall events within the biome. The Brown Locust and Karoo Caterpillar exhibit
eruptions under similarly favourable, local rainfall events, and attract large numbers of bird and mammal predators.

Less than 1 % of the biome is conserved in formal areas. The Prickly Pear Opuntia aurantiaca and Mesquite Prosopis
glandulosa are the major alien invader species. Urbanization and agriculture are minimal, and irrigation is confined to the
Orange River valley and some pans. Most of the land is used for grazing, by sheep (for mutton, wool and pelts) and
goats, which can be commensurate with conservation. However, under conditions of overgrazing, many indigenous
species may proliferate, including Threethorn Rhigozum trichotomum, Bitterbos Chrysocoma ciliata and Sweet Thorn
Acacia karroo, and many grasses and other palatable species may be lost. There are very few rare or Red Data Book
plant species in the Nama Karoo Biome.

Tourism potential is low. Mining is important in the Biome. Most of the research into the dynamics of the biome has been
done in the east of the region, with the Grootfontein Agricultural Station at Middelburg featuring prominently.
Consequently, little research in the west of the biome has been undertaken.

Succulent Karoo Biome

Figure 17: Map showing the Succulent Karoo biome

The Succulent Karoo Biome has an equal status to the other biomes in South Africa - it is not a subtype of "a Karoo
Biome." Most of the biome covers a flat to gently undulating plain, with some hilly and "broken" veld, mostly situated to
the west and south of the escarpment, and north of the Cape Fold Belt. The altitude is mostly below 800 m, but in the east
it may reach 1 500 m. A variety of geological units occur in the region. There is little difference between the soils of the
Succulent Karoo and Nama Karoo Biomes - both are lime-rich, weakly developed soils on rock.

The Olifants and Doring Rivers are the major drainage systems in the west, with the Gouritz River in the south-east of the
biome. The Succulent Karoo Biome is primarily determined by the presence of low winter rainfall and extreme summer
aridity. Rainfall varies between 20 and 290 mm per year. Because the rains are cyclonic and not due to thunder-storms,
the erosive power is far less than of the summer rainfall biomes. During summer, temperatures in excess of 40C are
common. Fog is common nearer the coast. Frost is infrequent. Desiccating, hot, Berg Winds may occur throughout the
year.

The vegetation is dominated by dwarf, succulent shrubs, of which the Vygies (Mesembryanthemaceae) and Stonecrops
(Crassulaceae) are particularly prominent. Mass flowering displays of annuals (mainly Daisies Asteraceae) occur in
spring, often on degraded or fallow lands. Grasses are rare, except in some sandy areas, and are of the C3 type. The

19
number of plant species are mostly succulents - is very high and unparalleled elsewhere in the world for an area of this
size.

Little data are available for the fauna of the Succulent Karoo. Of importance in the area are "heuweltjies", raised mounds
of calcium-rich soil, thought to have been created by termites. These often support distinctive plant communities.

The area has little agricultural potential due to the lack of water. The paucity of grasses limits grazing, and the low
carrying capacity requires extensive supplementary feeds. Much soil has been lost from the biome, through sheet
erosion, as a consequence of nearly 200 years of grazing. Ostrich farming, with considerable supplementary feeding, is
practised in the Little Karoo in the south of the biome. In areas adjoining the Fynbos Biome, wine grapes, fruit and other
crops are cultivated using the Fynbos water catchments. Tourism is a major industry: both the coastal scenery and the
spring mass flower displays are draw cards. Mining is important, especially in the north.

Less than 0.5% of the area of the Succulent Karoo Biome has been formally conserved. The biome has a high number of
rare and Red Data Book plant species. The high species richness and unique global status of the biome require urgent
conservation attention. Fortunately, there, are few invasive alien plants, with only Rooikrans Acacia cyclops a major
problem in the southern coastal regions. Strip-mining for diamonds is destructive in the northern coastal regions, and
legislation requiring revegetation of these areas is inadequate for near-desert conditions.

Fynbos Biome

Figure 18: Map showing the Fynbos biome

Fynbos (pronounced [ˈfəinbɒs], or anglicised as /ˈfeɪnbɒs/, is an Afrikaans word meaning "fine bush" in English) is the
natural shrubland vegetation occurring in a small belt of the Western Cape of South Africa, mainly in winter rainfall coastal
and mountainous areas with a Mediterranean climate.

It grows in a 100-200km wide coastal belt stretching from Clanwilliam on the West coast to Port Elizabeth on the
Southeast coast. It forms part of the Cape floral kingdom, where it accounts for half of the surface area and 80% of the
plant varieties. The fynbos in the western regions is more rich and varied than in the eastern regions of South Africa.

Of the world's six floral kingdoms, this is the smallest and richest per area unit. The diversity of fynbos plants is greater
than that of the tropical rainforests, with over 9000 species of plants occurring in the area, around 6200 of which are
endemic, i.e. do not occur anywhere else in the world. Thus although the Fynbos comprises only 6% of the area of
southern Africa it has half the species on the subcontinent, and in fact has almost 1 in 5 of all plant species in Africa.
Fynbos is much richer in plant species, but has such poor soils that it cannot support even low densities of big game.
However, most of the endemic amphibian, bird and mammal species in the region occur in Fynbos vegetation types.

Distressingly, some three-quarters of all plants in the South African Red Data Book occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom: 1
700 plant species are threatened to some extent with extinction! This is much more than one would expect based on
either the area of the Kingdom (6%) or its plant numbers (36%). This again reflects the unique nature of Fynbos
vegetation: many Fynbos species are extremely localized in their distribution, with sets of such localized species
organized into "centres of endemism."

The city of Cape Town sits squarely on two such centres of endemism and several hundred species are threatened by
urban expansion. However, a more serious threat is alien plants, which infest large tracts of otherwise undisturbed

20
mountains and flats: their impact on these extremely localized species is severe. Aliens are thus the major threat to
Fynbos vegetation and its plant diversity, especially in the mountains. On the lowlands, the major threat is agriculture -
new technologies, fertilisers and crops are steadily eating into our floral reserves. Another important threat is the misuse
of fire. Fynbos must bum, but fires in the wrong season (such as in spring, instead of late summer) or too frequently (so
that plants do not have time to set seed) eliminate species. Several factors influence fire dynamics in Fynbos global
warming, grazing practices and fire management (ignition events, size of burns), but their relative importance and
interactions are poorly understood.

Chapter 2: Environmental Health

1. Introduction

Environmental Health is the field of science that studies how the environment influences human health and disease.
“Environment,” in this context, means things in the natural environment like air, water and soil, and also all the physical,
chemical, biological and social features of our surroundings. The man-made, or “built,” environment includes physical
structures where people live and work such as homes, offices, schools, farms and factories, as well as community
systems such as roads and transportation systems, land use practices and waste management. Consequences of human
alteration to the natural environment, such as air pollution, are also parts of the man-made environment. The social
environment encompasses lifestyle factors like diet and exercise, socioeconomic status, and other societal influences that
may affect health

Environmental health - according to the World Health Organization - aims to addresses all the physical, chemical, and
biological factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviors. It encompasses the assessment
and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and
creating health-supportive environments. This definition excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as
behaviour related to the social and cultural environment, and genetics.

Proper environmental management is the key to avoiding the quarter of all preventable illnesses which are directly
caused by environmental factors. The environment influences our health in many ways — through exposures to physical,
chemical and biological risk factors, and through related changes in our behaviour in response to those factors.

Thirteen million deaths annually are due to preventable environmental causes. Preventing environmental risk could save
as many as four million lives a year, in children alone, mostly in developing countries

2. Pollution
1. Introduction

In the previous chapter on Ecology, you have studied various aspects that constitute the biosphere in which all biotic and
abiotic components reside. The biosphere include 3 major components namely the lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere.

Logically, a healthy biosphere is one where all of these biospherical components are functioning in the way that they
should. But the important question in this regard is whether the biosphere with all its components (lithosphere, hyrosphere
and atmosphere) is functioning as it should. The answer to that is a resounding no. If this was true, then we would not be
bombarded on a daily basis, on media with words like pollution, global warming, sustainable development, renewable
energy source, carbon finance, carbon footprint, acid rain, environmental hazard and toxicology just to name a few. All of
these give a clear indication that our biosphere or environment is in a path of destruction which has a direct link to
anthropogenic (caused by man or man -made) causes mainly as consequence of satisfying human needs or wants.
These have lead to the pollution of the biosphere. We shall look at different effects of pollution on the components of the
biosphere.

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to
the physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise,
heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring;
when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as

21
point source or nonpoint source pollution. Pollution can be classified in accordance to the components of the biosphere
which are affected. These include 1) air pollution, 2) water pollution and 3) soil or land pollution. There also exists another
form of pollution referred to as noise pollution.

2. Types of Pollution

2.1. Air Pollution

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to
humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere. Air is a mixture of gases in a
particular composition. It contains the following components (see figure below);

Every day, the average person inhales about 20,000 litres of air. Every time we breathe, we risk inhaling dangerous
chemicals that have found their way into the air. Air pollution includes all contaminants found in the atmosphere. These
dangerous substances can be either in the form of gases or particles.

2.1.1. Impact of Pollution

Air pollution is responsible for major health effects. Because humans are at the top of the food chain, they are particularly
vulnerable to the effects of nondegradable pollutants. This was clearly illustrated in the 1950s and 1960s when residents
living near Minamata Bay, Japan, developed nervous disorders, tremors, and paralysis in a mysterious epidemic. More
than 400 people died before authorities discovered that a local industry had released mercury into Minamata Bay. This
highly toxic element accumulated in the bodies of local fish and eventually in the bodies of people who consumed the fish.
More recently research has revealed that many chemical pollutants, such as DDT and PCBs, mimic sex hormones and
interfere with the human body’s reproductive and developmental functions. These substances are known as endocrine
disrupters.

Every year, the health of countless people is ruined or endangered by air pollution. In India, where 80% of households
use solid fuel, there are estimates that half a million children die annually from indoor air pollution, especially from acute
respiratory infections. The figure for sub-Saharan Africa is roughly the same. In Latin American countries, where one
quarter of households use solid fuels, an estimated 30 000 people die each year from acute respiratory infections
attributable to indoor air quality.

Health effects as a result of pollution may be acute, chronic and carcinogenic. In the acute stage pollutants bring on life-
threatening reactions within a period of hours or days; causes headache, nausea, and eye and throat irritation; aggravate
preexisting respiratory conditions such as asthma and emphysema. In the chronic stage pollutants cause gradual

22
deterioration of health over many years, and exposures are relatively low while carcinogenic effects may cause at a later
stage cancerous tumours which can prove fatal.

Pollution also has a dramatic effect on natural resources. Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, coral reefs, and rivers
perform many important services for Earth’s environment. They enhance water and air quality, provide habitat for plants
and animals, and provide food and medicines. Any or all of these ecosystem functions may be impaired or destroyed by
pollution. Moreover, because of the complex relationships among the many types of organisms and ecosystems,
environmental contamination may have far-reaching consequences that are not immediately obvious or that are difficult to
predict. For instance, scientists can only speculate on some of the potential impacts of the depletion of the ozone layer,
the protective layer in the atmosphere that shields Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays.

Another major effect of pollution is the tremendous cost of pollution cleanup and prevention. The global effort to control
emissions of carbon dioxide, a gas produced from the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or of other organic
materials like wood, is one such example. The cost of maintaining annual national carbon dioxide emissions at 1990
levels is estimated to be 2 percent of the gross domestic product for developed countries.

In addition to its effects on the economy, health, and natural resources, pollution has social implications. Research has
shown that low-income populations and minorities do not receive the same protection from environmental contamination
as do higher-income communities. Toxic waste incinerators, chemical plants, and solid waste dumps are often located in
low-income communities because of a lack of organized, informed community involvement in municipal decision-making
processes.

2.1.2. Classification of pollution according to their source

Pollution exists in many forms and affects many different aspects of Earth’s environment. Point-source pollution comes
from specific, localized, and identifiable sources, such as sewage pipelines or industrial smokestacks. Nonpoint-source
pollution comes from dispersed or uncontained sources, such as contaminated water runoff from urban areas or
automobile emissions.

2.1.3. Categories of pollutants

There are two main categories of polluting materials, or pollutants. Biodegradable pollutants are materials, such as
sewage, that rapidly decompose by natural processes. These pollutants become a problem when added to the
environment faster than they can decompose.

Nondegradable pollutants are materials that either do not decompose or decompose slowly in the natural environment.
Once contamination occurs, it is difficult or impossible to remove these pollutants from the environment. Nondegradable
pollutants such as: dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and radioactive materials.

These can reach dangerous levels of accumulation as they are passed up the food chain into the bodies of progressively
larger animals. For example, molecules of toxic compounds may collect on the surface of aquatic plants without doing
much damage to the plants. A small fish that grazes on these plants accumulates a high concentration of the toxin. Larger
fish or other carnivores that eat the small fish will accumulate even greater, and possibly life-threatening, concentrations
of the compound. This process is known as bioaccumulation.
Pollutants can be grouped accordingly to the main ecosystem that they affect. One pollutant often affects more than one
ecosystem.

The effects of these pollutants may be immediate or delayed. Primary effects of pollution occur immediately after
contamination occurs, such as the death of marine plants and wildlife after an oil spill at sea. Secondary effects may be
delayed or may persist in the environment into the future, perhaps going unnoticed for many years. DDT, a
nondegradable compound, seldom poisons birds immediately, but gradually accumulates in their bodies. Birds with high
concentrations of this pesticide lay thin-shelled eggs that fail to hatch or produce deformed offspring.

2.1.4. Major Air Pollutants

Major air pollutants include 1) suspended particulate matter, 2) volatile organic compounds, 3) carbon monoxide, 4.)
Nitrogen oxides, 5.) Sulphur oxides, 6) Lead and Other Heavy Metals, 7) Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants and
8) Radon.

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2.1.5. Air Pollution And Acid Rain

Pollution is any environmental change that adversely affects the lives and health of living things. Burning fossil fuels
results in hydrocarbons, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur oxides, and particulates. Automobiles consume one-third of the
world's production of oil and are the chief source of air pollution. Some scientists estimate there will be four times more
automobiles in the world by 2025. Industrially produced halogens and the use of nitrogen fertilizers also influence the
atmosphere.

Air pollution can cause serious effects where pollution can accumulate. Air pollution may occur at levels, which give rise
to chronic illnesses such as bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and lung cancer only in very local populations, and as a
consequence little urgency or importance may be attached to these effects.

Sources of energy that are relatively non-polluting exist. However, these non-polluting energy sources are not as
commonly used as fossil fuels. Solar energy does not add additional heat to the atmosphere, although the production of
solar panels may contribute to pollution. Solar panels, often mounted on rooftops, absorb and move rooftop heat into
water circulating within the panels. Photovoltaic (solar) cells produce energy directly from sunlight, although the cost of
this energy is several times what conventional (fossil) fuel-generated electricity costs.

Most air pollution results from domestic and industrial combustion and is more serious in overcrowded areas and
where unfavourable meteorological dispersion exists. The one percent of the atmosphere (trace gases) that is neither
nitrogen nor oxygen plays an important role in global climate and in shielding the Earth's surface from solar radiation.
Agricultural and industrial gases may affect the atmosphere's ability to protect as well as alter the world's climate.

Carbon dioxide has many sources (cellular respiration, and the burning of wood or fossil fuels such as coal or petroleum).
There are two main sinks for carbon dioxide: plants and the oceans. Plants convert carbon dioxide into organic molecules
by photosynthesis. Oceans form calcium carbonate and over long periods of time, store it as limestone. Since the
Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have increased. This increase has rapidly accelerated
during the past forty years.

Carbon dioxide and other gases allow light to pass, but trap heat in the atmosphere much like glass in a greenhouse
traps heat. Increased carbon dioxide levels lead to more and more heat trapped. This greenhouse effect is thought to be
responsible for global warming. Carbon dioxide is not the only gas that can cause a greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide
contributes to only 56% of greenhouse heating. Methane (CH4) is expelled in great quantities by cows, and as cattle
production has increased so has their methane production (about 1% per year).

South Africa has an abundance of coal used for domestic, industrial and synthetic engine fuel manufacturing. Carbon and
hydrogen chemical compounds form during the combustion process and are known as hydrocarbons. The volume of
heavily polluted air increases because of population growth and industrialization. It is also important to recognize the
indirect effects of air pollution on human health. Sulphur dioxide may reduce crop growth rates or otherwise damage
agricultural crops, thereby reducing food supplies which may contribute to poor levels of nutrition. It is therefore important
that both acute (e.g. bronchitis) and chronic health effects (lung cancer and malnutrition) are taken into account in order to
improve the quality of life.

The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act divides air pollution in South Africa into four categories for control purposes:

* Noxious or offensive gases

* Smoke, from stoves, open fires and fuel burning appliances
* Dust (from mine dumps
* Fumes emitted by vehicles

Smoking causes internal or personal air pollution. Tobacco smoking kills 2,000,000 people each year. Passive smoking
(i.e. from inhaling smoke by non -smokers) also carries a statistically significant risk of lung cancer.

South African coal is rich in sulphur.

Sources
1. Natural
a. Sulfur: volcanoes, sea spray, microbial

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 b. Nitrogen oxides: lightning, forest fires, microbial

2. Anthropogenic
a. Sulfur: power plants, industry, fossil fuels
b. Nitrogen oxides: power plants, industrial fuel combustion, transportation
.
Nitrogen oxides Sulphur oxides
nitric oxide (NO) sulphur dioxide (SO2)
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) sulphur trioxide (SO3)
nitrous oxide (N2O)
Table 1: The oxides of nitrogen and sulphur

2.1.6. Photochemical smog

It is air pollution that contains nitrogen oxides (NOx) [where the x is a 2 or 3] and hydrocarbons (HC), that react together in
the presence of sunlight to produce ozone (O3) and peroxylacetyl nitrate (PAN). Both NOx and hydrocarbons result from
the burning (or combustion) of fossil fuel. Additional hydrocarbons come from various other sources as well, including
paint solvents and pesticides.

The sulphur/nitrogen introduced into the upper atmosphere combines with water vapor to produce sulphuric / nitric acid,
and when the water later falls as rain or snow, the precipitation is acid. Natural rainfall has an acidic pH of 5,6; however,
near industrialized or urban areas, rainfall pH is nearer 4.0 and some fog clouds drop to a pH as acidic as 1,7- acid rain.
Living vegetation and limestone used for monuments and buildings rapidly deteriorate under such “acid rains.” Both soil
and water are rendered acidic and the solubility of aluminium (toxic to aquatic life) and other heavy metals is increased.

Acid deposition is responsible for the following:

• sterilization of lakes and forests;
• reducing the populations of small invertebrates and decomposers, threatening the ecosystem;
• reducing agricultural yields;
• causing extensive structural damage by corroding marble, metal, and stonework;
• degrading water supplies by leaching heavy metals from the soil into drinking-water supplies; and
• statistically is implicated in increases in lung cancer and colon cancer.

2.2. Water Pollution

Water pollution can be subdivided into freshwater and marine water pollution. Freshwater pollution affect inland water
bodies and marine affect coastal or oceanic water bodies.

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2.2.1. Major water pollutants

Freshwater

sewage - inadequate sanitation pathogens in sewage cause typhoid, cholera,

gastroenteritis; nutrients cause eutrophication

eutrophication
fertilizers - agriculture
smothers aquatic organisms
silt - agriculture
toxic, interfere with breeding of mammals and birds
pesticides - agriculture and health services
health and life threatening

toxic metals - industry

Marine

sewage - inadequate sanitation as above

fertilizers - agriculture eutrophication

oil spills smothers marine plants and animals

plastics death of marine animals

pesticides - agriculture and health services as above

LAND

solid waste is classified as hazardous hazardous waste is health and life threatening; non-
(radioactive, pesticides, medical, poisons), or hazardous is unsightly and disposal takes up much space
non-hazardous (domestic, urban, mining,
industrial, scrap metal)

Table 2: showing major pollutants of water and land

There are three basic sources of water pollutants: municipal sewage, industrial discharges, and agriculture/mining/logging
discharges of sediment.

Freshwater is required for domestic purposes, including drinking, crop irrigation, industrial use, and energy production.
Freshwater resources include surface water from lakes and rivers, and underground aquifers. Pollution contributes to the
shortage of freshwater. Solid wastes include household trash, sewage sludge, agricultural residue, mining refuse, and
industrial waste. Pollution comes from either a point source, an identifiable source of the pollution, or a nonpoint source, a
broad area of pollution with no single identifiable source, such as runoff.

Sewage treatment plants degrade organic wastes, which would otherwise cause oxygen depletion in lakes. Human
faeces contain pathogens (viruses, bacteria) that cause cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery. Sewage treatment plants
use bacteria to break down organic matter into inorganic nutrients. The treated water can then be used for various
purposes, depending on state and local laws governing sewage treated water. During the spring of 2000, Los Angeles
made national news because of the city's plans to reintroduce treated sewage water to the home water supply.

Agricultural and industrial wastes present a number of water pollution problems. Intensive animal farming or the presence
of many septic tanks releases ammonium (NH4+) from wastes. This ammonium is converted by bacteria to soluble nitrate
that moves through the soil to water supplies.

26
Eutrophication is a special kind of pollution of water in the form of phosphates or nitrates, as contained in sewage for
example, which causes an excessive overgrowth of algae or other alien plants such as the water hyacinth. Plant
overgrowth at the Hartbeespoortdam is a good example of eutrophication.

Aquifer pollution is an increasingly significant health threat. Prior to environmental regulations enacted during the 1970s,
many industries ran wastewater into a pit from which pollutants could seep into the ground. Much of this material
eventually made its way to the groundwater in various aquifers below the surface. Wastewater and chemical wastes were
also injected into deep wells. Both practices are being phased out; there are few alternatives for industry to dispose of
wastes, other than to reduce the volume or develop a long-term containment facility.

The oceans are the final recipients of wastes deposited in rivers and along the coasts. Waste dumping occurs at sea, and
ocean currents sometimes transport both trash and pollutants back to shore. Solid pollutants cause death of birds, fish,
and marine mammals that mistake them for food and get entangled. Offshore mining and shipping add pollutants to the
oceans.
South Africa has approximately 3 000 km of coastline, much of it “high energy” with strong winds and waves which
disperse pollutants. It lies on one of the world’s busiest shipping routes. Rough seas, an ageing world tanker fleet, human
error, and deliberate discharge, make oil pollution a real threat around the coasts. Plastics kill many marine animals.
Turtles, for example, often swallow floating plastic bags, mistaking them for jellyfish. Plastics also cause entanglement,
suffocation and gastro - intestinal obstruction in animals. The only way to prevent this problem is to prevent the
uncontrolled disposal of all plastic products.

2.2.2. Ecological and water quality impacts

• Loss of soil fertility.
• Induced climatic changes.
• Major decline and extinctions of animal, fish and vegetation species.
• Destruction of major ecosystems.
• Decline in Sea level by 15.6 meters since 1960.
• Decline in Sea volume by 69%.
• Destruction of commercial fishery.

2.3. Land Pollution and Solid waste

Solid waste consists of all non - liquid or non - gaseous material which is discarded after use of formation from any
physical or chemical process (as a waste product or residue) and which is regarded by the generator of such waste as
valueless. Its intrinsic value may still be substantial (e.g. silver in photospheric plates).

Solid waste can range from inert materials such as construction debris to toxic and hazardous substances such as
spoiled chemicals and rubbish deposited in virtually any locality.

Solid waste increases per person with an increase in the population, urbanization and industrialization. The inadequate
collection and dispersal of solid wastes are the source of many health problems. It is not just aesthetically unacceptable
but these materials in unsuitable locations can result in ground and surface contamination and cause health problems
through the food cycle. Domestic waste, which is principally organic refuse, can serve as breeding grounds for annoying
and disease - bearing organisms such as rats, flies, cockroaches and mosquitoes, if it is not frequently collected and
properly disposed of. Organic waste refuse generate significant amounts of methane that contributes to the greenhouse
effect.

Synthetic material pollution, better known as plastic pollution, has created a new environmental problem. There are
however no biological decomposers capable of breaking down plastics as exists for natural materials. These materials are
cheap which account for their widespread use. The bio - degradability of pollutants is therefore an important issue to
consider because the only alternatives for breaking down these products require high - energy input (incineration) or
ultraviolet light which will only cause decay over a long time.

2.3.1. The control of Solid Waste

It is possible to retrieve certain materials for economic reasons such as glass, paper, cardboard, ferrous and non - ferrous
metals. Industrial concern buys this material to use as raw material for the manufacturing of new products. The specific
wastes should be separated into containers at the locality of generation so that they can be accumulated into profitable
quantities for industrial use.

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2.3.2. The Organizations For Control Of Solid Waste

* The statutory of solid waste management is contained in the Environmental Conservation Act (Act 100 of 1982).

* Schools, nursery schools and youth or nature conservation organizations have an important role to play in the
education of children, adolescents and adults.

* The “Keep South Africa Beautiful Association” has developed voluntary community involvement for litter and rubbish
abatement, through an educational system and community involvement programs known as the Clean
Community System.

2.4. Sound Pollution

Unwanted sound, or noise, such as that produced by airplanes, traffic, or industrial machinery, is considered a form of
pollution. Noise pollution is at its worst in densely populated areas. It can cause hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure,
sleep loss, distraction, and lost productivity.

Sounds are produced by objects that vibrate at a rate that the ear can detect. Most noise pollution damage is related to
the intensity of the sound, or the amount of energy it has. Measured in decibels, noise intensity can range from zero, the
quietest sound the human ear can detect, to over 160 decibels. Conversation takes place at around 40 decibels, a
subway train is about 80 decibels, and a rock concert is from 80 to 100 decibels. The intensity of a nearby jet taking off is
about 110 decibels. The threshold for pain, tissue damage, and potential hearing loss in humans is 120 decibels. Long-
lasting, high-intensity sounds are the most damaging to hearing and produce the most stress in humans.

Solutions to noise pollution include adding insulation and sound-proofing to doors, walls, and ceilings; using ear
protection, particularly in industrial working areas; planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution; and
zoning urban areas to maintain a separation between residential areas and zones of excessive noise.

3. Major Environmental Health Problems

The following are regarded as major environmental health problems due to the devastating effects they have on the
biosphere. These include:

• Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect

• Destruction of environment, Soil erosion and smog
• Population growth
• Ozone Depletion
• Invasive Plants
• Traditional Healers and ecology
• Arthropods pest and poisoning
• Rodents
• Vertebrate pests and Problem Animals

3.1. Global warming and the Greenhouse Effect

Energy from the sun drives the earth’s weather and climate, and heats the earth’s surface; in turn, the earth radiates
energy back into space. Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the
outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a greenhouse.

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Without this natural “greenhouse effect,” temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and life as known today
would not be possible. Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the earth’s average temperature is a more hospitable 60°F
(15.60C). However, problems may arise when the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases increases.

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%,
methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about 15%. These
increases have enhanced the heat-trapping capability of the earth’s atmosphere. Sulphate aerosols, a common air
pollutant, cool the atmosphere by reflecting light back into space; however, sulphates are short-lived in the atmosphere
and vary regionally.

Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human activities. Naturally occurring
greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Certain human activities,
however, add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases. Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere
when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products are burned. Methane is emitted
during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of
organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural
and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.

Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety of industrial processes.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is formed in complete combustion of carbon-based fuels, burning veld and forests. CO destroys
scavengers such as OH radicals, which break down methane. They therefore extend the lifetime of the already existing
methane, although by itself it is not a greenhouse gas.

The effects of global warming can be summarized as follows: -

• Major changes in global and regional climates

• Crop losses necessitating changes in agricultural patterns
• Increased frequency and amplitude of extreme weather events
• Rising sea levels
• Spread of diseases and pests
• Rapid losses of species
• Desertification.

The following steps can be taken to reduce global warming:-

• Conserve energy: 20% of the world's population consumes 60% of its energy.
• Ensure that lights and heaters are switched off when rooms are not in use.
• Install insulation in the roof and around the hot water cylinder.
• Adjust hot water cylinder to a lower setting: 55 - 50 0 C is adequate.
• Switch off hot water cylinder when going away for long periods.
• By installing a solar panel, the initial expense may be quite high, but will save huge electricity bills in the long run.
• Using fluorescent light bulbs in homes could reduce energy needed for lighting by 50% to 75%.
• Recycle: it can save energy. Make use of recycling facilities where these exist. Using recycled aluminium saves
90% of the energy needed to make new aluminium. Saving for other materials that can easily be recycled:
Glass... 4% to 32%; paper: 23% to 74%; steel: 47% to 74%.
• Try walking or cycling instead of using the car. It also keeps one fit.
• Use public transport where possible. If the service is not good make sure the MP or local authority knows.

3.2. Destruction of the Environment.

Destruction of the environment causes soil erosion, water runoff and loss of soil fertility due to leaching.

3.2.1. Deforestation

Wood is an inefficient source of energy for cooking and heating and its use can cause increased respiratory illnesses. It
has been estimated that if current consumption trends continue, all natural woodland will be denuded by 2020. Some 500

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000 ha of forest must be planted by the turn of the century if this situation is to be reversed. However, before this time, it
is likely that a significant number of people will switch from wood as a source of fuel to more convenient sources such as
paraffin, gas and electricity, thereby slowing down the rate of deforestation.

In tropical regions of the world the forest is often burnt and cash crops planted for a season or two in the impoverished
soil. This is called slash and burn or shifting cultivation. The ashes provide temporary nutrients to raise crops. After a
few years, the fertility of the land is insufficient to raise crops and farmers move on. Cattle ranching usually take over from
farming. The farmer then burns the next patch of indigenous bush. Tropical forests harbor more than 1 million animal
and plant species and as the most complex of ecosystems hold a fascinating number of scientific secrets. Each 4 square
miles of forest contain 750 species of trees, 125 of mammals, 400 of birds, 100 of reptiles and 60 of amphibians. Each
tree type supports 400 arthropod species. Twelve percent of the Amazon forest has already been destroyed, mainly
by burning cattle ranching. Rain forests do not regenerate naturally when large areas are denuded but revert to scrub
wasteland with poor soil fertility due to leaching which is then susceptible to wind and water erosion and which has poor
water retaining properties as the natural sponge becomes denuded.

The burning of forests also increases the production of CO2, and this contributes to the greenhouse effect. Around 50
plant and animal species become extinct daily. Humanity consumes or wastes 40% of the total energy stored each year in
terrestrial vegetation through photosynthesis.

From both a scientific and an aesthetic point of view the disappearance of the rain forest would leave man incalculably
poorer.

3.2.2. Soil Erosion

In South Africa 120 - 400 million tons of topsoil, are washed into the sea annually. Cultivating maize on marginal land,
suitable only for cattle grazing, has further aggravated the problem. Deforestation, irrigation, overgrazing and
overcropping have already assumed considerable proportions. Erosion, droughts and excess floods follow deforestation

Soil erosion has four effects on cropland: nutrient loss, decreased water storage capacity, crop damage, and decreased
farm ability.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Wind and water are the main agents of soil erosion. The amount of soil they can carry away is influenced by two related
factors:

• Speed - the faster either moves, the more soil it can erode;
• Plant cover - plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do much more damage.

In some areas donkeys decimate the grazing but are not utilized for any economic purpose. Goats are notorious
destroyers of the habitat and in comparison with chickens or rabbits are poor converters of plant energy into meat.

The Importance of Plants

Plants provide protective cover on the land and prevent soil erosion for the following reasons:

• Plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) and this allows much of the rain to soak into the ground;
• Plant roots hold the soil in position and prevent it from being washed away;
• Plants break the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, thus reducing its ability to erode;
• Plants in wetlands and on the banks of rivers are of particular importance as they slow down the flow of the water
and their roots bind the soil, thus preventing erosion.

The loss of protective vegetation through deforestation, over-grazing, ploughing, and fire makes soil vulnerable to being
swept away by wind and water. In addition, over-cultivation and compaction cause the soil to lose its structure and
cohesion and it becomes more easily eroded. Erosion will remove the top-soil first. Once this nutrient-rich layer of soil is

30
gone, few plants will grow in the soil again. Without soil and plants the land becomes desert-like and unable to support life
- this process is called desertification. It is very difficult and often impossible to restore desertified land.

Politics, Economics and Soil Erosion

To understand soil erosion we must be aware of the political and economic factors affecting land users.
In South Africa apartheid policies ensured that 42% of the people lived on 13 % of the land (the "homelands"). This
overcrowding has resulted in severe erosion. As the land became increasingly degraded and thus less productive,
subsistence farmers were forced to further overuse the land. The intensive agriculture and overgrazing that followed
caused greater degradation. Soil erosion can be seen as both a symptom of underdevelopment (i.e. poverty, inequality
and exploitation), and as a cause of underdevelopment. A reduced ability to produce, invest one's profit and increase
productivity, contributes to increasing poverty, and can lead to desertification, drought, floods, and famine.

Preventing Soil Erosion

Aspects of technical changes include:

• The use of contour ploughing and wind breaks;
• Leaving unploughed grass strips between ploughed land;
• Making sure that there are always plants growing on the soil, and that the soil is rich in humus (decaying plant
and animal remains). This organic matter is the "glue" that binds the soil particles together and plays an important
part in preventing erosion;
• Avoiding overgrazing and the over-use of crop lands;
• Allowing indigenous plants to grow along the river banks instead of ploughing and planting crops right up to the
water's edge;
• Encouraging biological diversity by planting several different types of plants together;
• Conservation of wetlands

In summary the effects of environmental pressure would therefore include the following: -

• Droughts and floods

• Depletion of forests, fish, game, and ground water
• Desertification
• Soil erosion
• Dropping water tables
• Siltation
• Salination of fresh water
• Eutrophication
• Increase in parasitic disease
• Increase in malnutrition.

3.3 Population Growths and Urbanization

220,000 people are born every day in the world. In the RSA one child is born every 26 seconds. There are 500,000
maternal deaths worldwide each year as a result of pregnancy, abortion or childbirth.

For descriptive purposes the world can be divided into the poor young billions of less developed countries (LDC) or Third
World, the central economy countries or Second World, and the rich old millions, developed countries or First World.

The First World consists of the countries of North America, excluding Mexico, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New
Zealand. The Second World consists of the countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR, which prior to 1989 had
centralized socialistic economic systems. The Third World consists of the countries of East and South East Asia, Mexico
and South America and the whole of Africa. Africa is a continent with the highest growth rate at 2,8% per annum, resulting
in an estimated population of 870 million in 2000. Over the past two decades food production in Sub - Saharan Africa has
decreased by 13%, reducing a full 50% of the population in this region to a state of abject poverty. India has 16% of the
world's population but uses only 3% of the world's energy, emits 3% of all C02 produced and accounts for only 1 % of the
world's GNP.

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At the turn of the century for the first time in human history more people will live in cities than in rural areas. At the same
time 22 megacities will exist the world over with populations around 10 million or more. Africa South of the Sahara has
the fastest urbanization rate in the world with some cities growing at 10% per annum.

Human overpopulation is a major problem that we are responsible for and now must address. It involves everyone’s
future, rich and poor. The population crisis signifies that for the first time in human history we have reached a global
crunch.

The Earth can no longer carry this many people without being permanently damaged. Examples of the damage are
rainforest burning, acid rain, pollution, global warming, and depletion of our natural resources and the extinction of
thousands of animal species. Overpopulation happens when the population exceeds the carrying capacity of the land.
Carrying capacity is the number of humans who can be supported by the environment without ruining it.

Until the Agricultural Revolution the population was very stable. With the domestication of plants, the people could grow
their own food, decreasing the mortality rate. With the Industrial Revolution, the population shot sky-high, and is still
growing rapidly.
The population has increased from two billion to six billion in the last seventy years.

Fortunately, people are becoming aware of these problems and in some countries the population is now leveling off. This
is called Zero Population Growth (ZPG). This happens when the birth rate is equal to the death rate.

3.3.1 HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS has already killed 25 million people worldwide, and another 40 million are living with the disease. Of those, 28.1
million people live in sub-Saharan Africa and 6.1 million live in South and Southeast Asia.
Almost 95 percent of new infections, of which there are an estimated 14,000 every day, occur in the world's poorest
countries.

Most infections occur through heterosexual transmission, and programs to promote the use of condoms and increase
awareness of sexually transmitted diseases have been shown to be successful. But they have failed in most poor
countries because of inadequate resources and a lack of international commitment.
Previous gains in life expectancy have been reversed and infant and adult mortality has risen by 50 percent in some
countries. In the worst affected nations, demographers expect AIDS to kill half of the countries' young adults, and more
than 13 million children - most of them in Africa.

3.3.2 Effects of Overpopulation

Due to overpopulation the Earth’s resources are depleted and unevenly distributed. The gap between the rich and poor is
growing wider all the time. Renewable resources such as trees and food are being used up too quickly to renew
themselves. Human overpopulation has caused the greatest extinction of plant and animal life since the dinosaurs. Every
year about 721 million acres of rainforest are destroyed. The rainforests are home to over half the animal species in the
world.

3.3.3 Hope for the Future

One of many hopes for the future is for the world to achieve ZPG naturally without killing and abortion. This can be done
by lowering family size. Women need to have reproductive rights and equality. In poor societies women are forced to
have large families for economic security even though they don’t want to. Another hope is that we would protect our
precious and wonderful home by restraining, recycling and reusing. To achieve both of these goals the world must be
educated correctly about the population crisis, and be aware of the environmental problems it is causing. We can achieve
these goals by telling others about the problem, eating less meat especially beef, reusing and recycling paper, plastic,
glass and other recyclable products. Participate in environmental awareness parades, pick up trash, and take shorter
showers. Limit the number of children and educate more people about what is happening

Problems encountered in mega cities of the present and future includes the following: -

• Political violence, looting, pillaging, arson and bombings (Bombay, Kinshasha).

• Water and sewerage reticulation unable to develop apace with population growth (polluted drinking water)
(Mexico City).

• Slum formation within city centres (urban decay) (Bronx, New York).

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 • Frequent power failures (Mexico city).

• Emergency services unable to cope with fires, accidents and natural disasters.

• Increasing incidence of crime.

• Breakdown of the nuclear family, increased suicide, divorce and spouse or child battering.

• Alcoholism, drug abuse and prostitution.

• Increases in AIDS, tuberculosis, sexually transmitted diseases, stress related conditions and water related
diseases (cholera, hepatitis).

• Unemployment and poverty.

• Street children and vagrancy. (homeless people).

• Squatter camps, people who live and sleep on the streets (Calcutta).

• *Malnutrition and famine.(extreme scarcity of food).

• Severe environmental pollution and degradation.

• Air pollution from residential fuel burning appliances, industries and motor vehicles.

• Labour unrest, strikes, endless demonstrations.

• Corruption of armed forces, police brutality, distortion and graft.

• Progressive housing shortages.

• Hyper inflation exceeding 1 000% per annum.

• Traffic congestion and breakdown of transport services.

• Indiscriminate littering and dumping of refuse.

• Inadequate schools, hospitals, law courts, prisons, police and fireman.

• Surrounding deforestation, resulting in floods and erosion.

• Lack of refuse disposal space.

3.4. Ozone Depletion

3.4.1 Ozone
The atmosphere of the earth can be conveniently divided into the following layers viz the troposphere (0 - 10km),
stratosphere (10 - 50km), mesosphere (50km – 100km), thermosphere (100km – 400km) and exosphere (400km+).

About 90% of atmospheric ozone is in the stratosphere, mostly between 19 and 23km above the earth. The air
temperature reaches a chilly –60 0 C to -70 0 C at the top of the troposphere but drops to 0 0 C in the stratosphere
because of the ozone absorption.

Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive, colorless gas, each molecule of which is made up of three oxygen atoms. High in the
atmosphere, the three-oxygen-atom ozone form the ozone layer, which helps shield life on earth from the sun’s damaging
UV (ultraviolet) radiation.

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Ozone protects plants and animals by filtering out harmful ultraviolet radiation. A 1% increase in UV radiation may
increase the incidence of skin cancer by 4%. Ozone absorbs 99% of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation

At ground level, however, ozone is a pollutant, irritating eyes, nose and throat, and damaging the respiratory system.
Ozone also corrodes some metals. On the ozone layer depends the protection of plants (including vital phytoplankton)
and animals from ultraviolet irradiation as well as the thermal structure of the stratosphere.

3.4.2 The hole in the ozone layer

During the 1980s scientists discovered a "hole" in the ozone over Antarctica, and that some depletion of worldwide ozone
had taken place. By the 1990s atmospheric scientists had detected an annual loss of 40-50% of the ozone above
Antarctica, which produced an ozone hole every spring. The development of ozone holes depends on complex
atmospheric conditions.

The destruction is more intense over the South pole because: -

• The polar vortex traps CFC's from the industrialized countries.
• Ice crystals form in the stratosphere over the South Pole. These crystals trap the breakdown products of CFC'S,
including ClO.
• After the long winter night the sun triggers the chemical breakdown of ozone by ClO.
• Ozone is being destroyed by the release of gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), containing chlorine (Cl-)
atoms in the stratosphere.

CFCs are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and solvents. Chlorine atoms come from breakdown of CFCs, which
were in heavy human use from 1950 to 1990. One CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules. International
agreements were developed to phase out the use of CFCs by the year 2000. However, since it takes 20-30 years for
CFCs to rise to the upper atmosphere, and another 100 years for their destruction, ozone destruction will continue for
some time to come.

UV light, especially the UV-B part of the spectrum, has the following biological effects: - Interferes with photosynthesis
and decreases crop yield in wheat, sorghum, soyabeans and peas by stunting plant growth.

• UV-B penetrates oceans and inhibits phytoplankton and krill at bottom of food chain.
• Cataracts, blindness, retinitis, photo keratitis.
• Premature ageing and wrinkling of skin (elastosis), erythema (sunburn) and hyper pigmentation.
• Increase in malignant melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma of skin (photo
carcinogenesis). If depletion continues up to 250,000 additional cases can be expected annually.
• Suppression of immune response in animals, both local and systemic (photo-immune suppression).
• It is essential for Vit D production in humans and some other animals.

3.4.3 Halocarbons And Their Effect On Ozone

CFC's are colorless, odorless, non - toxic chemicals, which can exist as fluids or vapors, depending on physical
conditions. They were discovered in 1930.

Industrially they are used as: -

• Propellants for spray - gas aerosols.

• Cleaning fluids for micro - chips and other electronic equipment.

• As a blowing agent for insulation materials (Styrofoam, polystyrene).

• As coolants or refrigerants.

Apart from their ozone depletion properties they are also greenhouse gases, i.e. they trap infrared radiation. Ozone is
also a greenhouse gas.

34
They are used in fire fighting to smother flames affecting special equipment (e.g. electronic apparatus) or involving,
special chemicals. Halons can be recycled to a certain measure. As CFC's in refrigeration function as closed systems
their emissions can theoretically be controlled. Problems occur when there are leakages in the system or when
appliances are discarded. Technologies are available which can reclaim CFC's from discarded refrigerators. HCFC's are
less destructive on ozone and their lifetime in the atmosphere is relatively short. They can act as bridging substitutes for
CFC's.

3.4.4 Replenishing and conserving the atmospheric ozone

The following substitutes exist for CFC’s: -

• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC's). They break down more quickly in the atmosphere but could also damage
ozone. Appliances may use more energy.
• Hydrofluoro carbons (HFC's). Contains no chlorine and cannot damage ozone. Toxic and flammable. May be
also to substitute for CFC's in refrigeration.
• Hydrocarbons (butane, propane). Cheap and available but poisonous and inflammable. Used as propellants.
• Ammonia. Readily available. Highly irritating and toxic. Used in refrigeration.
• Water and steam. Can substitute for some cleaning applications
•
In order to minimize the production of CFC's the need for air conditioning can be reduced by:

• Giving careful attention to insulation, i.e. heat gained from solar radiation.
• Thermal mass (i.e. total heat generated over a 24 - hour period) can be evenly distributed by storing heat in
concrete or masonry walls, roofs or floors.
• Making maximal use of daylight.
• Heat insulation of ceilings, roofs and/or walls by means of fiber glass, polystyrene or metal reflectors

3.5. Alien Plant and Animal Invasion

Alien plants have been introduced mainly from South America and Australia as dune stabilizers (Hakea), ornamental
trees (Jacarandas), edible plants (prickly pear), ornamentals (jointed cactus, parrots feather), firewood (Hakea) and
furniture wood (Acacia). These aliens are now choking the local rivers and dams (water hyacinth), crowding out Fynbos
in the South Western Cape (Hakea) and encroaching on pastures in the Eastern Cape (Nasella tussock grass, jointed
cactus). Other examples include the following:

Manatoka Rooikrans Australian Myrtle

Myoporum tenuifolium Acacia cyclops Leptospermum laevigatum

New Zealand Christmas Tree Kikuyu Grass Prickly pear

Metrosideros excelsa Pennisetum clandestinum Opuntia sp.

Lantana Brazillian Pepper Sesbania

Lantana camara Schinus terebinthifolius Sesbania punicea

Port Jackson Spanish Broom Black Wattle

Acacia saligna Spartium junceum Acacia mearnsii

Gum Trees Australian Blackwood Hakea species (all spp.)

Eucalyptus species Acacia melanoxylon

Pine Trees Oak Trees Poplars, White, Grey & Match

Pinus radiata, Pinus pinaster Quercus robur Populus alba, canescens,
deltoides

Table 3: Alien-invasive plants in South Africa

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Gum trees grow faster in southern Africa than in their native Australia. Part of the problem of alien plant encroachment is
that their natural parasites or predators are not present in South Africa. At least 314 plant species have already invaded
South African nature reserves. Introducing their predators such as weevils, which consume the seeds of Hakea and
Kariba weed, can effectively control certain plant species. Biological control is however only part of the answer. Five
species of birds and the red-eared terrapin, amongst others, are animals that have become established in southern
Africa. They are all aggressive species that threaten indigenous animals occupying the same ecological niche.

3.6. The Traditional Healer and the Ecology:

Some of the traditional healers use raw materials derived from threatened plant and animal species. These include
pangolin scales, tissue from vultures, bateleurs and pythons, lion fat, rhinoceros horn and crocodile skins. Large trees are
often killed by being ring barked.

Solutions offered included that coveted animals found dead should be channeled towards the traditional healers and that
plants should be specially grown for their use. The Natal Parks Board is already growing plants for this purpose and
tissue culture propagation is being developed at Kirstenbosch. Education also plays a major part in addressing this
problem. Simple prohibition or efforts to eradicate the trade by the substitution of Western medicine are not considered
appropriate by experts.

3.7. Arthropod Pests and Pesticide Use

Arthropods are extremely resistant to climactic changes, pesticides, adverse weather conditions and even irradiation.
Termites and cockroaches have been occupying this earth virtually unchanged for many millions of years more than man
and may be one of the few survivors of a nuclear holocaust that may eradicate man as a species. Not a single arthropod
species is known which has been deliberately eradicated completely by the intervention of man.

As spraying against Anopheles mosquitoes progressed in the Transvaal and Natal lowveld from the nineteen forties
onwards, Anopheles gambiae, was replaced by Anopheles arabiensis, which could survive better because it was not as
strictly anthropophilic and endophilic.

Nagana (caused by Trypanosoma brucei) was also eradicated from the Natal lowveld by eliminating tsetse flies. Plague,
carried by rodent fleas, is now endemic only in Ovambo, with small sporadic foci, but no human cases, in the Eastern
Cape and on the central plateau. Typhus, spread by body lice, has practically disappeared from southern Africa.

But the human diseases spread by ticks, which are not true parasites of man continue unabated and have even increased
their range. This includes tick bite fever and Congo Crimean Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF). Fleas have been very quick to
develop resistance against pesticides and resistance is often multiple.
Apart from mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and lice, man is also pestered by cockroaches and flies, which invade his home, spoil
his food and may act as mechanical vectors.

In Africa 4 species of locusts (brown, desert, red, migratory) cause extensive crop and pasture destruction. Although 3
species may occur in southern Africa the brown locust Locustana pardalina is the most important. It lives permanently in
the central Karoo. Locusts exist in two distinct phases, solitary and gregarious phase. In the gregarious phase they spill
out into the invasion area, which extends to the Zambezi, with the exception of Natal, Eastern Cape coastal belts, western
seaboard and South Western Cape. Reporting of swarms was made obligatory. Control for the period 1985-1987 cost
R48 million.

Locust frass (faeces) is high in nitrogen and makes an excellent natural fertilizer. Locusts are a centuries old source of
food for humans, make good commercial animal feeds and serve as a source of food for countless arthropods, birds,
reptiles and mammals. That is why the use of insecticides has led to problems such as:

• DDT accumulates in ecosystems and last a long time.

• BHC has a very long half-life and accumulates in animals at the top of the food chain, especially in fatty tissue. It
interferes with the calcium metabolism causing birds eggs to break easily and chicks to have deformed skeletons.

• Pyrethroids (e.g. Agrithrin) have little effect on birds and mammals but also have a long half-life, causing them to
kill beneficial or harmless insects for a long time after applications.

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 • Organophosphates (Fenitothrion) have a short half-life and are quickly degraded by the atmosphere. They are,
however, very expensive and extremely toxic to humans, birds and other mammals.

There are about 1 million reported poisonings from pesticides with about 5 000 - 2 000 deaths worldwide.

3.7.1. Arthropods Pests

The housing inspector should be able to identify correctly arthropods that are common household pests. It is also
important for the inspector to recognize these pests so that he can give the owner or occupant accurate instructions on
appropriate control measures. Such household pests include:

Fleas, unlike most blood-sucking insects, fleas feed at frequent intervals. They do not remain on one host, but feed
temporarily, and transfer to several other hosts, which may be of entirely different species. The dog flea will feed on man
as well as on dogs and cats. For this reason, and the fact that fleas insert their mouthparts to suck blood, they are
particularly prone to transmit pathogenic organisms. The frequent biting is due to the fact that fleas are very easily
disturbed while feeding and seldom complete a meal at one time. Some species of fleas are involved in the transmission
of plague, endemic typhus, salmonella typhimurium, and undulant fever. In addition, fleas are intermediate hosts of
helminths such as dog tapeworm and dwarf tapeworm.

House flies and many of its relatives are common agents in the mechanical transmission of certain infections which are
often grouped under the term, "fly-borne diseases." The mouthparts, the numerous body spines, and the sticky pads on
the feet have been found to carry a large number of different pathogens causing human disease. Some of these
pathogens may pass unaltered through the digestive tract and may remain viable in the faeces Among the pathogens
carried mechanically by the house fly are those causing typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary and amoebic dysentery,
tuberculosis, tetanus, and anthrax.

From the disease viewpoint, it should be emphasized that from feeding on excrement, sputum, open sores, or putrefying
matter, the flies may quickly pass to food and milk, to mucous membranes or to uncontaminated wounds. It is these
habits that make these fly and related forms such efficient mechanical vectors of disease.

When feeding, the fly frequently moistens substances with a "vomit drop" which is regurgitated from the crop. This vomit
drop may be teeming with typhoid and cholera bacilli, or with organisms causing amoebic or bacillary dysentery, which
are thus transferred to food and milk.

Bedbugs-A heavily infested house has a distinctive odor. Some people are very sensitive to bedbug bites, while others
are hardly aware of them. This insect has not been incriminated in the transmission of any communicable disease.
Bedbugs may cause nervous disorders in sensitive people, and may contribute to the ill health of both children and
adults. Although bedbugs will feed readily on poultry, mice, rats, and other animals, the preferred host is man.

Cockroach - Cockroaches have become well adjusted to living with man. They harbor in the cracks and crevices
provided by human building methods. They subsist on the bits of food man scatters where he lives or travels.
Cockroaches have been reported nibbling on the eyelashes, fingernails, and toenails of sleeping children. They impart an
unsavory odor and taste into food they infest. They carry the organisms causing enteric diseases (diarrhea, dysentery,
typhoid, food poisoning) from sewers and garbage cans to the food of man and have been found naturally infected with
many other pathogens.

Ticks-All ticks are parasitic during some period of their lives. They are annoying pests, and in addition, they are
transmitters of the causative agents of many diseases. Their bites are irritating, and often when they are removed forcibly,
the mouthparts remain in the skin, resulting in infection causing ulceration or septicemia. Ticks are responsible for
transmitting Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. There has been a recent tick-borne arenavirus attack in South Africa which
took place in 2008 and had claimed the lives of 3 people from Zambia and South Africa.

Mites - As a group these arachnids are free living, but many are parasitic. The parasitic forms produce a mild to severe
dermatitis, often followed by allergic reactions. Some mites are the etiological agents of mange and scabies of man and
animals.

Lice - Lice do not leave the host or host's clothing voluntarily but only when they are accidentally dislodged. They are
mainly disseminated by physical contact with infested persons or their clothing. The bite of the head and body louse

37
provokes rosy swellings and, coupled with the ensuing scratching, produces the characteristic scarring and bronzing of
the skin referred to as "vagabond's disease." The body louse can transmit murine typhus from man to man.

Mosquito - Mosquitoes are known transmitters of encephalitis, malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and other diseases.
Of all the insects that jeopardize the health of man, mosquitoes rank first. Not only do they transmit disease, but they also
occur in such numbers that they cause great annoyance. Pest mosquitoes affect the comfort and efficiency of man
through severe annoyance, itching bites, loss of sleep, and nervousness.

Termites - Termites are a key factor in the deterioration of housing. Housing quality, one of the basic factors in public
health, is often used as a general index of community health. For these reasons, public health workers should have a
general knowledge of these pests.

3.7.2. Symptoms of Insecticide Poisoning

Over-stimulation of the nervous system is the most common symptom of insecticide poisoning. Early symptoms include
excessive salivation, uneasiness and a change in personality. As the condition progresses, muscle tremors, change in
pupil size (contracted pupils), vomiting and diarrhoea occurs. Eventually, if poisoning is severe, stiffness, paralysis, and
seizures are common. Death occurs from cardiovascular and respiratory failure. Clinical symptoms generally progress
rapidly and persist for days and even weeks.

3.7.3. Steps to Minimize the Hazards of Pesticides to Humans

The use of chemical pesticides can be minimized substantially by developing integrated pest management (IPM)
strategies.

• Pesticides that do not harm beneficial organisms,

• Correct timing of pesticide applications,
• Cultural control of pests,
• Plant breeding for pest resistance,
• Biological controls including the use of pheromones (tsetse flies) and other hormones,
• Insecticidal, antiviral and antifungal genes in rhizobacteria.
• The sterile male technique, and
• The introductions of beneficial organisms or pesticide-resistant predator organisms are all examples of IPM
strategies.

The following factors have led to an increased incidence of pesticide poisoning in Third World countries:

• Deliberate exportation of chemicals banned or severely restricted in the countries of origin for reasons set out
above.

• Labelling that is misleading or incomplete or not written in the vernacular or not intelligible because of illiteracy.

• Poor storage practices with leakage and cross-contamination of foodstuffs.

• Lack of training in safe application practices.

• Lack of protective clothing.

• Lack of properly designed and serviced equipment specific for the crops to be sprayed and pesticides to be
applied.

• Use of pesticide containers for food and water storage or preparation. In 1978 in Sri Lanka alone there were
15,504 cases of pesticide poisoning with 1029 deaths.

• Lack of legislation in Third World countries regarding surveillance and notification of cases, importation, transport,
storage and application of pesticides.

38
 • The use of pesticides for purposes other than what they were designed for e.g. poisoning animals with parathion
or spraying crops with chlorinated hydrocarbons.

• Inability to apply technology necessary for monitoring pesticide residues in food, animals (including fish) and the
environment.

• Spraying in adverse weather conditions e.g. strong head winds.

• Unreasonable consumer demands for the perfect fruit or vegetable resulting in repeated and unnecessary
applications.

The following general storage practices can be followed to reduce the incidence of pesticide poisoning:

• Keep them in the original containers

• Store them out of reach of children

• Keep chemicals separate from foodstuffs

• Keep both tops tightly closed and containers safely locked

• Don't reuse chemicals containers for other purposes

3.8. Rodents

Any of various mammals of the order Rodentia, such as a mouse, rat, squirrel, or beaver, characterized by large incisors
adapted for gnawing or nibbling.

Rodents have the following health adverse and other negative effects on man:

• They destroy food crops and other food during cultivation, transport or storage, amounting to millions of rand.

• They damage piping, electric wiring, scaffolding, packaging and almost any other substance.

• They pollute the man-inhabited environment through urine, faeces and nesting material.

• They kill or injure domestic animals such as chickens, other birds, even cats and dogs. Even babies have been
attacked.

• They can cause fires by gnawing through electric wiring or containers filled with flammable substances.

• They act as reservoirs of many diseases such as plague, tick bite fever, rat tapeworm, leptospirosis, murine
typhus and endemic relapsing fever

3.8.1 Economic Uses of Rodents.

These include: -

• Rodents are an excellent source of cheap protein. Many local people consider the larger cane rat and the giant
rat delicacies.
• In India they are revered and cared for in special temples. They also serve as totems for some African tribes.
• They make engaging pets and serve a socialization purpose in this manner.
• They are used as diagnostic laboratory animals for certain diseases e.g. haemorrhagic fever in laboratories.
• They serve as a primary food source for many non - domestic animals of ecological importance.

3.8.2. Control of Rodents.

Rodents can be controlled by some of the following methods: -

39
(1) Biological control by means of members of the Mustelidae, Viverridae and small cats, including domestic cats. A pair
of breeding barn owls can kill more than 20 rodents each night for the duration of the breeding cycle.

(2) Spring traps. These are baited with nuts, grain or peanut butter and come in 2 sizes, one for mice and one for rats.
They are cheap and efficient on a small scale. They are also ecology friendly. A strong spring releases the metal
crossbar, which falls across the neck of the rodent, breaking the vertebrae or suffocating the animal.

(3) Trapdoor cage trap. These traps are made of melded wire mesh and animals enter the cage in order to reach the bait
through an opening , which leads to a one-way trapdoor. The animals is caught alive and unharmed. The trap is more
humane than spring traps. The cage can hold many animals.

(4) Box traps. These are small boxes made of sheet metal with a trap door that is set off when the animal enters to seek
the bait. Normally only one animal can be caught. The animal remains unharmed.

(5) Poison bait. In the past the anti-coagulant warfarin was used in bait but animals had to consume it for a number of
days before it could be effective. The animal then died after 10 to 14 days of internal hemorrhage to the effect of the
poison on the clotting ability of the blood. Lately domestic rats and mice have become resistant to warfarin and have
also learnt to avoid poison bait. Subsequently very toxic new anti-coagulants, were developed. A single ingestion is
necessary and death takes place after a week or so from intestinal bleeding. The poison is available as cubes, liquid
or pellets. The poison is dangerous and should be stored or put out in places inaccessible to pets, other animals or
children.

(6) Fumigation. This is used for ships, silos and other closed spaces. The chemical usually used is cyanogen, which is
highly lethal for all vertebrates, including man. Extensive precautions, including the wearing of gas masks, are
mandatory. Experts can only carry out the operations.

(7) Ratproofing. Buildings can be ratproofed against black rats (roof rats) but this is an expensive exercise as they are
adept climbers of ceiling and walls. Strong material such as metal sheeting or welded wire mesh is necessary as rats
easily go through lead and plastic piping of all thickness, wood and even through bird mesh. Ships are ratproofed by
covering anchorage ropes with metal cups and by removing all other connections to the land. Sewer (brown) rats are
adept swimmers and have colonized all the major port cities in South Africa. As commensals of man domestic rats are
very adaptive and enervative; they have learnt to avoid traps, bait and predator animals. They have developed
resistance against warfarin and other poisons and they are even known to have grown long fur in order to survive in
refrigerated rooms where food is stored.

3.8.3. Sanitation in the Control of Arthropods and Rodents

The presence of vectors such as arthropods (flies, mosquitoes, fleas, cockroaches, lice, mites, ticks, and bedbugs) and
rodents (rats and mice) in a house premises result from neglect of basic cleanliness. Rodents and arthropods are vectors
of disease and cause injury to humans. In many cases, rats and mice, or insects and other arthropods may not
necessarily pose an immediate disease threat. They are often present in such numbers or in such places as to limit the
enjoyment and utilization of our environment. In this sense, they are pests disturbing the well-being of man and inspection
and control programs are justified on this basis alone. Food, harbourage, and water, which are life essentials for
arthropods and rodents, occur frequently in and around all types of buildings whenever these vectors prevail. Their
numbers increase rapidly as standards of cleanliness and maintenance decline. Substandard residential housing and
commercial establishments produce and maintain greater and more widespread vector populations than well kept, clean
residential and commercial areas. Lack of knowledge, carelessness, and indifference are usually the basic reasons for
such conditions.

Although pesticides (insecticides and rodenticides) may produce temporary pest reduction, only permanent techniques
such as sanitation and pest proofing bring about long-term control. Sanitation includes storage, collection, and disposal of
refuse, together with premises maintenance and the proper storage of products and materials. It is important that all
building, housing, and other related codes and ordinances include adequate provisions for control of pests and correction
of conditions conducive to their proliferation. When a building, structure, or dwelling becomes infested, inspection and
control measures are required. Inspection reports should list violations found and call for initial extermination and
continued control. The responsible Persons must also correct the causative conditions for the presence of pests.

40
The housing inspector should be able to identify correctly the various arthropods and rodents that infest a house and its
premises. It is important to know the habits and characteristics of common household pests and be able to inform the
public about the importance of their elimination and control.

3.8.3.1 Domestic Rats and Mice

Rodent problems are common to most urban areas and most severe in areas of substandard housing and urban blight.

Rats and mice are responsible for spread of a number of diseases, either directly, as by contamination of human food
with their urine or faeces, or indirectly by way of fleas and mites. The more common rodent-borne diseases are rat-bite
fever, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, trichinosis, murine typhus fever, and plague. Rickettsialpox is transmitted from the
house mouse to man by the bite of the mouse mite. Rat bite, a public health problem, is associated with heavy
urbanization, occurring primarily in lower economic areas exhibiting substandard housing, crowding, and poor sanitation.
Rats consume or contaminate large quantities of food and feed, and destroy other property, as when they cause fires by
gnawing the insulation from electric wires.

The house mouse is the smallest of domestic rodents, weighing one half to three fourths in ounces, with small slender
body, moderately large prominent ears, and semi-naked tail about as long as the body and head combined. Its fur is dusty
grey.

Control of rats and mice requires (a) sanitation to eliminate their food and harbourage, (b) effective rodent proofing, and
(c) efficient supplemental killing programs.

3.9. Vertebrate Pests and Problem Animals

The red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea lathamii), a small bird of the finch family the size of a sparrow is a gregarious bird
that congregates in swarms that can consist literally of millions of individuals. It is the most destructive vertebrate pest of
cultivated grain in the Northern parts of South Africa. Their natural food is wild grass but a swarm of a million birds can
consume 4 to 9 tons of grain per day.
In 1989 the Agricultural Pests Act was amended to make the congregation of the species a notifiable pest. The use of the
ornithocide Queletox by the Department of Agriculture has lead to the killing of several non-target species, some of which
were very rare. This again has been followed by an ongoing conflict between grain farmers and the Department of
Agriculture on one side and environmentalists on the other side. Other forms of control include the use of explosives on
roosting populations.
The birds also form an important link in the food chain and are utilized by bird, mammal and reptile predators as well as
man. Fledging birds have a high nutrient (including protein) value.

In the Cape the leopard, caracal, dassie, baboon and black backed jackal have been classified as problem animals.
Leopards, caracal and jackal are predators of mainly sheep and goats in the grazing areas of the Cape.

The following methods have been employed to control these species:-

• Hunting with dogs and hunters on horseback.

• Trapping alive and relocating.
• Poisoning. Indiscriminate poisoning with strychnine or organophosphates, have resulted in a wide variety of other
predators or carrion being killed.
• Gin traps. These are cruel devices and should never be used.

Dassies (hyraxes) are extremely destructive of the vegetation and ten dassies may eat as much vegetation as one sheep.
They increase prolifically where their natural predators (black eagles and caracal) have been destroyed. They are hunted
with rifles and dogs. Poison or trapping is not possible. They are best controlled biologically.

The indiscriminate use of poisons to kill “problem animals” such as jackal, caracal, cheetah and leopard is causing
serious declines in scavenging animals. Farmers often bait a carcass with a poison such as strychnine, and leave it in the
veld in the hope that a jackal or caracal (the target species) will eat the meat and die. However, scavenging birds such as

41
vultures, bateleurs and tawny eagles, all of which are very good at finding carrion, come down to baited carcasses and
are poisoned. As the farmers never intended this to happen, these animals are called non-target species.

A number of scavenging raptors, e.g. Cape and Egyptian vultures, and bateleur eagles, have been driven to extinction
over large areas as a result of this practice. Other species have declined to critically low numbers, e.g. lappet faced and
white backed vultures, and tawny eagles. Also severely affected have been non-target mammals such as the aardwolf,
aardvark, bat-eared and Cape fox, brown hyena and many smaller animals.

3.9.1 Legal Alternatives for Animal Control

If problem animals become a nuisance there are legal, effective control methods available. Assistance can be provided
from the Poison Working Group or Provincial Nature Conservation authorities. A representative can provide specifics on
the following:

• Information on the species responsible for damage

• Proven methods to reduce or eliminate damage
• Sources for recommended animal control equipment, chemicals or supplies.

4. Measure of Ecosystems Health

It depends to a certain extent on the value system of the human judge in order to determine exactly what is meant by
ecosystem health. To the ecologist it means that all the plant and animal species that are postulated to be extinct are
present, healthy and reproducing. To the rural farmer it means that the system produces food and shelter for him and to
the man in the street it means aesthetically pleasing and without visible pollution.

Much as the epidemiologist measures the health of populations, so the ecologist measures the health of ecosystems.
Some of the measurements include the following: -

1) Primary production. A rain forest produces 1,5 to 3,5 kg per m2 of dry biological matter per year, whereas a
desert could produce only 10 - 25O g per m2 per annum. A marked decrease in a particular ecosystem could
indicate environmental stress.

2) Nutrients. Slash and burn agricultural practices decrease nutrients measurably in forest ecosystems. Over-
grazing with concomitant soil erosion has the same effect. Organic pollution from sewage causes eutrophication,
an overproduction of nutrients. Artificial fertilizer can have the same effect.

3) Species diversity. As the pressure on the environment increases, species tend to disappear. Francolins are less
tolerant than guinea fowl against human encroachment. Species, which are sensitive to environmental changes,
are called indicator species. Wagtails disappeared from urban gardens, but not the centre city areas, as a result
of the use of garden insecticides. The pied barbet migrated into the Fynbos of the Western Cape, where it was
previously unknown, because of the introduction of alien vegetation which provided both food and nesting sites.

4) Instability. Ecosystems are not naturally stable. Typhoons, drought, fire, insect pests and disease cause a
fluctuation in species numbers of a hundred fold or more. Some species are naturally prone to vast fluctuations
in numbers due to e.g. the availability of food (quelea, lemmings, and locusts).

5) Disease prevalence. Parasitic loads or predator numbers may increase if environmental pressure weakens the
defense mechanism of host populations.

6) Proportional biotic structure. If the canopy of the rain forest is destroyed all the larger plants depending on the
micro - climate created by its existence will also perish. If caracals and black eagles are destroyed the dassie
population will explode, inflicting more damage on sheep's grazing and therefore stock numbers, than the
predators could ever accomplish through killing lambs.

7) Toxicants and pollutants. These include pesticides, acid rain, weed killers and toxicants such as lead and
mercury measured in the water, ground, and atmosphere and indicator species.

42
8) Capacity for recovery. Ecosystems have the inherent capacity to recover after natural or man - made insults
but this capacity is adversely affected by increasing stress or damage.

9) The measurement of indicator species or chemicals. These include E. coli for faecal pollution and ozone,
methane, CFC's for global climatic effects.

5. Possible Solutions to Pollution, Ozone Depletion and Global warming

• Increase demands for worldwide family planning.

• Increase transfer of non - polluting techniques to poor nations.

• Carbon Finance - Create tax incentives to encourage efficiency and discourage pollution, including heavy taxation
on fossil fuels.

• Include resource accounting into economic evaluation. Both the costs of pollution and the depletion of natural
resources should be stipulated.

• Increase political pressure to stop deforestation.

• Promote afforestation.

• Reduce the usage of electricity by designing thermally friendly buildings, by having sensors switch off lights in
unoccupied rooms, by using fluorescent rather than incandescent bulbs and by using efficient electrical
appliances.

• Recycling of waste including car batteries, motor oil, paper, cardboard, plastics, glass, ferrous and non - ferrous
metals. Repair rather than replace.

• Reduce the bulk of packaging.

• Filter out, neutralize or precipitate NO2, SO2 and solids from fuel burning power stations.

• Declaration of smoke free zones and fuel-efficient and combustion efficient fuel burning appliance.

• Conservation of petrol by fuel-efficient automobiles, joining car pools and using public transport.

• Diligent conservation of water and recycling of water. Only 3% of the world’s water is fresh. 75% of all fresh
water is permanently locked away in glaciers or the polar ice- caps.

• Cut down on the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, plastics, glass, ferrous and non - ferrous metals.

• Increase conservation, tourism and natural resources

6. Multi-national Agreements of South Africa

The following agreements are some of the multi-national agreements which South Africa have endorsed together with
other international countries with an aim of curbing the devastating impact of environmental health problems. Read more
on these agreements.

• Stockholm Convention
• Rotterdam Convention
• Basel Convention
• Montreal Protocol
• Kyoto Protocol
• Millennium development Goals

43
7. References

1) Starr C., and Taggart R. (1989). Biology: Unity and Diversity of Life. 5th Edition. Wadsworth Pub. Co., NY.
2) Mader S., (1998). Biology. 6th Edition. McGraw-Hill. USA.
3) Arms K., and Camp P. (1986) Biology. 3rd Edition. Saunder Col. Pub. N.Y.
4) Clegg, C. J. & Mackean, D. G. (2000). Advanced Biology: Principles and Applications. John Murray (Publishers)
Ltd, London.
5) http://www.stpeterschools.org/FishNotesPacket.htm
6) http://www.langara.bc.ca/biology/mario/Biol1215notes/biol1215chap50.html
7) http://www.ekcsk12.org/science/regbio/ecologynts.html
8) http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570933/Pollution.html
9) http://www.environment.gov.za/enviro-info/sote/nsoer/data/vegrsa/vegmenu.htm

44
BIOLOGY 1
FIRST SEMESTER

Cytology

Lecturer: Mr C Mavimbela

SEFAKO MAKGATHO
HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

MODULE II
 CHAPTER 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO CELL BIOLOGY

Cells are basic building blocks from which all living things are made. Cells can do many of the things that
are characteristic of being alive. Cells can:

 Grow and divide

 Move
 Respond to complicated instructions
 Measure time (they get old and die)
 Can go wrong and make the living organism sick

Cell biologists study all the above processes to try and understand how living things are made and how
billions of cells can work together to give the huge variety of species and behaviors in the world. Cell
biology has a remarkable string of successes in, among others, the following fields:

Medicine: Diseases such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes and arthritis all involve cells that are “mis-
behaving”.

Agriculture: New strains of crop plants and animals are frequently developed using techniques invented
and applied by cell biologists.

Food Science: Processing farm products into consumer-ready foods requires a detailed knowledge of cell
biology.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this unit you should be able to:

1. CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

i. Understand and define these terms: Macro-elements, micro-elements, organic compounds,

inorganic compounds, transcription, translation.
ii. List essential elements and their biological importance.
iii. Describe the structure, building blocks, examples and biological importance of carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
iv. Compare the structure of DNA and RNA.

1
2. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

i. Understand and define the terms: cell, semi-permeable membrane.

ii. State the cell theory.
iii. Name different types of cells.
iv. List fundamental structures found in a typical prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell and their functions.
v. Compare similarities and differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
vi. Compare similarities and differences between a plant and an animal cell.
vii. Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane.
viii. Discuss the functions of protein component of the cell membrane.
ix. Understand and define the terms: passive transport, active transport, diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, plasmolysis, hemolysis, crenation, bulk transport, endocytosis, exocytosis.
x. Name types of junctions in cells and their functions.

3. MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

i. Understand and define the terms: chromatin, chromatids, centromere, binary fision, haploid,
diploid, homologous chromosomes.
ii. Recognise and explain what happens in each stage of mitosis and meiosis.
iii. Make a point-form summary of each stage of mitosis and meiosis.
iv. Explain the biological importance of mitosis and meiosis.
v. Tabulate differences between meiosis and mitosis.

2
 CHAPTER ONE

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

1. INTRODUCTION

A cell is the basic structural unit that makes up all living organisms. Living organisms rely on complex
processes to perform and regulate the internal functions that are necessary to maintain life. There are
processes to:

♦ Build up the cells that make up your body.

♦ Meet the separate needs of different type of cells.
♦ Allow each cell to carry out its specific functions.
♦ Help maintain cellular structure.
♦ Communicate and co-ordinate each cell’s activity with the activity of other cells and organs in the body.
♦ Dispose of waste products.
♦ Govern the disposal of cells when their job is done.

The term to describe all the above processes is homeostasis. Homeostasis, is therefore the ability of a living
organism to maintain its structure and function intact, separate from its environment. The maintenance of
homeostasis requires a series of chemical reactions. Each step in each reaction requires the presence of
specific substances. Vitamins and minerals elements are among the necessary substances they are not all
produced by living organisms, but can be obtained from other sources.

2. MINERAL ELEMENTS

The regulation of mineral balance in the body is important for survival. Like living organisms themselves,
each cell is a living organism and must maintain its internal environment. It must also interact with its
surroundings in order to perform its own functions. The movement of minerals across cell membranes forms
the basis for the body to perform its functions. Important mineral elements include the following:

2.1 Macro Elements: Mineral elements that are required in large quantities and are used mainly as building
materials of organic compounds.

Calcium: The most abundant mineral element in the animal body. It is a key structural component in bone.
It is also involved in the function of the nervous system.
Phosphorus: Closely associated with Calcium in bone, but also plays an important role in energy
metabolism.
Potassium: Most abundant in milk. It is an electrolyte and is involved in fluid balance.
Sodium: In combination with Potassium, this element is crucial for maintaining fluid balance.
Chlorine: Also associated with Sodium and Potassium, but has a separate role in the production of
hydrochloric acid for digestion.
Sulphur: Mostly occurs in the form of proteins containing sulphur amino acids, which are found in wool
and hair.
Magnessium: Plays an active role in the metabolism of sodium, potassium, and calcium. It has a key role in
reducing stress through its action in suppressing certain hormones.

3
2.2 Micro Elements: Mineral elements that are needed in small quantities but whose contribution is
enormous and essential.

Iron: Needed to make red blood cells essential for oxygen transport in the blood.
Copper: Used by most cells as a component of enzymes involved in energy production, strengthening
connective tissue, and in brain neurotransmitters.
Chromium: Helps insulin to perform, so it is needed by the cells to take up glucose.
Zinc: Important in maintenance of health. Wound healing and the maintenance of membranes are among its
tasks. It also plays a role in antibody production, and other aspects of immune response.
Manganese: Vital for a range of enzyme systems concerned with fertility and general growth.
Cobalt: Part of vitamin B12.
Iodine: Component of hormones important in thyroid metabolism.
Selenium: Plays an important part with Vitamin E in the anti-oxidative system, which protects the animal
from stress and disease.

♦ In deficiency, the element causes specific deficiency symptoms in living organisms. For example, with
zinc deficiency, immune response is impaired, hair loss can result, wound healing is slowed; with
chromium deficiency, blood sugar levels can be elevated, cholesterol levels rise; iron deficiency leads
to anemia.

3. COMPOUNDS

During a chemical reaction, atoms of the same element or atoms of different elements join together to form
units called compounds. Compounds are divided into Inorganic compounds and Organic compounds.

3.1 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

These compounds do not contain carbon. One of the inorganic compounds that play a major role in life
systems is water. Water is a major component of cells, typically forming 70 to 95 % of the mass of the cell.
Because of its chemical properties, water acts as a solvent, a reactant and as a temperature stabiliser. Water
also provides support for soft-bodied creatures such as worms, slugs and jellyfish.

3.2 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

All organic compounds have a carbon skeleton, which is composed of rings or chains of carbon. Attached
to the carbon skeleton are functional groups. These functional groups convey distinct properties such as
solubility and chemical reactivity. Table 1 shows different types of functional groups.

Functional Group Formula Organic compound

Hydroxyl R-OH Sugars
Carboxyl R-COOH Fats and amino acids
Ketone R-CO-R Some sugars
Aldehyde R-CO-H Some sugars

4
Amine R-NH2 Amino acids and proteins
Phosphate R-H2PO4 Phospholipids, nucleotides and nucleic acids
Table 1 Examples of functional groups

Common organic compounds are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

1. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates, as a class, are the most abundant organic compounds in nature. They are composed of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. The general formula used to represent carbohydrates is [CH2O]n where n is a number between 3
and 6. Carbohydrates are produced by green plants and by bacteria using the process known as photosynthesis.

1.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

A. MONOSACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides (simple sugars) consist of only a single sugar unit. Important monosaccharides include
ribose (C5H10O5), glucose (C6H12O6) and fructose. Fructose has a same formula as glucose, they differ in
structure. Glucose (Figure 1.1) has an aldehyde as functional group and fructose has a ketone as its
functional group. Monosaccharides are colorless, crystalline, sweet tasting, solid and soluble in water.

Figure 1.1 The structure of glucose [source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996]
B. DISACCHARIDES

Linking two monosaccharides together by a dehydration synthesis reaction (Figure 1.2) forms
disaccharides.

The reverse of dehydration synthesis reaction is known as hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is the splitting of a
large organic molecule into two or more component parts by the addition of water.

The most important disaccharides are sucrose (ordinary cane sugar), lactose and maltose.

5
Figure 1.2 The dehydration synthesis reaction [source: Enger & Ross, 1997]

C. POLYSACCHARIDES

Linking many monosaccharides together by a series of dehydration synthesis reactions forms

polysaccharides. The most important polysaccharides are: starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin.

STARCH

♦ Composed of hundreds and thousands of glucose molecules.

♦ Made by plants to store energy for future use.
♦ Easily hydrolysed into individual glucose which is then used as a source of energy.
♦ We exploit the energy reserves of plants when we eat roots (carrots, beetroot, etc.) and seeds (pasta,
bread, etc.)

CELLULOSE

♦ Structural compounds found in cell walls of plant cells.

♦ Provides rigidity to leaves, stems, and roots.
♦ Indigestible by humans, only few kinds of unicellular organisms can digest cellulose.
♦ Dietary cellulose, called fiber or roughage, is useful in preventing constipation and other disorders.

GLYCOGEN

♦ Made in animal cells.

♦ Made for the purpose of short-term storage.
♦ Stored in liver and muscles.

CHITIN

♦ A specialized polysaccharide that has an amino group attached to each glucose molecule.
♦ Main component of the exoskeleton of arthropods.
♦ Indigestible by humans.

1.2 BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES

6
Carbohydrates serve both essential structural and energy-storage functions:

1. As structural components in cells,

♦ Chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods.
♦ Cellulose in the cell walls of plants and many protists.
♦ In vertebrate animals, the cell coatings of connective tissue contain carbohydrates.
2. As main source of energy,
♦ Sugar (glucose) as short- term energy source.
♦ Starch (plants) and glycogen (animals) as intermediate-term energy storage.

2. LIPIDS

Lipids are large organic molecules that are not soluble in water; they are readily soluble in chloroform,
benzene and ether. Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and also contain a carboxyl functional group.
The most important lipids are: fats and oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

A. FATS AND OILS

The building blocks of fats are a glycerol molecule and fatty acids. A fatty acid is a long-chain carbon
skeleton that has a single carboxylic acid functional group. If the carbon skeleton has as much hydrogen
bonded to it as possible, we call it saturated (Figure 1.3). Saturated fats are found in animals, they are solid
at room temperature.
If the carbons are double-bonded to each other at one or more points, the fatty acid is said to be unsaturated
(Figure 1.3). Unsaturated fats (oils) are found in plants, they are liquids at room temperature.

If a fat is formed from a glycerol molecule and three attached fatty acids, it is called triglyceride; if two,
diglyceride; and if one, a monoglyceride. Triglycerides account about 95% of the fat stored in human
tissues.

a.

b.

Figure 1.3 Structure of a) saturated fatty acid, b) unsaturated fatty acid [source: Bernstein & Bernstein,
1996]

7
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

♦ Fats are important in storing energy.

♦ Fats in animals provide protection from heat loss.
♦ Fat deposits around some internal organs, e.g. kidneys, serve as cushion that protect these organs from
physical damage.

B. PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Phospholipids are a class of water-insoluble molecules that resemble fats, but contain a phosphate group in
their structure (Figure 1.4).

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

Phospholipids are the major components of cell membranes, without these lipids in our cell membranes, the
cell contents would not be separated from the exterior environment.

Figure 1.4 A phospholipid molecule [source: Enger & Ross, 1997]

C. STEROIDS

Steroids are characterized by their arrangement of interlocking rings of carbon (Figure 1.5), e.g. cholesterol.
Cholesterol is also the fundamental molecule from which all other steroids are derived.

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

Steroids serve as hormones that aid in regulating body processes, e.g. some regulate reproductive processes
such as egg and sperm production.

8
 Cholesterol:
♦ is a component of cell membranes.
♦ is used by the body to make bile acids.
♦ is necessary for the manufacture of Vitamin D.
♦ forms sheath of some neurons.

Excess cholesterol in the blood has been linked to atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries). Atherosclerosis of
the arteries that supply the heart causes coronary heart disease.

Figure 1.5 Steroids [source: Enger & Ross, 1997]

3. PROTEINS

Proteins are large organic compounds made up of amino acids there are about 20 amino acids. An amino
acid is a short skeleton that contains an amino group (NH2) on one end and a carboxylic group (COOH) on
the other end. In addition to amino acids, proteins may have one to many chains on it.

A. FIBROUS/STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

Structural proteins are important in maintaining the shape of cells or organisms. Examples are: collagen,
keratin, fibrinogen, and muscle proteins.

Collagen: Makes up bone, skin, tendons, and cartilage.

Keratin: Makes up the outermost layer of skin and the hair, scales, nails, feathers of animals.

9
Fibrinogen: A blood plasma protein responsible for blood clotting.

Muscle proteins: Proteins chiefly responsible for muscle contraction.

B. GLOBULAR/REGULATOR PROTEINS

These proteins help determine what activities will occur in an organism. Examples are: enzymes, hormones,
antibodies and microtubules.

Enzymes: Combine rapidly with other substances, called substrate, to catalyze the numerous chemical
reactions in the body.

Hormones: Chemical messengers secreted into the blood stream by endocrine glands. They are secreted by
one kind of cell and alter the activities of another kind of cells, e.g. insulin is secreted by the pancreas and
controls the amount of glucose in the blood.

Antibodies: Act primarily as a defense against invasion of the body by foreign substances.

Microtubules: Minute, hollow tubes that serve both to structure cells and to conduct substances from one
part of a cell to another.

3.1 BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS

♦ Serve as raw materials for the building of new cells and tissues.
♦ Help in disease fighting.
♦ Serve as transport agents in the body.
♦ Help to speed and initiate chemical reactions.

4. NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are complex molecules that store and transfer information within a cell. They are made up of
units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose (5-carbon) sugar and a
phosphate.

The two types of bases are:

a. Purines (Double ring structure): These include adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
b. Pyrimidines (Single-ring structure): These include cystosine (C) and Thymine (T).

The two types of sugars that can be a part of a nucleotide are:

a. Ribose
b. Deoxyribose
They differ by the lack of one oxygen in Deoxyribose.

10
The nucleotides can then connect to form two types of long chains, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA).

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)

♦ Consist of two long strands of nucleotides, joined together by hydrogen bonds.

♦ The bases form pairs: A-T/ G-C
♦ Contains the hereditary information of cells.
♦ Stores the information for making proteins.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

♦ Consists of a single strand of nucleotides.

♦ Involved mainly in the synthesis of proteins from amino acids.
♦ Does not bind to the base Thymine (T), but to the base Uracil (U)

Figure 1.6 The structure of a DNA molecule [source: Enger & Ross, 1997]

11
DNA and PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

An organism’s proteins, which determine its characters, are built according to genetic instructions within a
DNA molecule. These proteins are not synthesized by the DNA itself. Proteins are synthesised in a 2-part
process that involves both DNA and RNA.

1. TRANSCRIPTION

♦ A single pair of messenger RNA (mRNA) is made up by pairing RNA bases with the exposed DNA
bases. Transcription takes place within the nucleus of the cell.

2. TRANSLATION

♦ After the mRNA is manufactured, it leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the ribosome.
♦ In the ribosome, the mRNA is translated into a transfer RNA (tRNA) code, which in turn, is transferred
into a protein sequence.
♦ These proteins, which include enzymes, control the activities of the cell.

12
 CHAPTER TWO

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. CELLS

The first person to use the term cell was Robert Hooke (1632-1723). In 1839, botanist Matthias Schleiden
and zoologist Theodor Schwann formulated the cell theory, which states that:

1. All living things are made up of one or more cells.

2. The smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms is the cell.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

MAJOR EVENTS IN CELL BIOLOGY

1655 Robert Hooke observes cells of a cork tree
1674 Leewenhoek discovers protozoa
1683 Leewenhoek discovers bacteria
1839 Schleiden & Schwann propose the cell theory
1857 Kolliker describes mitochondria in muscle
1882 Koch uses aniline dyes to identify bacteria causing TB and cholera
1898 Golgi stains cells with silver nitrate, discovering Golgi apparatus
1931 Ruska builds the first transmission electron microscope (TEM)
1965 1st commercial scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1997 Sheep “cloned”
Table 1 major events in cell biology

1.1 TYPES OF CELLS

All cells can be grouped into two major groups, namely, the PROKARYOTIC and EUKARYOTIC cells.
Prokaryotic cells have simpler structures than eukaryotic cells and were the first type to exist; eukaryotic
cells evolved from these simpler cells.

A. Prokaryotic cells (Prokaryotes) [pro, before; karyotes, nucleus]

A prokaryotic cell is relatively small (about 0.001 mm) and simple in structure. Each cell forms an entire
organism, e.g. bacteria (Figure 2.1). The major components of a prokaryotic cell are:

♦ Cell membrane and often cell wall.

♦ Cytoplasm
♦ Free floating or naked DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
♦ Ribosomes
♦ May possess structures for mobility, such as flagella or cilia.
 Prokaryotes do not contain membrane bound structures within the cell.

13
Figure 2.1 A diagram of a typical bacterium (prokaryote) [Source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996]

B. Eukaryotic cells (Eukaryotes) [eu, true; karyotes, nucleus]

Eukaryotic cells are larger (about 0.01 mm to 0.1 mm) and have many more internal structures (organelles)
than prokaryotic cells. All kingdoms Prostita, Plantae, Animalia and Fungi have eukaryotic cells. The
protists are unicellular organisms whereas plants, animals, and fungi are multicellular organisms.

2. CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTES

A. CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE)

A cell membrane (Figure 2.2) is a sheet of macromolecules that encloses all cells and most organelles. Cell
membranes are built of two kinds of macromolecules:

I. Phospholipids: which provide the framework

II. Proteins: which provide the membrane with specific functions

I Phospholipid Bilayer

The phospholipid molecules of the membrane have a “head” on one end −the glycerol portion −that is
soluble in water and is therefore called hydrophilic (water-loving). The other end have two “tails”−the fatty
acid portion −which is not soluble in water and is therefore called hydrophobic (water-hating).

When many phospholipids are near one another in water, they line up one after another to form two layers of
molecules. All the hydrophillic heads face outwards, in contact with water, and all the hyrdrophobic tails
face inwards and form a water free zone. This double-layered structure is called a lipid bilayer and is the
foundation of the membranes of all living things.

14
II Proteins

Proteins can be found on either surface of the membrane or in the membrane, among the phospholipid
molecules. Unlike the phospholipids, they are not arranged in a regular pattern: the numbers, types, and
positions vary from membrane to membrane and within the same membrane.

Membrane proteins perform various functions:

1. They transport certain materials into and out of a cell. Three kinds of proteins are important in membrane
transport:
a. Channel proteins, which form passageways through a membrane.
b. Transport proteins, which convey materials from one side of a membrane to the other.
c. Receptor proteins, which latch onto certain materials and help carry them into and out of a cell.
2. They identify materials, e.g. bacteria, outside the cell.
3. They transmit information about events outside and inside the cell to appropriate centres of activity
inside the cell.
4. They recognise other cells.
5. They hold enzymes of biochemical pathways.

The unique structure of the cell membrane is described as a fluid mosaic. It is a fluid because the
phospholipids form a fluid rather than a solid; it is a mosaic because of the arrangement of proteins within
the sheets of phospholipids.

Figure 2.2 A section of the cell membrane [Source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996] Proteins

15
Other molecules found in cell membranes are cholesterol and carbohydrates.

Cholesterol is found in the hydrophobic region, because cholesterol is not water soluble. It plays a role in
stabilizing the membrane and keeping it flexible.

Carbohydrates are usually found on the outside of the membrane, where they are bound to proteins and
lipids. They play a role in cell-to-cell interactions.

MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY

The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. Selectively permeable means that a membrane will
allow certain molecules to pass across it and will prevent others from doing so.

TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES

To stay alive, the cell must take nutrients in and eliminate wastes and other by-products of metabolism.
Several transport mechanisms allow cells to carry out the processes of life. These include:

1. Passive Transport: Substances move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration without the use of cellular energy. The examples of passive transport mechanisms are:

a. Simple diffusion: Movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration until the equilibrium is reached, e.g. O2, CO2.
b. Facilitated diffusion: Movement of molecules across a membrane with the aid of a special carrier
protein e.g. glucose.
c. Osmosis: Movement of water molecules form a region of high water concentration to a region of low
water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
i. If cells contain the same concentration of water and dissolved materials as that of the
surroundings, the cells are said to be isotonic to their surroundings (iso, same; tonicity,
concentration of dissolved materials). There is no net flow of water into or out of the cell.
Most animal cells are in isotonic environments.
ii. If cells are in hypotonic surroundings (hypo, lower; tonicity, concentration of dissolved
materials), the cells contain less concentration of water than that of the surroundings. Water
moves from the surroundings to the cells. The cells swell: In plants the cells do not burst due
to the presence of the cell wall the plant becomes turgid. In animals the cells may burst, a
process called hemolysis.
iii. If cells are in hypertonic surroundings (hyper, higher; tonicity, concentration of dissolved
materials), the cells contain a higher concentration of water than that of the surroundings.
Water moves from the cell to the surroundings. In plants the cells shrink, the cell membrane
pulls away from inside of the wall and forms a mass of protoplasm, a process known as
plasmolysis. In animals the cells shrink into a compact mass, a process known as crenation.

2. Active Transport: Materials move from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration, e.g. amino acids. Active transport requires a transport protein and an expenditure of energy by
the cell, since materials are moved in the direction that is opposite to the direction they would diffuse
spontaneously.

16
3. Bulk transport: Large molecules (macromolecules) and fluids cross cell membranes by bulk transport.
Bulk transport requires energy and sometimes receptor proteins. There are two forms of bulk transport:

a. Endocytosis (endo, into; cyt, cell; osis, process): Movement of materials into the cell. There are two
forms of endocytosis:
i. Pinocytosis (pino, drinking): Movement of a fluid into the cell.
ii. Phagocytosis (phago, eating): Movement of a solid into the cell.
b. Exocytosis (exo, out of; cyt, cell; osis, process): Movement of materials out of the cell. Unicellular
organisms use exocytosis to export waste products, such as undigested portions of food. Animals use it
to secrete special materials.

B. ORGANELLES

Organelles perform specific functions necessary for cell structure, maintenance and metabolism. They can be
divided into organelles without a surrounding membrane and those with a membrane.

I NON MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1.CYTOPLASM and CYTOSKELETON

The cytoplasm is the fluid containing cell organelles. It also contains a cytoskeleton, which is a network of
filaments and fibers. The cytoskeleton is made up of three different types of fibers:

a. Microfilaments: These are the thinnest members of the cytoskeleton, they bind to the cell membrane to
anchor or move it.
b. Microtubules: These are the thickest, they provide strength, stability and movement.
c. Intermediate filaments: These are in-between in size, they provide strength, anchor the organelles and
transport materials in the cytoplasm.

The cytoskeleton therefore helps to:

♦ maintain the shape of the cell

♦ move substances within the cell
♦ anchor various structures in place

2. RIBOSOMES: found in cytoplasm, involved in protein synthesis

3. MICROVILLI: small folds of the cell membrane, they increase the surface area of the membrane.
4. CENTRIOLES: direct movement of chromosomes in cell division
5. CILLIA and FLAGELLA: hairlike structures protruding from the cell membrane, their function is to
propel the cell through its environment.
♦ Cilia: short and numerous
♦ Flagella: long and few

17
II MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

In addition to the cell membrane, many other organelles are composed of membranes. Each of these
membranous organelles has a unique shape or structure that is associated with particular functions.

A. THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

ER is a set a mesh of interconnected membranes and tubes through out the cell for the synthesis, storage
and transport of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticula in cells:

1. Rough ER: so-named because of its rough appearance due to numerous ribosomes attached to its
surface. Ribosomes are non-membranous organelles that are associated with protein synthesis.
2. Smooth ER: no ribosomes on the surface, and therefore not involved in protein synthesis. Smooth ER is
the site of steroid production (many hormones are steroids). It also contains enzymes that help in the
dexotification (destruction) of toxic substances such as drugs and drugs. Liver cells contain extensive
smooth ER.

B. THE GOLGI APPARATUS

The Golgi apparatus is composed of smooth, flattened, disk-shaped, membranous sacs/ vesicles arranged in a
stack. The Golgi apparatus receives molecules, e.g. proteins that have been synthesised in the rough ER and
stores them. It also attaches extra components to the molecule, e.g. adding carbohydrate to a protein. When
the molecule is in demand, it is secreted in the form of a vescicle, which contains the finished product.

The Golgi apparutus therefore collects, modifies, packages, and distributes molecules (proteins and
glycoproteins) that are made at one location within the cell and used at another.

C. THE LYSOSOMES

These are relatively large vesicles, formed by the Golgi and full of digestive enzymes. Lysosomes and their
digestive enzymes are extremely important to the health of the cell. They are used in:

♦ Defense against diseases: Lysosomes pick up foreign invaders such as bacteria, food and organelles and
break them into small pieces that can hopefully be used again. If they pick up a really harmful invader,
they will eat it up and expel what is left of it out of the cell so that the debris can be removed from the
body.
♦ Destroying old organelles within the cell and thus allow them to be replaced with fresher, more effective
ones.

D. PEROXISOMES

Peroxisomes are about the same size as lysosomes. Some of the functions of peroxisomes in the human liver
include:

♦ Breakdown of excess fatty acids.

♦ Participates in the synthesis of cholesterol.

18
♦ Breakdown of excess purines to uric acid.

Peroxisomes are also present in plant cells where they participate in functions such as

♦ Symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

♦ Photorespiration.

E. THE VACUOLES

The most visible component of a plant cell is often a large fluid-filled sac called a vacuole. This is separated
from the rest of the cell by a single membrane the tonoplast. Vacuoles are used to:
♦ transport and store nutrients, waste product and other molecules
♦ store substances which the plant needs, but which may be toxic to the rest of the cell, e.g. poisonous
plants produce toxic alkaloids used as a defense against herbivores; they cannot have these alkaloids free
in the cytoplasm, so they store them in the vacuole.

F. THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus is the control centre of the cell. It is made up of the outer, double membrane the nuclear
envelope, the chromosomes and one or more nucleoli.

♦ Nuclear envelope: Protects the DNA molecules by isolating them from chemical activities taking place
in the rest of the cell. At various points on its surface the double membrane fuses to form nuclear pores
which allow RNA and other chemicals to pass, but the DNA not to pass.

♦ Chromosomes: Long threads of DNA molecules associated with other molecules, e.g. proteins, lipids, to
form chromosomes. Each cell has more than one chromosome (a human cell has 46 chromosomes).
Chromosomes are sites of hereditary information.

♦ Nucleoli: A spherical structure within the nucleus. Its function is to synthesise ribosomes. A typical
nucleus has two nucleoli.

G. MITOCHONDRIA

Mitochondria are oval shaped structures that are bounded by a double membrane. The inner membrane folds
into a series of cristae which are the surfaces on which ATP is generated. The outer membrane is smooth
and defines the shape of the mitochondrion. The fluid within the mitochondrion is known as the matrix.

Mitochondria are called the “powerhouse” of the cell because they burn up food molecules, in the presence
of oxygen, to release energy in a process known as aerobic respiration.

H. PLASTIDS

Plastids occur in plant cells. Plastids that specialize in photosynthesis contain chlorophyll and are called
chloroplasts. Other plastids store macromolecules, mainly starch; these are abundant in roots and
underground stems.

19
Figure 2.3 A generalized eukaryotic cell [source: Enger & Ross, 1997]

20
COMPARISON OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Structures Bacterium Animal Plant
Exterior structures
Cell wall Present Absent Present
Plasma membrane Present Present Present
Interior structures/organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present Present
Microtubules Absent Present Present
Golgi bodies Absent Present Present
Nucleus Absent Present Present
Mitochondria Absent Present Present
Chloroplast Absent Absent Present
Ribosomes Present Present Present
Lysosomes Absent Present Presnent
Centrioles Absent Present Absent
Vacoules Absent Absent or small Present (large)
Chromosomes Single circle of Multiple units, DNA Multiple units, DNA
naked DNA associated with associated with
protein protein
Table 2 A comparison of bacterial (prokaryote), plant and animal cells (eukaryotes)

JUNCTIONS BETWEEN CELLS

In many animal tissues, each cell is separated from the next by an extracellular coating or matrix. However,
in some tissues the plasma membranes of adjacent cells are pressed together. Four kinds of junctions occur
in vertebrates:

a. Tight junctions: Prevent passage of molecules and ions through space between cells.
b. Adherens junctions: Provide strong mechanical attachments between cells.
c. Gap junctions: Permit free passage of ions and small molecules between cells.
d. Desmosomes: Associated with intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm.

In many plant tissues the plasma membrane of each cell is continuous with that of the adjacent cells. The
membranes contact each other through openings in the cell wall called plasmodesmata.

21
 CHAPTER THREE

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

I. MITOSIS AND THE CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is a controlled sequence of events in which the parental cell grows larger and then divides to
form two daughter cells; each chromosome receiving a copy of every chromosome together with half of the
cytoplasm. The cell cycle has three main stages (Figure 3.1):

a. Interphase
b. Mitosis
c. Cytokinesis

A. INTERPHASE

At this stage the new cell’s DNA has chromosomes that are too long and too thin to be visible; these long
strands are called chromatin. Interphase can be subdivided into three stages:

i. G1 stage: A newly formed cell synthesises materials needed for cell growth

ii. S stage: DNA (genetic material) is replicated

iii. G2 stage: Specialised enzymes repair any errors in the newly synthesised DNA

B. MITOSIS (cell-copying process)

Mitosis is the division of a cell into two daughter cells which contain the same number of chromosomes
(diploid) as the original cell. Mitosis is vital for:

♦ Growth
♦ Repair & replacement of damaged or worn out cells
♦ Asexual reproduction (a single individual produces offspring without mating)

Mitosis occur in four steps:

i. Prophase:
♦ The chromatin shortens into two short, thick, rod-like structures called chromatids,
attached by the centromere.
♦ Two structures called centrioles separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell.

22
 ♦ Spindle apparatus forms.
♦ Nuclear envelope disappears

ii. Metaphase:
♦ Spindle fibers attach to chromatids near centromeres
♦ Chromatids line up in the equatorial line between the two poles.

iii. Anaphase:

♦ Centromeres split, separating the identical chromatids into single chromosomes.

♦ Chromosomes are pulled by the spindle into opposite cells.

iv. Telophase:

♦ A new nuclear membrane forms around each new group of chromosomes.

♦ Spindle apparatus disappears.

C. CYTOKINESIS

i. The cytoplasm splits to form two cells, each containing a nucleus.

 An uncontrolled increase in the rate of mitosis in white blood cells causes a kind of cancer known as
leukemia.

PROKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION

Prokaryotes divide by binary fision rather than mitosis. DNA molecule first replicates and then attaches
each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart, the replicate and the
original chromosome are separated. Following cell splitting, two cells of identical genetic composition are
formed.

23
Figure 3.1 Interphase and mitosis [source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996]

II MEIOSIS AND THE LIFE CYCLE

Meiosis and the life cycle are features of sexual reproduction, in which offspring inherit genes from two
parents rather than one. Most multicellular organisms reproduce by means of gametes, which are cells
specialised for fusing with each other. There are two kinds of gamete:

a. Sperm, which are small and motile.

b. Eggs, which are large and non-motile.

A gamete is always a haploid (n) it has one set of chromosomes. Fusion of gametes (sperm and egg)
result in a fertilized egg which is diploid (2n) with two sets of chromosomes (one from sperm, one from
egg). This fertilised egg is called a zygote.

24
MEIOSIS (sex-cell formation)

Meiosis is a form of cell division that converts a diploid cell into four haploid cells. Meiosis consists of two
consecutive divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II (Figure 3.2). Each division has the same four phases as
mitosis.

A. MEIOSIS I

Meiosis is preceded by an interphase stage during which DNA replication occurs. During Meiosis I,
members of homologous pairs of chromosomes divide into two complete sets. [A pair of chromosomes of
similar size and shape that have genes for the same traits are said to be homologous]

i. Prophase I

♦ Chromosomes shorten
♦ Spindle is formed
♦ Homologous chromosomes pair up
♦ Crossing-over takes place [the exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes is known as crossing-over]

ii. Metaphase I

♦ Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up midway between the two poles

iii. Anaphase I

♦ The chromosomes of each homologous pair move to opposite poles

♦ The chromosome number is reduced from diploid to haploid

iv. Telophase I

♦ Two nuclei form, each with one chomosome of every homologous pair and the cell
divides.

 Meiosis I converts one diploid cell into two genetically different haploid cells.

B. MEIOSIS II

The two haploid cells formed during meiosis I enter directly into prophase of meiosis II

i. Prophase II

♦ New spindle forms

25
 ii. Metaphase II

♦ Single chromosomes, each consisting of two chromatids, line up midway between the two
poles

iii. Anaphase II

♦ Centromere divide
♦ Sister chromatids move to opposite poles

iv. Telophase

♦ Two nuclei form

♦ Cell divides

 Meiosis II converts two genetically different haploid cells into four genetically different haploid cell.

COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

1. Occurs in all cells of the body 1. Occurs only in the reproductive organs
2. Used in asexual reproduction, growth 2. Used only in sexual reproduction
and cell replacements (results in sex cells)
3. Occurs throughout life 3. Occurs only during reproductive stages
4. One division completes the process 4. Two divisions are required to complete
the process
5. Two daughter cells are formed 5. Four daughter cells are formed
6. Daughter cells have the same number 6. Daughter cells have half the number of
of chromosomes as the parent cell chromosomes as the parent cell
7. Daughter cells have the same genetic 7. Daughter cells are genetically different
information as the parent cell from the parent cells

Table 3 A comparison of mitosis and meiosis

26
Figure 3.2a Interphase and Meiosis I [source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996]

Figure 3.2b. Meiosis II [source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996]

27
LIFE CYCLE

A life cycle is a sequence of fertilization and cell divisions (by meiosis and mitosis) that happens during a
lifetime. Most animals and plants cells are diploid during their adult phase of the life cycle. The cells
alternate between haploidy and diploidy. Most animals and plants have diploid body cells and form short-
lived haploid gametes (Figure 3.3). Some plants alternate between individuals with diploid body cells and
individuals with haploid body cells  alternation of generations .

Figure 3.3 The most common life cycle of an animal [source: Bernstein & Bernstein, 1996]

28
REFERENCES:

Alters, S. 1996. Biology: Understanding Life. Mosby-Yearbook, Inc., Missouri.

Bernstein, R. & Bernstein, S. 1992. Biology. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, USA.

Enger, E. D. & Ross, F. C. 1997. Concepts in Biology, 8th Ed., WCB/McGraw-Hill, USA.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Online Encyclopedia, 2003.

Moshe, M.R. 2002. Cells, Tissues and Systems, MEDUNSA.

www.anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mende_1.htm

www.emporia.edu/biosci.genetics/note2.htm

www.jdaross.cwc.net.lysosome

www.kcl.ac.uk.kis/schools/life_sciences/biomed/bscb/biology/index.html

www.ndbserver.rutgers.edu

www.thebody.com/jossey/romeyn.html

29
 BIOLOGY 1
FIRST SEMESTER

Genetics

Compiled by: Ms NC Netnou Nkoana

SEFAKO MAKGATHO Lecturer: Mr C Mavimbela

HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
 MODULE II
CHAPTER ONE

GENETICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (SEE STUDY GUIDE)

1. INTRODUCTION

Genetics is the study of genes, how genes produce characteristics, and how these characteristics are inherited.

A gene is a portion of DNA that determines a characteristic. Genes are found inside the cells of every organism
including plants and humans. Through meiosis and reproduction, these genes can be transmitted from one
generation to another, i.e. offspring receive a mixture of genetic information from both parents.

2. PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS

♦ The site where genes work is the cell.

♦ Each cell’s function within an organism is determined by the genetic information encoded in DNA.
♦ Organisms could not grow or function properly if the genetic information encoded in the DNA was not
passed from cell to cell.

2.1 GENETICS TERMS AND CONCEPTS

♦ Every chromosome in a cell contains many genes, and each gene is located at a particular site, called the
locus (plural = loci), on the chromosome.
♦ Chromosomes vary in size and shape and usually occur in matched pairs called homologues.
♦ Homologous chromosomes are therefore a pair of chromosomes that carry genes for the same traits.
♦ The number of homologous chromosomes in a cell depends upon the organism, e.g. cells in the human body
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, while most cells of the fruit fly contain 4 pairs.
♦ Organisms use mitosis (asexual reproduction) and meiosis (sexual reproduction) to ensure that DNA is
passed down from cell to cell during reproduction.

2.2 PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

♦ The value of studying genetics is in understanding how we can predict the likelihood of inheriting particular
traits/characteristics.
♦ In organisms that reproduce asexually, e.g. bacteria, all offspring share the exact same genes and are
identical to their parents.
♦ In organisms that reproduce sexually, e.g. plants and mammals, the genetic transmission is complex.
 An individual inherits its chromosomes from two distinct parents.
♦ There are two genes for each characteristic, one maternal in origin and the other paternal. These pairs of
genes are called alleles.
♦ If an individual has identical alleles for a characteristic, e.g. for brown eyes, then the individual is said to be
homozygous for that characteristic.
♦ If an individual has non-identical alleles for a characteristic, e.g. one allele for brown eyes and the other for
blue, then the individual is said to be heterozygous for that characteristic.

1
♦ When an individual has two different alleles (heterozygous) corresponding to the same genetic
characteristic, one of the two alleles may be dominant; the other allele is said to be recessive.

For convenience, alleles are designated by a single letter the dominant allele is represented by a capital letter
and the recessive gene by a small letter. In the “eyes example”, an individual inherits one allele for eye color
from each parent. The dominant allele that produces brown eyes is designated by B, while the recessive gene
that produces blue eyes is dominated as b.

Geneticists use the terms Phenotype and Genotype.

Phenotype: Observable attributes of the organism, i.e. its appearance.

Genotype: Genetic makeup of an organism that contribute to a particular trait (characteristic).

In the above example, brown eyes indicate the phenotype and the presence of two dominant genes (BB) indicate
a genotype.

3. MENDELIAN PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

The first person to study inheritance and formulate laws about how characteristics are passed from one
generation to the next was the Australian monk, Gregor Mendel (1822-1884). While Mendel’s research was
with plants, the basic underlying principles of heredity that he discovered also apply to people and other
animals because the mechanisms of heredity are essentially the same for all complex life forms.

3.1 MONOHYBRID CROSSES

♦ A monohybrid cross is a genetic cross between two individuals involving a single pair of contrasting
characteristics.
♦ Generations are represented by P1 (parental generation), F1 (offspring, first filial generation) and F2 (second
filial generation)
♦ Alleles of genes are represented by the same letter of the alphabet: a capital letter for dominant genes, and a
small letter for a recessive gene.
♦ Because there are two alleles, two letters are written. For the color of eyes we would write the genotypes as
follows:

 Homozygous brown (purebred) : BB

 Homozygous blue (purebred): bb
 Heterozygous brown (hybrid): Bb

♦ One way of calculating the mathematical probability of inheriting a specific trait is to use a Punnet square.

Example 1: In humans, the allele for brown eyes is dominant and that of blue eyes is recessive. Determine
theoretically the possible eye color of children in the first generation where the father has brown eyes with a
genotype that is homozygous and the mother has homozygous blue eyes.

Step1: Assign a symbol for each allele:

B = Brown eyes
b = blue eyes

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 Genotype Phenotype
BB Homozygous brown eyes
Bb Heterozygous brown eyes
bb Homozygous blue eyes

Step 2: Determine the genotype of each parent and indicate a mating:

P1 Father Mother

BB × bb

Step 3. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes each parent can produce (parental generation):
NB. The gametes are haploid. Therefore, half of their gametes will contain brown eye allele, and the other half
the blue eye allele.

♦ One way of calculating the mathematical probability of inheriting a specific trait is to use a Punnet square.

Possible female gametes

b b
Possible male B
gametes B

Step 4: Determine all the gene combinations that can result when gametes unite.

F1 generation
b b
B Bb Bb
B Bb Bb

All children in F1 generation will have heterozygous brown eyes.

The above example demonstrates Mendel’s principle of Dominance, which states that
Crosses between homozygous individuals differing in a pair of contrasting characteristics will produce a
heterozygous generation showing only one characteristic (dominant) in the phenotype, and not the other
(recessive).
F2 generation

Bb × Bb

B b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb

In F2 generation, the genotypic ratio will be 1BB: 2Bb: 1bb; the phenotypic ratio will be 3 Brown eyes:
1 Blue eyes. The probability of having children with blue eyes is 25%
[ 75% of having children with brown eyes].

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Monohybrid crosses also illustrate Mendel’s principle of segregation, which states that:

For any particular trait, the pair of alleles of each parent separate and only one allele passes
from each parent to an offspring.
This segregation of alleles occurs during the process of meiosis when the homologous separate,
alleles segregate into separate gametes so that each gamete contains only one gene for each
characteristic.

3.2 DIHYBRID CROSSES

Dihybrid crosses involve the inheritance of two pairs of characteristics.

Example 2: Mendel crossed a pea plant that was homozygous for round, yellow seeds (RRYY) with a pea plant
that was homozygous for wrinkled, green seeds (rryy).

RRYY × rryy

P1 RY × ry

F1 RrYy (yellow-round)

F2 Female gametes

RY Ry rY ry
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
Male Round yellow Round yellow Round yellow Round yellow
gametes Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
Round yellow Round green Round yellow Round green
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
Round yellow Round yellow Wrinkled yellow Wrinkled yellow
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
Round yellow Round green Wrinkled yellow Wrinkled green

F2 phenotype ratios:
9 round, yellow: 3 round, green: 3 wrinkled, yellow: 1 wrinkled green.

This example illustrates Mendel’s principle of Independent Assortment, which states that:

Different pairs of alleles are passed to offspring independently of each other.

During gamete formation, the members of one pair of genes segregate independently from the members of
other pairs.

To test his principles, Mendel also performed what is called test crosses. A test cross is a mating between an
individual of unknown genotype with an individual known to carry only the recessive alleles of the genes in
question.

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4. EXCEPTIONS TO MENDEL’S RULES

Sometimes genes do not easily conform to so-called Mendelian patterns of inheritance.

4.1. DOMINANCE HAS DEGREES

a. Incomplete dominance:

In cases of incomplete dominance, neither allele is fully dominant. The inheritance of a dominant and a
recessive allele results in a blending of traits to produce intermediate characteristics. For example, plants with
red flowers have two copies of dominant allele (RR). Plants with white flowers have two copies of the recessive
allele (rr). Pink flower result in plants with one copy of each allele (Rr) with each allele contributing to a
blending of colors.

b. Codominance:

In case of co-dominance, both alleles are fully expressed. For example, individuals who have an AB blood type
have characteristics of both type A and type B blood, their phenotype is not intermediate between the two. A
and B are therefore codominant.

4.2. GENE THAT CONTROLS MANY TRAITS

Pleiotropy: the term used to describe a gene that affects more than one characteristic of the individual. A single
gene may be responsible for a variety of characteristics, e.g. the gene for albinism not only results in a
deficiency of skin, hair and eye pigmentation but also causes defects in vision.

4.3. MULTIPLE-ALLELES

Some traits have genes with more than two alleles. These are called multiple alleles, but any one individual can
still have only two alleles (one on each of the homologous chromosomes). In humans for example the gene for
blood type has three alleles and there are four possible phenotypes: A, B, AB and O.

4.4. GENES THAT ADD UP

Polygenic/Quantitative inheritance: When several genes influence a trait, it is difficult to determine the effect
of any one of these genes, e.g. human skin color may be any of a wide variety of shades. Characteristics such as
human skin color differ from the ones Mendel studied because they are determined by more than one pair of
genes, at least four pairs of genes control human skin color.

5. MUTATIONS

Mutation is a change in the genetic material in a cell. It develops when a mistake is made during DNA
replication or when something in the environment, such as radiation, tobacco smoke, or pesticides,
alters the structure of a DNA molecule.

5.1. Chromosomal mutations

Chromosomal mutations involve segments of chromosomes, whole chromosomes, and even entire sets of
chromosomes.

5
There are four types of chromosomal mutations:

 Deletions: when a part of a chromosome with a particular gene is lost.

 Duplications: when a portion of a chromosome is repeated.
 Inversions: when a part of a chromosome breaks off with some genes, reverses and attaches
again to the chromosome
 Translocations occur when a portion of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another, non-
homologous chromosome.

5.2. Gene mutations

Gene mutations involve individual genes.

 Point mutation where a single nucleotide replaces another nucleotide. Although a point mutation
produces a small change to the DNA sequence, it may cause a change in the amino acid sequence, and
thus the function of a protein.
 Frameshift mutation: involves the addition or deletion of one or more bases from a DNA molecule.
This may result in an incorrect amino acid sequence during translation which could result in the
production of a protein with no real function or one with harmful effects.

Mutations which affect the ability of cells to regulate their own growth and reproduction may cause cancer. In
this case tumours may form and the normal functioning of tissues may be so severely impaired that death
occurs. A mutagen is a substance or agent which increases the frequency of mutations in organisms. A
mutagen which causes cancer is known as a carcinogen.

6. HUMAN GENETICS

6.1. HUMAN GENOME

Somatic cells in humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. In each pair, one chromosome is inherited
from the mother and one from the father. 22 pairs of chromosomes, known as autosomes, are nearly
identical in shape. The 23rd pair of chromosomes, known as sex chromosomes, is of unequal length
in males. The larger chromosome is the X chromosome and the smaller is the Y chromosome. Sex
chromosomes determine the sex of an individual. Females inherit two X chromosomes (one from the
mother and one from the father) and males inherit an X chromosome from the mother and the Y
chromosome from the father).

6.2. SEX-LINKED TRAITS

Traits controlled by alleles on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex-linked. X chromosomes carry many
genes compared to the Y chromosome. A male always receives a sex-linked condition from his mother, from
whom he inherited the X chromosome. An allele that is only on the X chromosome is X-linked, and the allele
that is only on the Y chromosome is Y-linked. In a female, with XX genotype, normal dominant/recessive rules
apply to the phenotype for these X-linked traits. But in the male, with only one X chromosome, the allele on
that X chromosome will always be expressed in the phenotype as there is no corresponding allele on the Y
chromosome to affect it. Three well known sex-linked recessive disorders are color blindness, muscular
dystrophy and hemophilia.

6
6.3. HUMAN GENETIC DISORDERS

Most of the known inherited genetic disorders are caused by the mutation of a single gene, resulting
in alleles that produce disease. Many single–gene disorders follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance.

ABNORMALITIES CAUSED BY NONDISJUNCTION

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis II. This leads to gametes
having too few or too many chromosomes. The most common abnormality caused by nondisjunction among
humans is Down syndrome. A person with Down Syndrome has three copies of chromosome 21 rather than two
copies in every body cell.

6.4 BLOOD TYPES

Three alleles for the same gene control the inheritance of ABO blood types , usually given the symbols IA,
IB and Ii (multiple allele series). Both A and B are dominant over O, therefore there are two possible
genotypes for type A blood and two possible genotypes for type B blood. If a person inherits A and B,
the blood type will be AB (why?). Type O can only result from the inheritance of two O alleles (See
table below).

Phenotype Genotypes
A AA or AO
B BB or BO
AB AB
O OO

7. THE IMPORTANCE OF GENETICS

The modern science of genetics influences many aspects of daily life, from the food we eat to how we identify
criminals or treat diseases.

In Agriculture:

♦ Genetic advances enable scientists to alter plant or animal to make it more useful. For example, some food
crops, such as potatoes, wheat and rice, have been genetically altered to withstand insect pests, resulting in
higher crop yield.
♦ Cows have been modified to increase their milk productions, and cattle raised for beef have been altered so
that they can grow faster.

In Forensics:

Genetic technologies have helped convict criminals:

♦ DNA recovered from semen, blood, skin cells, or hair found at crime scene can be analyzed in a laboratory
and compared with the DNA of a suspect.
♦ An individual’s DNA is as unique as a set of fingerprints, and a DNA match can be used in a courtroom as
evidence connecting a person to a crime.

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In Medicine:

♦ Scientists can genetically alter bacteria so that they mass-produce specific proteins such as insulin used by
people with diabetes.
♦ Gene therapy (scientists try to cure disease by replacing malfunctioning genes with healthy ones). Gene
therapy has shown promise in treating some devastating conditions including some forms of cancer and
cystic fibrosis.
♦ Genetically engineered vaccines are being tested for possible use against HIV.
♦ Human Genome Project: An international collaboration of scientists, governments, and drug companies
from around the world. Scientists working on this project have developed detailed maps that identify the
chromosomal locations of the estimated 31 000 human genes. The databases emerging from the project help
scientists to study previously unknown genes as well as many genes all at once to examine how gene
activity can cause disease. The project may also lead to the development of new drugs targeted to specific
genetic disorders.

8. REFERENCES:

Alters, S. 1996. Biology: Understanding Life. Mosby-Yearbook, Inc., Missouri.

Bernstein, R. & Bernstein, S. 1992. Biology. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, USA.

Enger, E. D. & Ross, F. C. 1997. Concepts in Biology, 8th Ed., WCB/McGraw-Hill, USA.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Online Encyclopedia, 2003.

Moshe, M.R. 2002. Cells, Tissues and Systems, MEDUNSA.

www.anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mende_1.htm

www.emporia.edu/biosci.genetics/note2.htm

www.jdaross.cwc.net.lysosome

www.kcl.ac.uk.kis/schools/life_sciences/biomed/bscb/biology/index.html

www.ndbserver.rutgers.edu

www.thebody.com/jossey/romeyn.html

8
Embryology
BIOLOGY I

Prof FC Clarke & J Welman

Sefako Makgatho Health
Sciences University
Faculty of Health Science
Department of Biology
2015

For internal use only

BIOLOGY I
 EMBRYOLOGY

Definitions:

Biparentism. This is a form of sexual reproduction found in the chordates. The species
reproduce through the unition of a sperm (male gamete) and an ovum (female gamete) to form
a zygote.

Morphogenesis, Embryogenesis or Ontogeny. The term represents the stage in the life of an
animal from the moment that the ovum is fertilized by the sperm to form a unicellular organism
called a zygote until the organism hatches from the egg, or it is born. The zygote is a very large
cell and contains a genetic complement derived from each parent. The unicellular zygote is
transformed into a multicellular embryo. The term embryogenesis is derived from Greek words
'embryon' and 'genesis' which means origin, i.e. the origin of the embryo. The embryogenesis
stage in the life of an animal includes the following stages; the zygote, morula, blastula, gastrula,
organogenesis stage and the foetal stage.

Gametogenesis. The process of formation and development of specialized generative cells or

gametes.

Spermatogenesis. It is the entire sequence of events by which the primordial male germ cells or
spermatogonia are transformed into spermatozoa.

Oogenesis is the entire sequence of events by which the primordial female germ cells or
oogonia are transformed into ova.

Ovulation is the process whereby a secondary oocyte is released from one of the ovaries into
the body cavity of the female individual.

Fertilization. It is the first stage during the ontogeny of the animal from the instant that the
sperm makes contact with the ovum until the chromosomes of the male pronucleus and the
female pronucleus become visible on the spindle of the zygote, just prior to the first cleavage
division.

Cleavage. This is the second stage of the developmental process. During this process the
single- celled zygote is transformed into a multi-cellular body, through a succession of rapid
mitotic cell divisions.

Gastrulation. This is the third stage of the developmental process. The embryo formed by the
cleavage divisions consist of a multicellular structure. During the process of gastrulation these
cells differentiate into three layers known as the three germ layers.

Neurulation. Neurulation forms part of the stage following gastrulation, i.e. the formation of the
primary organ rudiments, whereby the differentiation of the neural tissue becomes apparent.
Neurulation coincides with the last part of gastrulation.

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CHAPTER 1: THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND THE FORMATION OF THE SEX CELLS

Although the basic morphology and physiology of the reproductive system in all chordates
correspond, smaller differences however do occur between classes, orders, families and even
the different species. Emphasis will therefore be placed on the reproductive systems as found in
the human Homo sapiens.

1.1 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS (Fig 1 & 2)

The female reproductive system consists of a single vulva (external opening), the vagina, the
cervix, and uterus. These structures are thick-walled, especially the uterus, where a inner layer,
the endometrium can be distinguished from the outer muscular layer, the myometrium.

From the uterus two oviducts (Fallopian tubes, uterine tubes) stretch laterally toward the
actual paired female reproductive organs, the ovaries. Each ovary is almost completely
surrounded by the funnel-like end of the Fallopian tube. The ovary consists of a germinal
epithelium surrounding the connective tissue or stroma. The uterus, oviducts and the ovaries
are connected though a ligament, the omentum latum.

Fig 1. The external morphology of the mammalian female reproductive system

e.g. Homo sapiens.
a) Uterus; b) oviduct; c) ovary; d) vulva; e) Fallopian funnel;
f) fimbriae; g) omentum latum.

The vagina serves a two-fold purpose as it acts as the copulatory organ as well as the birth
canal. During pregnancy the cervix is tightly closed by means of a gelatinous plug. The embryo
imbeds into the thick wall of the uterus, where the placenta, an organ consisting of tissues
derived from the uterus, as well as from the embryo, supplies the embryo with the nutrition, and
the oxygen the embryo needs to develop. It also removes the waste products formed by the
embryo.

2
The plug in the canal of the cervix comes loose during parturition as the cervix dilates to allow
the baby to pass through.

The entire system lies in the pelvic portion of the abdominal cavity in contrast with the male
reproductive system.

Fig 2. Diagram of a longitudinal section through the female reproductive system of

Homo sapiens.
a) Uterus; b) oviduct; c) ovary; d) cervix; e) Fallopian funnel; f) fimbriae;
g) omentum latum; h) endometrium; i ) infundibulum; j) myometrium;
k) uterine cavity; l) ampulla

1.2 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS (Fig. 3, 4 & 5)

The male reproductive system consists of the paired male reproductive organ, the testis. In
contrast with the female organs the testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity. The testes
are suspended in a pouch-like sac, the scrotum. As the male sex cells, the spermatozoa die off
at normal body temperature, the positioning of the testes outside the body cavity enables the
male organism to maintain the testes at the optimum temperature for the survival of the
spermatozoa. The elephant and the springhare are exceptions as the testis are positioned inside
the body in these animals.

The testis is encapsulated by a tough capsule known as the tunica albuginea. The organ is
divided into many compartments by the septula testis, and each compartment is packed with a
mass of small tubules, the seminiferous tubules. The space between the tubuli is filled with
interstitial cells which produces the hormone testosterone. Through tiny capillaries, this
hormone is carried into the bloodstream and influences the development of male characteristics.
The male sex cells are formed in the walls of these tubules. The mature sperm come free and
move along the many efferent ductuli (vasa efferentia). The many efferent ductuli fuse and
leave the testis forming the looped tube of the epididymis.

The epididymis is divided in three sections the caput, corpus and cauda epididymis. The
cauda epididymis extends into a single deferent duct (vas deferens). The two deferent ducts,
one from each side, eventually join and fuse with the urethra, running from the bladder. These

3
ducts are associated with several glands, the prostate gland, seminal vesicles (paired) and
Cowper's gland (bulbo - urethral gland). The urethra runs within the penis, the male
copulatory organ.

The secretions of the associated glands are added to the sperm during ejaculation. These
secretions are necessary to maintain the correct pH and provide nutrients for the sperm.
Together (sperm and secretions), the liquid is called semen.

Fig 3. The morphology of the reproductive system of the mammalian male

eg. Homo sapiens
a) Ureter; b) bladder; c) prostrate gland; d) Cowper's gland;
e) testis; f) urethra; g) deferent duct; h) epididymis; i) scrotum;
j) penis; k) seminal vesicle.

Fig 4. Diagrammatic illustration the internal morphology of the mammalian testis

a) Epididymis; b) body of epididymis; c) tail of epididymis; d) tunic albuginea;
e) septula testis; f) deferent duct; g) efferent tubule; h) scrotum; i) seminiferous
tubuli.

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Fig 5. Diagram of a section through the tissue of the mammalian testis.
a) Efferent tubule; b) connective tissue; c) blood vessel; d) seminiferous tubuli.

1.3 GAMETOGENESIS (fig 6 & 7)

Gametogenesis is the process of formation and development of specialized generative cells or

gametes (germ cells). This process prepares the gametes for fertilization.

Fig 6. Oogenesis.
a) Oogonium; b) primary oocyte; c) secondary oocyte; d) polar bodies; e) ovum.

During gametogenesis the chromosome number is halved and the shape of the cells altered.
The product of gametogenesis is the sex cells (spermatozoa and ova). The process of the
formation of the sperms is known as spermatogenesis and that of the ova as oogenesis.

5
Fig 7. Spermatogenesis.
a) Spermatogonium; b) primary spermatocyte; c) secondary spermatocyte;
d) spermatid; e) sperm.
During gametogenesis the chromosome number of the sex cells is halved through a process of
meiosis. Two successive meiotic divisions take place. During the first meiotic division the
chromosomes arrange as homologous pairs. The homologous chromosomes separate and one
representative of each pair moves to an opposite pole (segregation). The daughter cells thus
formed carry a haploid number of chromosomes. The second meiotic division takes place
without the replication of the DNA. Each chromosome divides into two parallel strands, the
chromatids, which are drawn to the opposite poles. The daughter cells formed in this way
therefore carries only one representative of each homologous chromosome pair and is referred
to as a haploid sex cell or a gamete. (N number of chromosomes)

In the male organism, one primordial generative cell, known as the spermatogonium, gives rise
through the process of spermatogenesis to four sperm cells or spermatozoa.

In the oogenesis though, the result is only one female sex cell or ovum. The other three cells are
small and serve no further purpose. They are known as polar bodies.

1.3.1 SPERMATOGENESIS (Fig 6, 8 & 9)

Spermatogenesis is the entire sequence of events by which the primordial male germ cells or
spermatogonia are transformed into spermatozoa. This maturation process begins at the onset
of puberty and continues into old age. It is an ongoing process of transformation and all the
stages of maturation are represented in the seminiferous tubuli at a given time.

Until puberty the spermatogonia are dormant in the seminiferous tubuli of the testes and are
situated against the besement membrane of the tubuli. With the onset of puberty the
spermatogonia increase in numbers through mitotic divisions. Growth takes place in some of the

6
spermatogonia and the cells are now referred to as primary spermatocytes. At this stage the
primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division, the chromosome number is reduced
and two haploid secondary spermatocytes about half the size of primary spermatocyte are
formed. The second meiotic division now takes place forming four haploid spermatids, again
about half the size of the secondary spermatocytes. As spermatogenesis progresses the male
sex cells move away from the basement membrane towards the lumen of the tubule. They are
however imbedded amongst large cells called Sertoli cells.The spermatids are therefore found
lying next to the lumen. A transformation process follows and the four spermatids are
transformed into four spermatozoa through a process of differentiation. The pronucleus looses
a lot of water from the nuclear sap, all the RNA as well as the cytoplasm are also eliminated and
the pronucleus become elongated. The full process of spermatogenesis takes about two
months to complete. The sperm is a free-swimming actively motile cell.

The early spermatid is a normal spherical shaped cell. Gradually it will elongate. Most of the
cytoplasm will be come redundant and will be pinched off and the detached part of the cytoplasm
will disintegrate. A thin layer cytoplasm with the plasmalemma remains covering the
spermatozoon.

The Golgi body of the early spermatid is made up of membranes arranged concentrically around
a small vacuole. During spermatogenesis, the vacuole starts to enlarge and a dense body, the
proacrosomal body becomes visible inside this enlarging vacuole. The nucleus of the
spermatid elongates and the vacuole and its granule becomes closely applied to the tip of the
elongating nucleus, while the granule increases in size.

The liquid content of the vacuole moves away from the granule, now called the acrosomal
granule. Resultingly the membrane around the original vacuole becomes spread out as a
double layered sheath, called the cap, over the granule and the anterior half of the nucleus. The
remainder of the Golgi body is discarded together with the excess of the cytoplasm of the
spermatid as the Golgi rest. The acrosome remains applied to the nucleus, as all the excess
cytoplasm is discarded to form the head of the spermatozoan.

Fig 8. Diagram of cross section through a seminiferous tubule illustrating the maturation
process of the male sex cells.
a) Lumen; b) spermatogonium; c) primary spermatocyte; d) secondary
spermatocyte; e) spermatid; f) sperm; g) basement membrane; h) Sertoli cell.

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The centrosome of the spermatid after the second meiotic division consists of two centrioles.
The centrioles move to a position just behind the nucleus to become the proximal and distal
centrioles. The proximal centriole is located in a depression in the posterior surface of the
nucleus. The distal centriole gives rise to the axial filament of the flagellum serving as a
starting point or basal granule for the flagellum. The axial filament is made up of the same
structures that make up the flagella of other animal and plant cells throughout the animal and
plant kingdom. It consists of one pair of central fibres and nine pairs of fibres arranged around
it.These pairs of fibres are all anchored in the distal centriole. This area is known as the middle
piece.

The mitochondria from other parts of the spermatid cell become concentrated around the
flagellum close to the distal centriole, fuse to form a spiral around the axial filament. This spiral of
mitochondrial material ends in a dark structure known as the ring centriole. The function of the
ring centriole is not known.

The axial filament, consisting of the ten pairs of longitudinal fibres, lengthens until it extends
beyond the middle piece as the flagellum of the spermatozoan. The axial filament is covered by
a thin sheath of cytoplasm and the plasmalemma. In addition the flagellum is covered by a
sheath in mammals. The sheath starts just behind the ring centriole and is formed by nine much
thicker fibres that are twisted around the longitudinal fibres. The tip of the flagellum (end piece)
is naked. The flagellum forms the tail of the spermatozoon.

Fig 9. Transformation of the young spermatid into a free sperm.

a) Golgi body; b) acrosomal granules; c) acrosome; d) Golgi rest;
e) pronucleus; f) head; g) middle piece; h) tail.

8
Fig 10. The ultrastructure of the human sperm.
a) Acrosome; b) pronucleus; c) head; d) middle piece; e) distal centriole;
f) tail; g) proximal centriole; h) mitochondrial spiral; i) axial filament;
j) ring centriole; k) thick fibre.
1.3.2 THE ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THE SPERM (fig. 8)

9
1.3.3 OOGENESIS (Fig 7 & 11)

Oogenesis is the entire sequence of events by which the female germ cells are transformed into
ova. The process of oogenesis begins before birth but it is arrested and recommences during
puberty. From then on a mature female gamete is released from the ovaries (ovulation)
approximately every 28 days, until menopause takes place at the age of about 45 to 50 years.
Ovulation and the process of oogenesis then ceases.

1.3.3.1 Prenatal maturation

In the female foetus the epithelial cells of the ovarium (germinal epithelium) proliferate
through mitotic divisions. A number of cells from the germinal epithelium, the oogonia separate
from the epithelium and move into the stroma, where they enlarge to form the primary oocytes.

Cells from the stroma surround each of these primary oocytes to form a single layer of flattened
follicular cells. The follicular cells become cuboidal and the primary oocyte together with its
follicular cells constitute a primordial follicle (uni-laminar follicle).

Fig 11. Diagrammatic sketch of a section through the mammalian ovary to illustrate
oogenesis.
a) Blood vessels; b) oogonium; c) primary follicle; d) germinal epithelium;
e) growing follicle; f) mature follicle; g) secondary oocyte; h) stroma;
i) discharged secondary oocyte; j) corpus luteum; k) corpus albicans; l) antrum;
m) primary oocyte.

The primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division before the birth of the infant. The process is
however now arrested and is only completed after puberty, as the primary oocytes remain in
suspended prophase of the first reduction division (Meiosis I) until after puberty. This is brought
about by a secretion of the follicle cells called oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI). No additional
primary oocytes are formed after birth.

1.3.3.2 Postnatal maturation

Ripening of the egg is stimulated by the follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the
pituitary gland. This gland is situated in the head and is attached to the ventral surface of the
brain by means of a stalk.

At puberty the primary oocytes enlarge one after the other. From then on the maturation process
is an ongoing process and female sex cells can be found in different stages of maturation in the
ovaries of the reproductive female individual.

10
Proliferation takes place in the single layered follicle cells around the primary oocyte of the
primordial follicle.

Tthe follicle cells of the primordial follicle become columnar and the follicle is now known as the
primary follicle. The follicle cells secrete the female hormone estrogen which influences:
1. The development of female characteristics
2. The build up of the uterine lining

Lamination takes place and the single layered follicle becomes multi-layered to form the
growing or secondary follicle.

This is followed by the appearance of an eccentric cavity, the follicular antrum within the multi-
layered follicular cells surrounding the primary oocyte. The antrum is filled with fluid presumably
secreted by the follicle cells. The mature follicle is referred to as a Graafian, a tertiary or a
vesicular follicle.

As this process of growth and change continues, the follicles gradually move into the interior of
the stroma and the stroma forms a connective tissue capsule, the theca folliculi around the
follicle. This direction of movement is however eventually reversed so that the mature Graafian
follicles are found to lie superficially just under the epithelial layer.

As the follicle matures the primary oocyte enlarges, and a membrane the zona pellucida
becomes visible around it. The zona pellucida is secreted by the follicular cells.

With the onset of puberty the first meiotic division continues and is completed just before
ovulation.

The division of the cytoplasm is however unequal. One of the daughter cells receive almost all
the cytoplasm and becomes the secondary oocyte. The other daughter cell (the first polar
body) receives hardly any cytoplasm. It is small, non-functional and soon degenerates, although
it sometimes completes the 2nd reduction division before degenerating.

One of the ovaries releases a secondary oocyte every approximately 28 days. The Graafian
follicle opens and a secondary oocyte is released into the body cavity of the female individual.
This is known as ovulation. Ovulation is believed to be the result of the combined action of two
hormones secreted by the pituitary gland, the follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH) and the
luteinizing hormone (LH).

As ovulation takes place and the secondary oocyte is released into the body cavity of the female
(ovulation), the nucleus of the secondary oocyte begins the second reduction division (Meiosis
II), but it progresses only to metaphase. Only if fertilization occurs (i.e. the secondary oocyte is
penetrated by a sperm) is the second meiotic division completed and can the female
reproductive cell be referred to as an ovum. Once again most of the cytoplasm is retained by
one of the daughter cells, and a second polar body is formed, which also degenerates.

The maturation process (oogenesis) is now complete, and the ovum (larger than the ordinary
somatic cells of the body) is surrounded by the zona pellucida and a layer of follicular cells now
called the corona radiata.

The ovum therefore already carries the sperm within its cytoplasm before the second meiotic
division is completed.

The remaining follicle cells of the ruptured Graafian follicle (after ovulation) secrete large
quantities of the hormone estrogen into the blood stream. This increases the blood supply to
the uterine wall.

After ovulation, the remaining follicle continues to grow. It becomes a temporary endocrine
gland, the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum remains for the duration of the pregnancy, should
pregnancy occur and secretes hormones necessary for maintaining the pregnancy. The corpus
luteum secretes the hormone progesterone and its presence is responsible for the inhibition of
ovulation during pregnancy and for some time thereafter.

11
Should pregnancy not occur the corpus luteum degenerates after about 10 - 12 days. In both
cases though, a scar is left on the surface of the ovarium called the corpus albicans.

It is generally believed that about 2 million primary oocytes are present in the ovaries of a
newborn female infant. Many regress and only about 30 and 40 thousand remain at puberty. Of
these only about 400 become secondary oocytes and are expelled during the reproductive
period.

Oogenesis continues within the female individual for as long as female germ cells are available
and ovulation takes place. In the absence of follicles ovulation ceases and the female individual
experiences menopause. Her reproductive life has come to an end. This happens usually at the
age of 45 to 50 years.

1.3.4 THE ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THE OVUM (Fig 12)

The ovum is a round cell larger than the somatic cells of the body. As all cells it consists of a
nucleus, surrounded by cytoplasm, organelles and a plasma lemma.

As the pronucleus contains only the haploid number of chromosomes it is referred to as the
female pronucleus. The female pronucleus is large, rich in DNA, and carries the female
complement of the genetic material.

The usual cytoplasmic inclusions (organelles) occur in the ovum eg. mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum as well as superficially situated cortical granules. These
granules play an important role in creating the fertilization membrane just after penetration by a
sperm.

In the vertebrate animals where ovipositioning takes place (Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves)
the ovum cytoplasm includes yolk, (combination of protein, phospholipid and fat) to serve as
food for the developing embryo.

A greater or lesser amount of brown or black pigment granules are often included in the
superficial layers of the cytoplasm.

The size of the ovum is relative to the amount of yolk included in the ovum. The ovum of the
placental mammals does not contain any yolk and is therefore relatively small.

Fig 12. Young secondary oocyte of a mammal surrounded by follicle cells.

a) pronucleus; b) cytoplasm with cytoplasmic inclusions; c) zona pellucida;
d) plasma lemma; e) microvilli; f) follicle cell

12
In addition to the plasma lemma, the cell membrane of the ovum cell, different egg membranes
are often deposited around the ovum and its plasma lemma. The function/s of these
membrane/s are one or more of the following:

(i) The retention of water.

(ii) Protection.

(iii) Camouflage

1.3.5 EGG MEMBRANES

1.3.5.1 Primary membranes -

These originate from the ovum

(i) The plasma lemma. This is the membrane of the ovum cell and is always present.

(ii) The vitelline membrane. This membrane is absent in the mammals. It is thin and
transparent lies in close association with the plasma lemma. Where it is present, the
vitelline membrane is lifted from the plasma membrane, through the fluid secreted by the
disintegration of the cortical granules during fertilization. It then becomes impenetrable
to other sperms as is referred to as the fertilization membrane.

1.3.5.2 Secondary membranes -

These layers are secreted by the follicle cells surrounding the ovum.

(i) The zona pellucida, a clear thick membrane surrounding the mammalian ovum is
secreted by the surrounding follicle cells. The zona pellucida becomes transformed to
become the fertilisation membrane in mammals.

(ii) The corona radiata, found surrounding the zona pellucida in the newly released
mammalian egg, consists however of follicle cells. These cells do not seem to have a
function and disperse before implantation of the embryo.

1.3.5.3 Tertiary membranes -

These layers are secreted by the oviduct or glands associated with the oviducts as the
ovum pass through the oviduct. Examples of tertiary membranes are:

(i) the jelly layer found surrounding the eggs of the amphibians.

(ii) the albumin and leathery or hard egg shells found in the reptile and bird eggs.

NB. Tertiary membranes are absent in the placental mammals.

13
CHAPTER 2: FERTILISATION

This is the first stage of the embryonic development. It is the stage during the ontogeny of the
animal from the minute that the sperm makes contact with the ovum until the chromosomes of
the male pronucleus and the female pronucleus become visible on the spindle of the zygote, just
prior to the first cleavage division.

The following stages can be recognised in the process of fertilization:

2.1 THE APPROACH OF THE SPERM TO THE EGG

After ovulation, the secondary oocyte is carried in a current in the peritoneal fluid produced by
the sweeping movements of the fimbriae of the Fallopian funnel into the funnel or
infundibulum of the uterine tube. From here the action of the cilia of the tubal epithelium and
contractions of the tubal wall carry it forward to the ampulla (broadest part) of the uterine tube.

During sexual intercourse, the semen (200 - 500 million sperms) is introduced into the genital
ducts of the female and deposited on to the cervix (internal fertilization).

The sperm is stored in the mucus and the crevices of the cervix and is released over a period of
three to four days.

Initially, the sperm do not have the ability to fertilize the ripe egg when released in the vagina of
the female animal. The process known as capacitation (a process that takes about 7 hours) has
to take place first. The distal plasma lemma surrounding the acrosome is destroyed through the
action of the liquid contents of the vagina. The contents of the peripheral part of the acrosome
becomes extruded, acrosomal granules are released which is partially dissolved, forming
enzymes, generally called the sperm lysins. The sperm lysins has the ability to dissolve the
membranes surrounding the egg.

In most animals, the central part of the acrosome elongates into a long rigid filament, the
acrosomal filament which protrudes forward. The acrosomal filament is completely absent
in mammals. In man perforations form in the plasma lemma of the sperm head through which
the sperm lysins are released.

While capacitation takes place the semen is carried forward through the cervix, the uterus and
up the uterine tubes by the movement of their tails and by muscular contractions of the walls of
the female organs.

The sperm is now activated and capable of penetrating the membrane/s surrounding the egg.
Fertilization takes place in the broadest and widest part of the uterine tube known as the
ampulla of the uterine tube or oviduct. The sperm collide with the secondary oocyte purely by
chance. This is made possible because:

(i) The spermatozoa are motile although the direction of movement is random.

(ii) A large number of sperm is produced by male.

(iii) The ovum is large (the largest cell in the female body).

14
2.2 AGGLUTINATION (Fig. 13)

In the presence of the egg/s, the sperm become 'sticky'. They adhere to the surface of the egg or
its membrane and to each other. This is brought about through a chemical reaction by the
presence of a substance called fertilizin released by the egg membrane.

The fertilizin is specific to a specific species and can be either a glycoprotein or

mucopolysaccharide.

The surface layer of the cytoplasm of the sperm in turn releases small acid proteins,
antifertilizin that will combine with the fertilizin of its own species.

2.3 PENETRATION (Fig 13, 14 & 15)

The spermatozoa, bonded to the membrane surrounding of the ovum, now has to penetrate
through this membrane and other membranes, where present, to reach the cytoplasm of the
ovum. This is also brought about chemically.

In the case of the mammals, the ovum is surrounded by follicle cells cemented together by a
mucopolysaccharide, hyaluronic acid to form the corona radiata. The perforated acrosome
of the spermatozoon, agglutinated to the ovum by the bonding that takes place between the
fertilizin and the anti-fertilizin, secretes an enzyme hyaluronidase.

The hyaluronidase dissolves the hyaluronic acid and brings the spermatozoon in contact with
the zona pellucida. It then forms a narrow canal through the zona pellucida, through the action
of the enzyme acrosin, which dissolves the substance of the zona pellucida to come into contact
with the surface of the ovum.

The perforated plasma lemma of the sperm head attaches to the surface (plasma lemma) of the
secondary oocyte. The two plasma membranes of the sperm and the oocyte fuse and break
down to bring the cytoplasm of the two gametes into contact with each other.

Fig 13. The initial stages of fertilization - agglutination and penetration through the
corona radiata.
a) Follicle cells; b) zona pellucida; c) agglutinated sperm;
d) nucleus of secondary oocyte; e) penetrating sperm.

15
Fig 14. Diagram illustrating the penetration of the zona pellucida and plasma lemma of
the secondary oocyte by the sperm.
a) Follicle cells; b) zona pellucida; c) agglutinated sperm; d) plasma lemma of
penetrating sperm; e) sperm penetrating the zona pellucida; f) nucleus of
secondary oocyte in metaphase of meiosis II.

The head of the sperm (head) and the flagellum of the tail swim free and enter the cytoplasm of
the oocyte, leaving the plasma lemma and the cytoplasm of the sperm attached to the surface of
the oocyte.

The secondary oocyte now completes the second meiotic division to become the mature ovum
containing the female pronucleus. The tail of the spermatozoon soon degenerates, the head of
the sperm takes up fluid, enlarging to become the male pronucleus, and the two pronuclei
approach each other. While moving towards the female pronucleus, the male pronucleus rotates
180o. The nuclear membranes break down, and the zygote is formed. The diploid chromosomal
number is restored. The first mitotic division commences immediately. This process is known as
cleavage.

Fig 15. Diagram to illustrate the fusion of the male and female pronuclei.
a) Polar body; b) male pronucleus; c) female pronucleus; d) degenerating
flagellum; e) chromosomes arranged on equator during first cleavage
division; f) fertilisation membrane.

16
2.4 THE ZONA REACTION (Fig 16)

The passage of the sperm through the zona pellucida triggers a zona reaction which makes the
zona pellucida in the case of mammals impermeable to other sperm.

The change is triggered by the penetration of the sperm and it starts at the point of penetration
and gradually spreads over the surface of the egg. The cortical granules of the secondary oocyte
take up fluid and explode, releasing lysosomal enzymes and lifting the zona pellucida off the
surface of the cell. The space created between the zona pellucida and the plasma lemma of the
secondary oocyte is known as the perivitteline space. The lysosomal enzymes act on the zona
pellucida - making it impermeable to other sperm and it is now called the fertilisation
membrane. This process takes about 20 minutes.

A second reaction which is temporary in nature however prevents penetration while the
fertilization membrane is formed. This rapid reaction is completed in under 2 seconds and
comprises a change in the electrical potential of the inside surface of the plasma lemma of the
ovum, which changes from (-) to neutral, and from neutral to (+) within 1-2 seconds from
contact. Several minutes later it changes back to (-) once the changes in the zona pellucida is
completed. (i.e. the fertilization membrane has been formed).

The receptivity of the egg to penetration by the sperm is reduced by this reaction to about 1/20 of
what it was before.

Fig 16. Diagram illustrating the formation of the fertilisation membrane.

a) Zona pellucida; b) oocyte plasma lemma; c) cortical granule; d) fertilization
cone; e) nucleus and flagellum of sperm; f) perivitteline space; g) fertilisation
membrane; h) penetrating sperm

2.5 POLYSPERMIA

Three forms of polyspermia can be distinguished.

2.5.1 Monospermia -Only one sperm penetrates the ovum in most groups due to the changes
in the membrane around the ovum and the formation of the fertilization membrane as is the
case with mammals.

2.5.2 Pathological polyspermia or dispermy - Two sperms penetrate the ovum due to a very
high density of sperm. The resulting zygote is triploid and not viable. It dies off.

2.5.3 Physiological polyspermia - Polyspermia is normal with birds. However only one male
pronucleus fuse with the female pronucleus, and the others die off and disappear.

17
CHAPTER 3: MORPHOGENESIS OR ONTOGENY

This is the stage in the life of an animal from the formation of the zygote, until the embryo has
developed and is ready to be born or to hatch. The following stages can be distinguished during
the ontogeny of an embryo: i) cleavage, ii) gastrulation, iii) neurulation or the formation of the
primary organ rudiments, and iv) organogenesis. This is followed by v) differentiation and growth.

3.1 CLEAVAGE

This is the second stage of the developmental process. During this process the single
celled-zygote is transformed into a multi-cellular body, through a succession of rapid mitotic cell
divisions.
The characteristics of the cleavage divisions are:

(i) No growth occurs.

(ii) The general shape (sphere) is retained, although a cavity, the blastocoele is formed in
the interior.

(iii) No qualitative change takes place in the composition of the cell, except for the
transformation of food reserves into active cytoplasm, and cytoplasmic substances
into
nuclear substances.

(iv) The constituent parts of the cytoplasm remain as a whole in the same position as before
cleavage.

(v) The ratio, nucleus to cytoplasm is brought to the same level as in somatic cells.

Different cleavage types can be distinguished. The different types of cleavage are determined
mainly by;

(i) the presence of cytoplasmic substances eg. yolk in to cytoplasm of the egg, and/or

(ii) the phylogenetic position of the group.

3.1.1 TYPES OF CLEAVAGE

3.1.1.1 Equal holoblastic eg. the egg of the lancelet Branchiostoma - little yolk (Fig. 18)

The cleavage divisions are complete i.e. divides the cell into two equal daughter cells, depending
on the amount of yolk included in the cytoplasm.

3.1.1.2 Unequal holoblastic cleavage eg. the amphibian egg - moderate amount of
yolk (Fig 17)

The cleavage divisions are complete i.e. the divisions of the zygote and subsequent cells divides
the cells into two daughter cells. The size of the cells, and the time taken for the completion of a
cell division, however, depends on the amount of yolk included in the cytoplasm.
The divisions are therefore slower in the vegetal hemisphere and the resulting blastomeres are

18
larger than in the animal hemisphere. The blastula consists of a multi-layered blastoderm sur-
rounding an eccentric blastocoel.

Fig 17. Unequal holoblastic cleavage of the amphibian egg.

a) Animal pole; b) vegetal pole; c) micromeres; d) macromeres;
e) morula; f) section through a blastula; g) blastocoele; h) blastoderm.

3.1.1.3 Meroblastic cleavage or incomplete cleavage eg. fish eggs as well as the
avian and reptile egg– large amount of yolk (Fig 20 & 21)

The divisions are incomplete as the formation of the membrane dividing a cell into two daughter
cells is retarded and restricted by the large amount of cytoplasmic inclusions. The first division,
that of the zygote, for example, does not reach the vegetal pole. In some cases where the yolk
load is very heavy, cleavage is restricted to the animal pole (birds and reptiles).

3.1.1.4 Trophoblastic cleavage eg. placental mammals – no yolk (Fig 24)

Cleavage consists of rapid subsequent mitotic divisions forming progressive smaller

blastomeres, and ends with the formation of a blastocyst. The divisions are complete but no
synchronisation is present resulting in a 3, 5, 6, 7, etc. cell stages. No yolk is included in the
cytoplasm.

3.2 GASTRULATION

This is the third stage of the developmental process. The embryo formed by the cleavage
divisions consist of a multicellular structure. During the process of gastrulation these cells differ-
entiate into three layers known as the three germ layers.

The tissues of all the chordate animals originate from one or a combination of these three germ
layers, viz. the ectoderm, the mesoderm and the endoderm.

The ectoderm gives rise to the neural tissue (central nervous system) and the epiderm (skin).
The mesoderm gives rise to mainly to the support system (skeleton and the muscles), the
cardio-vascular system (the heart, blood vessels and blood), and the urogenital system
(kidneys and reproductive organs).

The endoderm develops into the alimentary canal and associated organs for eg. the lungs,

19
liver and pancreas.

The process of gastrulation also varies greatly between the different classes of the chordates,
and also depend on the amount of yolk initially included in the cytoplasm of the egg and the
resulting cleavage type as well as the phylogenetic position of the group.

3.3 NEURULATION OR THE FORMATION OF THE PRIMARY ORGAN RUDIMENTS

This is the fourth stage of the developmental process and includes mainly the formation of the
initial neural, support and digestive systems.

3.4. ORGANOGENESIS

During this, the fifth stage of the developmental process the different systems develop further
and organs develop for eg. the muscles, the digestive tract, heart, lungs, kidneys etc.

3.5. GROWTH

After the development of the different organs the last stage of the developmental process is
mainly that of growth. Organogenesis and differentiation however do continue throughout this
period.

CHAPTER 4: THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRANCHIOSTOMA

Branchiostoma is a primitive chordate (Cephalochordata). It is a small fishlike creature that

burrows in the sand in shallow tropical and warm temperate oceans.

4.1 CLEAVAGE (Fig 18)

Fig 18. Equal holoblastic (complete) cleavage.

a) animal pole; b) vegetal pole; c) micromeres; d) macromeres.

20
The egg contains minute quantities of yolk. Cleavage is equal holoblastic. The first division is
vertical dividing the zygote into two identical blastomeres.

The second division is again vertical resulting into 4 blastomeres of the same size.

The third division is horizontal, slightly above the equator due to the presence of the yolk
granules resulting in four micromeres animally (top tier), and four macromeres vegetally
(bottom tier).

The further divisions however, result initially in a solid ball of cells, a morula which develops into
a blastula, consisting of a single layered blastoderm, surrounding a cavity, the
blastocoele.The cells of the blastoderm is usually slightly smaller animally (top half) than
vegetally (bottom half).

4.2 GASTRULATION (Fig 19)

In looking at the blastoderm cells of the blastula of Branchiostoma, the animal hemisphere
consists of transparent and relatively yolk-free cells. This is the prospective ectodermal tissue.

A crescent of small cells loosely packed, on the one side of the blastula, can be distinguished
from the animal cells, although it is also relative yolk-free, by its distinct ability to stain with basic
stains. These cells are the future mesoderm.

The cells of the vegetal pole contain a granular cytoplasm and develop into the future
endoderm.

The single-cell walled blastula now has to be converted into an embryo consisting of these three
layers. This transformation takes place through the process of gastrulation. In Branchiostoma
gastrulation is brought about by the invagination of the endodermal and mesodermal tissue
into the blastocoele.

The first sign of gastrulation is a flattening of the vegetal pole, which consists of endodermal
material.

The endoderm now invaginates or bends into the blastocoele followed by the presumptive
notochordal tissue and the mesoderm changing the embryo from a hollow sphere into a double
walled cup.
The tissue of the notochord and the mesoderm is at first situated on the rim of the cup.

The continuation of the invagination obliterates the blastocoele as the inner lining is brought into
contact with the external lining. In this way a new cavity the archenteron is formed which is in
open communication with the exterior on the side that was originally the vegetal pole.
The outer layer of the cup consists now solely of ectodermal tissue, while the inner lining is
made up of the material of endoderm, the notochord and the mesoderm. The two layers are in
continuation over the rim of the cup.

The rim of the double lined cup which is very wide initially, starts to contract until it is eventually
reduced to a small pore, the blastopore.

The contraction of the lips of the blastopore is connected with the disappearance of the
mesodermal crescent and the notochordal tissue into the interior of the embryo, now known as a
gastrula.

21
The presumptive mesodermal crescent and the notochordal tissue also converge toward the
dorsal midline in the interior of the gastrula and the mesoderm lies like two horns either side of
the notochordal tissue. At the same time the embryo also becomes elongated a process which is
accompanied by the elongation of the above mentioned tissue. The notochord becomes an
elongated band medially, with the mesodermal tissue on either side of it, underlying the
ectoderm. The remainder of the inner lining consists of endoderm.

4.3 THE FORMATION OF THE PRIMARY ORGAN RUDIMENTS (NEURULATION)

(Fig 19)

Fig 19. Gastrulation and the formation of the primary organ rudiments in Branchiostoma.
a) Blastoderm; b) blastocoele; c) presumptive ectoderm; d) presumptive
mesoderm; e) presumptive endoderm; f) invaginating endoderm; g) archenteron;
h) blastopore; i) neural plate; j) epiderm; k) notochord; l) somites; m) coelom;
n) splanchnic mesoderm; o) somatic mesoderm; p) adult lancelet.

22
In the interior of the embryo the presumptive material of the germ tissues become separated
from each other through the formation of crevices along the boundary lines.

The strip of mesodermal cells representing the future notochord, lying mid-dorsally rounds itself
off and becomes a cylindrical chord of cells, the notochord.

The remaining mesodermal tissue becomes separated from the notochord and from the
endoderm. It breaks up to form a row of cuboidal cell masses, the mesodermal segments or
somites on each side of the notochord. This process of somite formation is referred to as
metamerisation, a process characteristic of all chordate embryos.

Simultaneous with the formation of the somites, a longitudinal groove appears on the inner
surface of the mesodermal bands. This groove closes off from the cavity of the archenteron and
breaks up as the somites separate from each other to form a cavity inside each somite. These
cavities expand later on to form the coelom of the adult animal.

The free edges of the endoderm approach each other and fuse along the middorsal line to form
a closed sac, the future alimentary canal. The archenteron now becomes the lumen of the
alimentary canal.

The presumptive neural tissue becomes separated from the epiderm in the form of an elongated
plate, lying directly above the notochord and somite tissue. This structure, the neural plate
sinks in below the remainder of the ectoderm. The free edges of the remainder of the ectoderm,
the epiderm, approach each other to cover the neural plate. The neural plate then rolls itself into
a tube, the neural tube. The formation of the neural tube is referred to as neurulation and the
embryo is now called a neurula.

CHAPTER 5: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AVIAN EMBRYO

5.1 CLEAVAGE (Fig 20 & 21)

The egg is a closed unit and the embryo has to develop, using the nutrition provided for it inside
the egg. Waste products are also accumulated inside the egg, until the young hatch. Such an
egg is referred to as a amniotic or cleidoic egg. The development of the amniotic egg has
enabled the vertebrates (reptiles and birds) to colonise the land masses of the earth, as they are
not longer dependant on water for their reproduction as are the fishes and amphibians.

The cytoplasm of eggs of reptiles and birds therefore contain a large amount of yolk.

Fig 20. Diagram of the avian egg. a) Outer and inner shell membranes; b) cytoplasmic
cap; c) yolk; d) chalaza; e) albumin

The nucleus of the zygote lies within a small area of clear cytoplasm, the cytoplasmic cap
which lies at the animal pole on top of the yolk.

23
Here typical meroblastic cleavage, sometimes referred to as discoidal cleavage takes place.
The cleavage divisions are restricted to the cytoplasmic cap and they are incomplete right from
the start. At first all the cleavage planes are vertical. The daughter blastomeres are separated
from each other by the cleavage furrows, but they are not separated from the yolk. The central
blastomeres are therefore continuous with the yolk, while the peripheral blastomeres are
continuous with the yolk and with the uncleaved cytoplasm at their outer edges.

Later on horizontal cleavage divisions or slits appear between the blastomeres and the yolk,
resulting in a multi-layered blastodisc lying on top of the yolk mass.

Fig 21. Meroblastic (discoidal) cleavage of the avian egg.

a) Blastomeres; b) blastodisc; c) yolk.

5.2 GASTRULATION

During gastrulation the blastodisc differentiates into the three germ layers through a process of
cell migration.

Gastrulation in the avian embryo corresponds with the process as it happens in the human
embryo. This will be discussed in length in the following chapter.

5.3 FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO

The entire embryo develops out of the blastodisc. Apart from the body of the embryo as such,
extra-embryonic membranes also need to develop to facilitate the necessary functions of the
embryo.

5.3.1 The extra embryonic membranes (Fig 22)

The extra-embryonic membranes are the amnion, the chorion, the allantois and the yolk sac.
The amnion envelopes the embryo. The chorion envelopes the embryo, yolk sac and the
allantois.

24
The chorion, sometimes referred to as the serosa, is a tough membrane that isolates the
embryo from the egg shell.

The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid, and the embryo lies suspended in this fluid.

All three layers ecto-, meso- and endoderm spread over the surface of the yolk, eventually
enclosing the yolk mass completely to form the yolk sac. All three layers therefore take part in
the formation of the yolk sac, with the endoderm adhering to the surface of the yolk.

The inner surface of the wall of the yolk sac develops projections or septa penetrating deep into
the yolk. The outgrowths are supplied with blood vessels and facilitate yolk absorption.

The allantois develops as a blind finger-like outgrowth of the posterior part of the alimentary
canal.

The functions of these membranes are:

(i) to protect the embryo from adhesion to the shell or from friction against it (chorion),

(ii) to protect the embryo against mechanical shock (amnion) and to prevent desiccation
(amnion),

(iii) to facilitate gaseous exchange (allantois),

(iv) to absorb and transport the food reserves (yolk) to the embryo (yolk sac) and

(v) to store the waste products formed by the embryo (allantois).

The embryo becomes separated from the yolk sac through the formation of folds the body folds
all around the embryo. All three layers take part in the formation of the folds, and they surround
the embryo. The first fold that appears is the head fold which lifts the head and the anterior part
of the trunk off the yolk sac. The lateral and tail folds appear shortly after that so that the tail
projects freely above the yolk sac. As these folds contract the embryo is progressively separated
from the yolk sac until it is only connected to it by means of the umbilical cord.

As yolk absorption continue, the yolk becomes smaller and the remainder of the yolk sac is
retracted into the abdominal cavity of the embryo just prior to hatching.

Fig 22. Diagram illustrating the extra embryonic membranes of the avian embryo.
a) Inner and outer shell membranes; b) embryo; c) chorion; d) amnion;
e) allantois; f) yolk sac; g) yolk.

25
CHAPTER 6: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAMMALIAN EMBRYO. (Fig 23)

The development of the mammalian embryo is characterised by

(i) the fact that the ovum contains no yolk and

(ii) that the embryo is retained within the uterus and is attached to the wall of the uterus of the
female organism until such time as the infant is relatively independent and is born.

Special adaptations had to develop to enable this for eg. the development of an entirely new
structure the placenta. Through the placenta, the nutrition, the gaseous exchange and the
removal of the waste products are facilitated.

The mammals are therefore able to lead a terrestrial way of life and reproduce on land in the
absence of an amniotic egg.

The development of the human embryo will be used as an example.

Fig 23. Diagram of the female reproductive system to illustrate fertilisation, cleavage and
blastocyst formation during the first week.
a) Blastocyst; b) oviduct; c) ovary; f) fimbria; g) infundibulum; h) fertilisation;
i) zygote; j) two-cell stage; k) morula; l) uterine cavity; m) ampulla;
n) endometrium. n) infundibulum; o) myometrium.

6.1 CLEAVAGE (Fig 24)

The cleavage type found in the placental mammals is known as trophoblastic cleavage.

Fertilization (stage 1 of the developmental process) occurs in the region of the ampulla of the
Fallopian tube, and cleavage (stage 2) takes place during the zygote's journey down the Fallo-
pian tube and the oviduct towards the uterus.

Cleavage consists of rapid subsequent mitotic divisions forming progressively smaller

blastomeres, and ends with the formation of the blastocyst (stage 3).

The first cleavage division results into two equal daughter cells. No yolk is included in the ovum,
and the first cleavage division is complete.

26
Subsequent divisions although complete are very irregular, synchronisation is lost and the first
two blastomeres cleave at different rates resulting in a 3-, 5-, 6-, 7- etc. blastomere stage.
A solid mass of cells also called a morula forms which is a solid ball consisting of 12 - 16
blastomeres.

The morula enters the uterus three days after fertilization.

Fig 24. Cleavage and blastocyst formation in the mammalian embryo.

a) blastomere; b) polar bodies; c) zona pellucida; d) inner cell mass;
e) blastocyst cavity; f) disappearing zona pellucida; g) trophoblast;
h) hypoblast.

6.2 BLASTOCYST FORMATION (Fig 24)

The further divisions result in cavities appearing in the interior of the morula. These cavities
become filled with fluid as fluid passes into it from the uterine cavity and it soon becomes one
large cavity known as the blastocyst cavity, (sometimes also referred to as the blastocoel).

The embryo is now known as the blastocyst, with the enveloping layer known as the
trophoblast. The blastocyst differs from the blastula of Branchiostoma in that a mass of cells
can be found on one side in the interior of the blastocyst, known as the inner cell mass or
embryoblast.

The trophoblast gives rise to the extra-embryonic membranes, while the embryo proper develops
out of the inner cell mass. The inner cell mass is often also referred to as the formative cells.

The zona pellucida (fertilization membrane) is still intact around the blastocyst and the blastocyst
lies free in the uterine cavity.

6.3 ATTACHMENT AND SUPERFICIAL IMPLANTATION (stage 4)

(Fig 25 & 26)

The zona pellucida starts to degenerate after the formation of the blastocyst and eventually
disappears. This enables the blastocyst to become attached to the endometrial epithelium. This
is the start of the fourth developmental stage.

The embryo is now referred to as a conceptus. The conceptus orientates itself in such a way
that the inner cell mass or embryonic pole lies against the endometrium of the uterus. The
trophoblast attaches itself to the endometrial epithelium in the following way.

27
Fig 25. Attachment of the mammalian conceptus.
a) endometrial gland; b) endometrial stroma; c) endometrial capillary;
d) inner cell mass; e) blastocyst cavity; f) endometrial epithelium;
g) trophoblast; h) uterine cavity.

The trophoblast cells in contact with the endometrial epithelium undergo multiple divisions and
differentiates into two layers, an inner cellular layer the cytotrophoblast and an outer
syncytotrophoblast. The cell membranes of the outer layer disappear to form a multi-nucleated
protoplasmic mass. This syncytium forms finger-like processes which grow into the
endometrium. The embryo is superficially implanted by the end of the first week.

Fig 26. Superficial implantation of the mammalian conceptus.

a) endometrial gland; b) endometrial stroma; c) endometrial capillary;
d) inner cell mass; e) blastocyst cavity; f) endometrial epithelium;
g) cytotrophoblast; h) uterine cavity; i) syncytotrophoblast; j) hypoblast.

6.4 FURTHER IMPLANTATION, THE FORMATION OF THE BILAMINAR EMBRYONIC

DISC (stage 5) (Fig 27, 28 & 29)

This stage extends over the period from days 5 to 12. While this process of implanting is taking
place, a flat layer of cells possibly originating from the trophoblast arranges, through a process of
migration, into a thin layer of flat cells lining the inner surface of the inner cell mass to form the
hypoblast.

The hypoblast therefore forms a ceiling to the blastocyst cavity, separating the inner cell mass
from the blastocyst cavity.

28
The inner cell mass have a basophilic cytoplasm, and stains bright in comparison with the cells
of the trophoblast, when stained with basic dyes. The inner cell mass is therefore easily
recognisable and it is from these cells that the embryo proper develops. The trophoblast does
not contribute to the embryo as such, but it is responsible for the establishment of the connec-
tion with the maternal body (formation of extra embryonic membranes).

The inner cell mass together with the hypoblast arrange into a double layered disc, the
embryonic disc, consisting of a top layer of columnar shaped cells referred to as the epiblast,
overlying a second layer of cuboidal cells, the hypoblast. As the embryo proper now consists of
these two layers it is also known as the bilaminar embryonic disc.

29
The cells of the epiblast form the floor of the amniotic cavity and are continuous peripherally with
the amnion.

The cells of the hypoblast form the roof of the blastocyst cavity and are peripherally continuous
with the cytotrophoblast.

Delamination of the cytotrophoblast surrounding the blastocyst cavity and of the amnion now
occurs. In other words a second layer of cells are split off from the cytotrophoblast. The inner
layer of the cytotrophoblast around the blastocyst cavity is a thin membranous layer called the
exocoelomic membrane. This membrane is now continuous with the hypoblast, and the
blastocyst cavity is now referred to as the exocoelomic cavity. The amnioblasts also separate
from the rest of the cytotrophoblast to include the amniotic cavity.

The delamination of cytotrophoblast continues and the extra embryonic mesoderm is layered
down between the cytotrophoblast and the exocoelomic membrane or primary yolk sac, and
between the cytotrophoblast and the amnion.

30
The cells of the hypoblast spread out along the inner surface of the exocoelomic membrane,
partially surrounding the primary yolk sac. This layer of cells is known as the extra embryonic
endoderm. The cavity of the conceptus now resembles the yolk sac of the bird embryo although
it is filled with fluid and not with yolk.

This fact together with the fact that the embryo develops out of a blastodisc indicate that the
ancestors of the mammals had large yolky eggs with meroblastic discoidal cleavage.

Fig 29. Implantation and the formation of the extra embryonic endoderm.
a) bilaminar embryonic disc; b) primary yolk sac; c) cytotrophoblast;
d) syncytotrophoblast; e) lacunae; f) extra embryonic mesoderm;
g) blood clot; h) extra embryonic coelom; i) extra embryonic endoderm.

6.5 THE APPEARANCE OF THE CHORIONIC VILLI (Fig 30 & 31).

Towards the end of the second week (days 13 & 14) the first chorionic villi make their
appearance. The cytotrophoblast produces masses of cells which form finger-like protrusions
(primary chorionic villi) that push deep into the tissue of the syncytotrophoblast.

During this stage the isolated coelomic spaces fuse to form a large space called the extra
embryonic coelom. This cavity surrounds the amnion and the yolk sac except where the
amnion is connected to the trophoblast by the connecting stalk.

As the extra-embryonic coelom becomes continuous the extra embryonic mesoderm splits into
two layers viz. a) the extra embryonic somatic (somatopleuric) mesoderm, lining the
trophoblast and b) the extra embryonic splanchnic (splanchnopleuric) mesoderm around
the yolk sac and the amnion.

The extra embryonic somatic (somatopleuric) mesoderm and the cytotrophoblast together
form the chorion. The chorion envelops the entire embryo with its amnion and yolk sac and is
called the chorionic sac. The embryo with amnion and yolk sac is suspended in the chorionic
sac, but remains connected to the chorionic sac by means of the connecting stalk. The extra
embryonic coelom now becomes the chorionic cavity.

31
Fig 30. Implantation and the formation of the extra embryonic somatic and splanchnic
mesoderm.
a) Bilaminar embryonic disc; b) primary yolk sac; c) chorion; d) extra embryonic
somatic mesoderm; e) extra embryonic splanchnic mesoderm; f) extra embryonic
coelom; g) extra embryonic endoderm; h) secondary yolk sac.

During this time the primary embryonic yolk sac has decreased in size. The hypoblast cells grow
out from the embryonic disc partially forming a lining to the primary yolk sac. This forms the
extra embryonic endoderm. The remaining remnant of the primary yolk sac is 'pinched off'. In this
way the secondary yolk sac is formed that consists of the extra embryonic splanchnic
mesoderm, the exocoelomic membrane and the extra embryonic endoderm.

During this period certain cells of the hypoblast lying in a area situated on one side against the
connection with the chorion become distinctly more columnar than the rest of the hypoblast. This
thickened disc-shaped area is called the prochordal plate. This plate indicates the head or
cranial region of the future embryo as the endoderm of the mouth and pharynx develop from it.
The opposite side is the caudal region of the developing foetus.

Fig 31. The formation of the primary and secondary yolk sac and the chorionic villi.
a) Prochordal plate; b) primary yolk sac; c) chorion; d) chorionic villi;
e) secondary yolk sac; f) bilaminar embryonic disc; g) extra embryonic
splanchnic mesoderm; h) chorionic cavity.

32
6.6 THE FORMATION OF THE TRILAMINAR EMBRYO THROUGH GASTRULATION - the
third week. (fig. 32, 33 & 34)

Fig 32. Bilaminar embryonic disc with chorion and primary yolk sac removed.
a) Embryonic epiblast; b) hypoblast; c) bilaminar embryonic disc;
d) extra embryonic splanchnic mesoderm; e) exocoelomic membrane;
f) amniotic cavity; g) secondary yolk sac; h) prochordal plate;
i) connecting stalk; j) extra-embryonic endoderm

Fig 33. A. Dorsal view of bilaminar embryonic disc (amnion removed).

B. Cross section of bilaminar embryonic disc.

Gastrulation is the process by which the bilaminar embryonic disc is converted into a
TRILAMINAR embryonic disc.

Some of the cells of the epiblast detach themselves from the rest of the epiblast on the opposite
side to the prochordal plate (caudal side) and move toward the midline. These cells converge
either side of the midline to form two ridges, one either side of the midline. A longitudinal groove
is formed on the midline with a ridge on either side.

33
Fig 34. Cross section of bilaminar embryonic disc to illustrate gastrulation.
a) epiblast; b) hypoblast; c) secondary yolk sac; d) primitive streak;
e) primitive groove; f) primitive pit; g) mesoblast.

The new structure formed by the two ridges is called the primitive streak, and the groove is
known as the primitive groove. The primitive groove ends anteriorly in a thickening known as
the primitive pit or primitive knot.

As the cells converge progressively towards the primitive streak, the migrating cells get forced
down and move in between the epiblast and the hypoblast to form a loose network
(a mesenchyme) of cells referred to as the mesoblast.

The cells of the mesoblast, once part of the epi- and hypoblast spread out sideways as well as
anteriorly in the direction of the prochordal plate to form a new layer, the embryonic mesoderm.

The section of the mesoblast tissue that migrates over the most anterior part of the primitive
streak and the primitive knot into the space between the epi- and hypoblast converge on the
middorsal line to form the notochordal process. This develops into the notochord while the
intra embryonic mesoderm flanking it on either side develops into the somites.

Other mesoblastic cells join the hypoblast, displacing the original hypoblastic cells laterally to
form a new layer with the cells of the hypoblast. This layer is the embryonic endoderm.

The remainder of the epiblast that is left behind on the surface now become the embryonic
ectoderm.

The epiblast is therefore the origin of the embryonic ectoderm, the embryonic mesoderm and
probably most of the embryonic endoderm.

As this process of gastrulation progresses, the primitive streak becomes extended in an anterior
direction towards the procordal plate. With the formation of the notochordal process, the primitive
streak recedes as the notochordal process pushes in between the ecto-- and endoderm
cranially.

As more of the migrating cells move into the interior between the epi- and hypoblast, the
convergence of the cells start to decrease. The ridges of the primitive streak therefore become
shorter and the primitive streak eventually disappears.

The migration of the mesoblast cells into the primitive streak and in between the epi- and
hypoblast and the subsequent formation of the notochordal process causes the elongation of the
embryonic disc. By the end of the third week it is no longer disc shaped but quite elongated.

34
The embryo is now known as the TRILAMINAR embryonic disc and is triploblastic, which
means that it consists of three germ layers.

Fig 35. Dorsal view and cross section of the embryonic disc as gastrulation progresses.
a) prochordal plate; b) connecting stalk; c) primitive groove; d) notochordal
process; e) trilaminar embryonic disc; f) notochord; g) embryonic parietal
mesoderm; h) embryonic ectoderm; i) embryonic endoderm

6.7 NEURULATION

After the formation of the notochordal process seen in the previous section, the ectoderm
overlying the notochord and the paraxial mesoderm on either side of it, thickens to form a neural
plate and the process of neurulation i.e. the development of the neural tissue now commences.
This is not illustrated in Figure 35.

35
REFERENCES : BIOLOGY I – EMBRYOLOGY

Balinsky, BI 1981 An Introduction to Embryology, 4th ed. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia

Langman, J 1990 Langman’s Medical Embryology, 6th ed. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

1. know the morphology of the female and male reproductive system as found in
mammals

2. understand the processes of gametogenesis including the differentiation of the sperm

3. describe the ultrastucture of the mature mammalian sperm and secondary ovum

4. understand and be able to describe the process of fertilisation

5. distinguish between the different forms of cleavage

6. describe the development of Branchiostoma from cleavage to the formation of the

primary organ rudiments

7. describe cleavage as it occurs in the avain embryo

8. know the extra embryonic membranes formed by the avain embryo and understand
their function

9. understand and the development of the mammalian (human) embryo from cleavage
to the formation of the tri-laminar plate

36
TOXONOMY AND
SYSTEMATICS

COMPILED BY PROF FC CLARKE & REVISED BY DR EBE MOEMA

SEFAKO MAKGATHO HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
 TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT DOMAINS .............................................. 7
VIRUSES: .......................................................................................................................... 7
THREE DOMAINS: .......................................................................................................... 7
DOMAIN: ARCHAEA ...................................................................................................... 7
DOMAIN: BACTERIA...................................................................................................... 7
KINGDOM: PROKARYOTAE (fig. 2) ......................................................................... 7
DOMAIN EUKARYA: THE EUKARYOTES ................................................................. 8
KINGDOM: FUNGI (fig. 3) ................................................................................................ 9
CHAPTER 3: ...................................................................................................................... 10
KINGDOM: PROTISTA ............................................................................................... 10
SUBKINGDOM: ............................................................................................. PROTOZOA
10
CHAPTER 4 ....................................................................................................................... 15
KINGDOM: PLANTAE.................................................................................................... 15
PHYLUM: BRYOPHYTA (fig. 13) ................................................................................. 15
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS ................................................................................ 17
SEED PLANTS ................................................................................................................ 18
THE ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering plants) ...................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 5 ....................................................................................................................... 22
KINGDOM 7: ANIMALIA............................................................................................... 22
MAJOR CLADE: PARAZOA ......................................................................................... 24
PHYLUM: PORIFERA - the sponges (fig. 17) ............................................................ 24
MAJOR CLADE: EUMETAZOA ................................................................................... 25
PHYLUM: CNIDARIA (COELENTERARTA) .............................................................. 25
PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES ................................................................................. 26
PHYLUM: NEMATODA - the round worms (fig. 23) .................................................... 28
PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA.................................................................................................. 29
PHYLUM: ANNELIDA - the segmented worms. .......................................................... 31
GROUP: CLITELLATA (with clitella = a packsaddle) .................................................. 32

1
 PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA .......................................................................................... 32
AQUATIC MANDIBULATES ....................................................................................... 35
TERRESTRIAL MANDIBULATES ............................................................................... 36
DEUTEROSTOMES: VERTEBRATES AND THEIR CLOSEST RELATIVES.......... 43
INVERTEBRATE DEUTEROSTOMES ........................................................................ 43
PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA ..................................................................................... 43
PHYLUM: CHORDATA ................................................................................................. 45
GROUP: PROTOCHORDATA .................................................................................... 46
GROUP: CRANIATA ................................................................................................... 46
PRACTICAL 9 – ................................................................................................................ 59
TAXONOMY I ................................................................................................................... 59
9.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 59
9.2. Aim........................................................................................................................ 59
9.3. Objectives ............................................................................................................. 59
9.4. Materials and Methods ....................................................................................... 60
9.5. Assessment: .......................................................................................................... 60
PRACTICAL 10 – .............................................................................................................. 60
TAXONOMY II ................................................................................................................. 60
10.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 60
10.2. Aim .................................................................................................................... 60
10.3. Objectives .......................................................................................................... 60
10.4. Materials ............................................................................................................ 61
10.5. Assessment ........................................................................................................ 61
PRACTICAL 11 – .............................................................................................................. 62
TAXONOMY III ................................................................................................................ 62
1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 62
1.2. Aim ........................................................................................................................ 62
1.3. Learning Outcomes: .............................................................................................. 62
1.4. Materials and methods .......................................................................................... 63
1.5. Assessment ............................................................................................................ 63

2
 TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The term “Taxonomy” is defined as the science that identifies, names, and classifies new species and
“Systematics” is defined as the biological study that focuses on the diversity of life and its
evolutionary relationships. What is a living organism? In the living organism we find the same kind
of chemical elements that we find in the non-living world, but we find atoms and molecules combined
into the patterns that have no counterparts in the non-living world. These are large molecules
(macromolecules) that are unique to live, proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. These
molecules result in essential functions that are different, like organisation, metabolism, growth,
adaptability, irritability and growth. Living things maintain and repair themselves, respond to
stimulation, and reproduce.
The non-living world can be divided into the following environments (fig. 1):
a) an aquatic environment, which could be either a marine environment (see), or a freshwater
environment and
b) a terrestrial environment (land)
c) an arctic environment which would be within or close to the arctic circles
d) a tropical environment which would be close to the equator and
e) a temperate environment which would lie between the tropics and the arctic circles
f) a desert or semi-desert environment in the more arid regions on earth like the Sahara, the
Gobi and the Namib desert

But the living (organism) and the non-living (environment) are

inseparable. The evolutionary history has placed an organism
in a specific environment to which it is adapted.

The living part of the earth can be described as the biomass.

Looking at the diversity of life on earth we are struck by all the Fig. 1: The earth
different life forms around us. Zoologists have named more than 1.5
million different animals and more are added each year. This is probably less than 1% of all the
animals that have lived on earth in the past. It is obvious that we have to have a name for each animal
if we would like to study them. We have to know each animal by the same name if we want to
communicate with each other. To make sense out of 1.5 million names though, is also impossible
and, therefore, we have to put these names into some form of order, group similar organisms together
and arrange them into some form of order according to their complexity, similarities and according
to their evolutionary

3
development. The science of systematics, therefore, includes studies of speciation, classification and
phylogeny. It concerns itself with the identification and naming of each organism according to a
uniform system that best expresses the degree of similarity between organisms.

The Greek philosopher and biologist Aristotle already classified organisms according to similar
characteristics, but our modern scheme of classification we inherited from a Swedish botanist,
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). This classification scheme was first published in his book Systema
Naturae and was largely based on morphological characters. Each species (type of organism) was
given a name. Similar species are grouped together in a category or taxon called a genus, different
genera can be grouped together in a higher taxon called a family, and different families form another
taxon called an order. Orders are grouped together in classes which are in turn grouped together in
a phylum. Different phyla will form a kingdom. Different kingdoms form a domain. The modern
trend is to recognise seven kingdoms. In this way organisms are grouped together and arranged in
an ascending series of larger groups to form the hierarchical system of classification. This hierarchy
therefore consists of eight main taxa. These taxa can, however, also be subdivided into fine categories
such as suborder, superclass, subclass or infraclass, etc.

e.g. Domain: Eukarya

Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
Class: Mammalia (mammals)
Order: Carnivora (carnivores)
Suborder: Feliformia (cat-like)
Family: Felidae (cats)
Subfamily: Pantherinae (big cats)
Genus: Panthera (big cats)
Species: Panthera leo (lion)
Subspecies: Panthera leo leo

The name of a species is composed of two words e.g. Homo sapiens, which is the scientific name for
a human being. The first part of the species name is in fact the Genus to which this species belongs,
while the second part specifies the particular organism. In other words, the first part of the name of
different species could correspond, but the second word separates them, as more species can belong
to the same genus. The lion is known as Panthera leo and the leopard is known as Panthera pardus.

4
They both belong to the genus Panthera but the words “leo” and “pardus” distinguishes the one from
the other. As the name of a species is composed of two words Linnaeus’ system is known as the
binomial nomenclature system. This system is used internationally.

Vernacular names are not scientifically acceptable, as each language and even different dialects have
a different name for the same organism. To complicate matters the same organism is often known
by different names in the same language in different geographical regions, e.g. Lacyon pictus is in
vernacular terms known in English as the Cape hunting dog, but it is also known as the African
wild dog. Another example is the little bird Lanius collaris. In English it is known either by the
name of a fiscal shrike or a Jackie hangman or a Butcher bird.

An International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature established rules by which an animal is

named.
• A species is referred to by using both the Generic and the species name.
• Both words are either Latin or latinised Greek and are usually descriptive of the most prominent
characteristic of the particular organism e.g. The human being is called Homo spiens, Homo =
‘man’, while sapiens = ‘that can think’. Lacyon pictus is the wild dog, Lacyon = ‘wolf’ and
pictus = ‘painted or ornamental’.
• Both words must be a single word and the words used must be unique.

It is important to note that a scientific name is always written in the following way.
• The Genus name starts with a capital letter.
• The species name starts with a small letter.
• Both are either written in italics or must be underline, e.g. Homo sapiens or Homo sapiens.

It is acceptable to abbreviate the Genus name to just the first letter in the second instance, should two
species belonging to the same genus be referred to in the same document e.g.
‘All of the early evolution of the genus Homo seems to have taken place in Africa. Homo habilis is
the first member of our own genus and the first primate to use tools consistently. Fossils belonging to the
second and only other extinct species H. erectus are widespread in Africa. These were large humans, who were
about the size of our species H. sapiens.’ (Raven & Johnson, 1988)

Homo sapiens is today the only living species classified in the genus Homo. Other species are,
however, found in the fossil records e.g. Homo erectus, Homo habilis. These were primitive men
that walked the earth 0.5 to 3 million years ago.

5
The complete classification of the human being is therefore.
Kingdom: Animalia (i.e. the animal kingdom)
Phylum: Chordata (i.e. animals that have a notochord)
Class: Mammalia (i.e. the mammals)
Order: Primates (i.e. the primates)
Family: Hominidae (i.e. the human-like primates)
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens
We can compare it to our close relative the chimpanzee.
Kingdom: Animalia (i.e. the animal kingdom)
Phylum: Chordata (i.e. animals that have a notochord)
Class: Mammalia (i.e. the mammals)
Order: Primates (i.e. the primates)
Family: Pongidae
Genus: Pan
Species: troglodytes

6
CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT DOMAINS

VIRUSES:
• This kingdom represents the viruses – They present a taxonomic challenge to biologists
because they do not have the characteristics that define living organisms;
• They are not cellular, they do not carry on metabolic activities, they are unable to grow and
multiply on their own outside other organisms (To reproduce, the virus has to enter a cell of
another organism and they make use of the material of the host cell to reproduce);
• The viruses are fragments of DNA or RNA;
• They left no fossil evidence so we cannot tell when the viruses appeared on earth for the first
time;
• The viruses could not have existed independently of pre-existing organisms and can,
therefore, not be regarded as similar to the first forms of life on earth. As they cannot
conclude their own life functions independently and have the ability to crystallise, many
scientists regard them as non-living, HENCE they are not classified in any of the three
domains;
• Viruses often seriously disrupt the normal functioning of the cells that they infect, causing
diseases like flu, mumps, polio and HIV.

THREE DOMAINS:
DOMAIN: ARCHAEA
The domain Archaea is one of the two domains of the kingdom Prokaryotae, the second one is
Bacteria. These two domains are thought to have dominated the earth about four billion years ago.
The first-studied archaeans were found in extreme habitats such as salt lakes, hot springs, and
hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, hence they were referred to as extreme lovers (extremophiles).
Lately, these prokaryotes have been found in normal environments. There’s about 300 living species
of archaeans to date and these include chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs, some of which have
been identified as possible human pathogens associated with tooth infections. Archaeans lack a
nucleus and chromosomes.

DOMAIN: BACTERIA
KINGDOM: PROKARYOTAE (fig. 2)
Life on earth originated in the form of micro-organisms, probably anaerobic bacteria more than 3
billion years ago. These bacteria gave rise to a variety of bacteria, some probably capable of
photosynthesis form which blue-green algae, as we know them today, arose. Bacteria and blue-green

7
algae are still found on earth today. These primitive forms of life that are microscopic, are called
prokaryotes as they have no distinct nucleus. Neither do they have the other membranous
organelles e.g. plastids, mitochondria, centrioles and vacuoles common to the higher unicellular
organisms. They, however, contain DNA, although the DNA is not in the form of chromosomes.
These organisms ruled the earth for about 1½ to 2 billion years (two-thirds of the history of life on
earth) forming floating mats on the ocean surface and are completely different to the other forms of
life that developed later.

Some bacteria are extremely useful to man (i.e. used in industrial processes and also important in
recycling nitrogen and other elements), but the majority are pathogenic (parasitic), causing diseases
like cholera, tetanus and diphtheria. Most bacteria are decomposers. Bacteria cells come in three
main shapes, bacilli (rod-shaped), cocci (spherical forms) and spirilli (spirals).

Fig. 2: Three main shapes of bacteria

DOMAIN EUKARYA: THE EUKARYOTES

Approximately 1½ billion years ago organisms with nuclei appeared. The nucleus had a membrane
around it and contained DNA in the form of chromosomes. These are called eukaryotes. They are
larger organisms than the prokaryotes, contain at least 1 000 times more DNA and organelles and
they divide by means of mitosis. The eukaryotes proliferated and quickly captured the seas. A burst
of evolutionary activity followed. Some of the eukaryotes were photosynthetic, others herbivorous,
that fed on the prokaryotes. Carnivores appeared that were able to feed on the herbivores. This soon
led to a balanced ecosystem. Nearly all the large groups, plant and animals groups appeared and
established themselves within a relatively short period of a few million years.

All the familiar forms of life are composed of one or more eukaryotic cells and the eukaryotes are
therefore divided into different kingdoms.

8
 KINGDOM: FUNGI (fig. 3)
These are an ancient group possibly 800 million years old, from the clade opisthokonts. They occur
almost exclusively on land but are very dependent on moisture. Like animals, fungi have plate-like
cristae in their mitochondria. They contain no chlorophyll and obtain their food by secreting enzymes
out of their bodies. These enzymes make nutrients available from their
substrate, which is then absorbed into their bodies. Their bodies could
be unicellular or multicellular (e.g. mold), are usually filamentous and
they resemble the plants as they lack mobility. Many fungi are harmful
as they decay, rot and spoil different materials. Others are extremely
useful and are implemented by man like the fungi used in baking bread
and the making of beer (yeast), making wine and cheese. Many
antibiotics are derived from fungi. Fig. 3: The poisonous mushroom Amanita

SUMMARY:

  Life   Domain Bacteria  

  Bacteria
   
  Domain Archaea  
  Archaea
   
  Domain Eukaryota  
Excavata — Various flagellate protozoa
 
 
Amoebozoa — most lobose amoeboids and slime moulds
 
 
Opisthokonta — animals, fungi, choanoflagellates, etc.
 
 
Rhizaria — Foraminifera, Radiolaria, and various other amoeboid protozoa
 
 
Chromalveolata — Stramenopiles (Brown Algae, Diatoms etc.), Haptophyta, Cryptophyta (or
  cryptomonads), and Alveolata

 
Archaeplastida (or Primoplantae) — Land plants, green algae, red algae, and glaucophytes

9
CHAPTER 3:
KINGDOM: PROTISTA
SUBKINGDOM: PROTOZOA
These are organisms that include both single-celled (i.e. All life activities are carried out within the
limits of the one cell membrane - have no organs or tissues but often possess specialised organelles.)
or live in colonies, and large multicellular organisms (e.g. seaweeds). Some live in an aquatic
medium/environment, others are terrestrial, but they are always dependant on moisture. Some are
autotrophic (photosynthesizers), although others are parasitic (living on/in the bodies of animals or
other organisms), predators or decomposers. The great diversity of this group of organisms has made
it difficult for them to be classified. They possess true nucleus; multiple linear chromosomes and
cytoplasmic organelles and mitochondria (in most organisms), endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
complex, and chloroplasts (in some species). They reproduce asexually by mitosis or sexually by
meiosis and formation of zygote.

Unicellular Organisms:
Complete organisms within one cell and many have quite complicated and specialised structures
within the cytoplasm called organelles, each fitted for a specific function like locomotion and
defence. Most live singly, but many live in distinct colonies. They are microscopically small. Almost
50,000 species have been described, of which more than 20,000 are fossils. About one-third of the
living Protozoa are parasitic. They are found everywhere where life exists, but are dependant on
water or moisture.

General Characteristics:
1. Unicellular; some colonial.
2. Mostly microscopic
3. No organs or tissues, but specialized organelles found
4. Free living, mutualism, commensalism, parasitism all represented
5. Locomotion by pseudopodia, flagella, cilia and direct cell movement; some sessile
6. Some are provided with a simple exoskeleton, mostly naked
7 Habitat: aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic

Classification
Nine phyla are distinguished.

10
SUB-GROUP: METAMONADA (formerly known as RETORTAMONADA)
 Divided into Diplomonadida and Parabasala

PHYLUM: DIPLOMONADIDA (fig. 4)

Members are parasitic and lack both mitochondria and Golgi bodies.
They move by means of a number of flagella, e.g. diplomonads
Giardia lamblia, a common intestinal parasite of man and other
animals. Giardiasis is a chronic disease that results in diarrhoea.
Cysts are passed in the faeces, and new hosts are infected by
ingesting these cysts, often in contaminated water. Fig. 4: Giardia lamblia

PHYLUM: PARABASALA (formerly known as AXOSTYLATA)

Members of this phylum are all parasitic. They have a stiffening rod, the
axostyle that extends along the longitudinal axis of the body. A few to many
flagella are present, e.g. Trichomonas vaginalis (fig. 5), a protozoan that infects
the urinary and the reproductive tracts in humans and is not exclusively sexually
transmitted. The infection in males is usually asymptomatic, but Fig 5: Trichomonas vaginalis
this parasite causes severe inflammation and irritation in the vagina
and vulva of females.

SUB-GROUP: EUGLENOZOA
 Divided into Euglenids and Kinetoplastids.
Intercellular parasites
These protozoa have one or two flagella. Some are autotropic, containing chloroplasts, e.g. Euglena,
while others are parasitic, e.g. Trypanosoma spp that cause sleeping sickness in man and Nagana in
Cattle. Trypanosomes are transmitted by tsetse flies Glossina morsitans.

PHYLUM: EUGLENIDS
- Free-living protists with two anterior flagella (one rudimentary and short, the other long);
e.g. Euglena gracilis (fig. 6);
- Mostly inhabit freshwater environments (e.g. ponds,
streams and lakes), but few are marine organisms;
- Autotrophic, but can also live as heterotrophs by
absorbing organic molecules through the plasma
membrane; A few lack chloroplasts and live entirely
Fig. 6: Euglena spp.
as heterotrophs;

11
 - Possess cytoplasmic organelles such as contractile vacuole, chloroplasts (in photosynthetic
organisms) with an eyespot;
- Have a spirally grooved pellicle.

PHYLUM: KINETOPLASTIDS
- Nonphotosynthetic, heterotrophic protists that parasitize
animals;
- Single mitochondrion, large kinetoplast (DNA-protein
deposit);
- Mostly have two flagella (one trailing and the other
Fig. 7: Trypanosoma spp.
attached to the side, forming an undulating membrane.

SUB-GROUP: ALVEOLATA
 Divided into Ciliophora, Dinoflagellata and Apicomplexa

PHYLUM: APICOMPLEXA (fig. 8)

Intracellular parasites
- 4000 well-known nonmotile parasites (i.e. flagella and cilia are absent in most cases); e.g.
Plasmodium malariae, P. ovale, P. vivax and P. falciparum that cause the different forms of
malaria, and Toxoplasma gondii the cause of toxoplasmosis in man.
- Absorb nutrients through their plasma membrane, rather than by engulfing food particles
(they lack food vacuole);
- Have apical complex (special grouping of
fribrils, microtubules and organelles);
- Reproduce asexually and sexually, produce
sporozoites Fig. 8: Two stages of the malaria
parasite Plasmodium in an
erythrocyte
PHYLUM: DINOFLAGELLATA
This phylum consists of 4000 known species. The dinoflagellates have
typically two flagella, one wrapped around the body and another trailing.
Members can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. Have a shell formed from
cellulose plates (fig. 9).
The marine organisms Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax contain a toxin. Fig. 9: Example of a

Mussels and oysters feeding on these dinoflagellates concentrate this dinoflagellate

12
toxin in their tissues and then they become toxic to man. This is known as a ‘red tide’ as millions of
these dinoflagellates turn the sea red. Once all the nutrients in the current have been utilised by the
dinoflagellates, they die and decay, causing an oxygen deficiency in the water. Crayfish suffering
from oxygen starvation will then ‘walk out’ on to the beaches in search of oxygen.

PHYLUM: CILIOPHORA
These protozoans move about by means of many cilia
uniformly arranged all over the body e.g. Paramecium.
They are mostly free living and some are sessile like
Vorticella and Stentor. Parasitic forms include
Balantidium coli, a parasite that causes severe dysentery in
Fig. 10: Examples of the
man.
Ciliophora Vorticella
and Balantidium coli

SUPERGROUP UNIKONTS
Include amoebas with unsupported pseudopods, protists with closely related to animals or fungi, and
animals and fungi themselves. The unikonts consist of two phyla, Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta.

PHYLUM: AMOEBOZOA
These are single-celled organisms that are abundant in marine
and freshwater environments, and in the soil. Movement and
feeding is typically by means of pseudopodia. The lobe-like
(“lobose”) pseudopods extend and retract at any point on their
body surface and are unsupported by any intercellular
organization. These types of pseudopods differentiate amoebas Fig. 11: Amoeba proteus
from Rhizaria, which have stiff, supported pseudopods.

They are free living, e.g. Amoeba proteus (found in freshwater habitats), Acanthamoeba (lives in
the soil) or parasitic e.g. Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan causing amoebic dysentery in man.

SUPERGROUP ARCHAEPLASTIDA
Consist of the Rhodophyta (red algae) and Chlorophyta (green algae), which are protists, and the land
plants (true plants) of the kingdom Plantae. They are all photosynthetic.

13
PHYLUM: CHLOROPHYTA (Green algae)
These are plant-like protozoans, as they contain one or more
chloroplasts and are therefore autotrophic. Most green algae
are microscopic, but some range upward to the size of small
seaweeds. Most live in freshwater habitats, some are marine,
or live on rocks and soil surfaces. Some are single celled e.g.
Chlamydomonas, colonial e.g. Volvox globator, and
multicellular species e.g. Ulva spp (sea lettuce).
Fig 12: Chlamydomonas & Volvox globator

14
CHAPTER 4

KINGDOM: PLANTAE
These are the plants as we know them. There are about 266,000 plants living today. Plants are
multicellular eukayrotes with cellulose-rich cell walls, chloroplasts containing chlorophylls,
caretenoids and starch as their primary food reserves. The plants evolved from the green algae and
are commonly divided into two large groups, Bryophytes (nonvascular plants with a dominant
gametophyte generation) – phylum Bryophyta (mosses), phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts) and
phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts); and the vascular plants with a dominant sporophyte generation
– Phylum Pteridophyta (ferns); seed plants with naked seeds – phylum Coniferophyta (conifers),
phylum Cycadophyta (cycads), phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgoes) and phylum Gnetophyta
(gnetophytes); and seed plants with seeds enclosed within a fruit (flowering plants) – Phylum
Anthophyta [Classes Eudicotyledons (eudicots) and Class Monocotolydens (monocots). Plants
reproduce sexually or asexually. The classification system of the plants is represented in an
abbreviated form in the following flow diagram.

PHYLUM: BRYOPHYTA (fig. 13)

Bryophytes are the most primitive of plants and probably very much like the first plants that
originated on earth. Botanists suspect that bryophytes and vascular plants evolved from a common
ancestor more than 430 million years ago. They are common in moist places and grow in dense mats
on almost any substrate even on bark and rocks and in places where even the vascular plants can’t

15
grow like in Antarctica, where summer temperatures seldom exceed – 10°C. Growth is, however,
very slow. They differ from the other plants as they lack the specialized vascular tissues of the other

groups of plants.
b) c) d)

a)

Fig. 13: a) moss plant; b) archegonium; c) antheridium; d)

sporangium; e) protonema

e)
General Characteristics:
1. Most Bryophytes are small, compact green plants. They produce chlorophyll, starch, have
cellulose walls and have motile sperm
2. Bryophytes lack a vascular system. They absorb water by capillary action
3. True leaves and roots are absent. Absorption of water and nutrients takes place through tiny
rhizoids
4. The green moss gametophyte often bears its gametangia (specialized cells) at the top of the
plant. Many moss species have separate sexes (male plants that bear antheridia) and female
plants that bear archegonia); other moss
plants produce antheridia and
archegonia on the same plant.
5. The sperm are bi-flagellate and swim
through flowing water (e.g. splashing
rain droplets) to the eggs in the
archegonia
6. The zygote develops into a sporangium.
In the sporangium spores develop and
16
 are released. Under optimal conditions a spore will develop into a protonema that will give
rise to a new moss plant.

SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

Four phyla, the Psilotophyta (whisk ferns), Lycopodophyta (club mosses), Equisetophyta (horse tail)
and the Pteridophyta (ferns) are grouped together as seedless vascular plants. The ancestors of this
group dominated the earth for more than 420 million years, eventually giving way to the seed plants.
Most varieties live in tropical areas. They have true leaves, stems and roots. They have a well-
developed vascular system (xylem and phloem) that transports water and minerals from the soil.
Carbohydrates are transported up and down throughout the plant.

PHYLUM: PTERIDOPHYTA - the ferns (Fig. 14)

The ferns are the largest phylum among the seedless plants and include approximately 12,000 living
species, while several thousand extinct spp. have been described. They are primarily tropical, some
live in temperate regions (they inhabit marshes, swamps, moist woodlands and stream banks), and
some even in deserts, fields, or rocky crevices on cliffs or mountains. The abundance of ferns
decreases with decrease in moisture. Ferns are in general much larger plants than the bryophytes.
The leaves (fronds) of some ferns are the largest and most complex in the plant kingdom. Although
vascular seedless plants in temperate environments are relatively small, the tree ferns Marattia
growing in the tropics has megaphylls (leaves that probably evolved from branch system) that grow
up to 18 m long.

archegonium

antheridium
a) b) c)

d) e)

Fig. 14: a) the fern plant, b) sorus, c) prothallus, d) archegonium, and e) antheridium

17
General characteristics:
1. Young fronds are typically coiled and arise close to the growing tip of the rhizome
(underground stem);
2. The spores are produced in a collection or cluster of sporangia (sorus) which are carried on
the lower surface of the frond;
3. Spores germinate on damp soil to develop into a separate plant, the prothallus (the tiny heart-
shaped structure – gametophyte that grows flat against the ground);
4. The sex cells develop on the underside of a prothallus in the sex organs the archegonia and
antheridia;
5. Multi-flagellate sperm swim through water to the egg in the archegonium. The zygote will
develop into the new fern plant.

SEED PLANTS
Plants producing seed evolved about 360 million years ago at a time when tropical swamps flooded
the continents. As the earth became cooler and drier, it became essential that seed be produced. As
evolution proceeded the macrospore (egg) became increasingly protected. The motile flagellate
sperm was also replaced by microspores/pollen, contained in a protective wall. Different groups of
seed plants evolved and dominated the earth at different times. Some groups were more successful;
some of these groups became extinct. Others survived, in some cases, only a few descendants.

THE GYMNOSPERMS
The gymnosperms dominated the earth during the late Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Jurassic
periods. Today there are about 65 genera and 720 species. Four phyla resort in this group, the
Ginkgophyta (ginkgoes or maidenhair tree), the Cycadophyta (Cycads), Coniferophyta (conifers) and
the Gnetophyta (gnetophytes). Micro- and megaspores develop within special organs called strobili
(micro- and mega strobili). However, the term ‘gymnosperm’ in Greek means naked seed, i.e. the
megaspore is exposed during pollination. Pollen grains are transported by wind and not water. It is
therefore essential that a huge amount of pollen is produced. One cone of a conifer can release 1-2
million pollen grains. Characteristically secondary growth occurs which would result in enormously
big trees.

PHYLUM: GINKGOPHYTA
This phylum is today represented by a single tree Ginkgo biloba, the maidenhair tree. This tree has
remained unchanged for about 200 million years. This species is native to the eastern China and it
grew in the wild until people started cultivating it for its edible seeds in China and Japan. The
sperm cells of this tree are multi flagellated but the pollinating agent is wind. The pollen is caught

18
up by a droplet secreted by the megasporangium. Ginkgo biloba is extinct in nature found only in
gardens and parks.

PHYLUM: CYCADOPHYTA
There are about 10 genera and 100 living spp of cycads today, and many species are threatened with
extinction. During the Jurassic, (the age of the dinosaurs), plant life on earth was dominated by the
cycads. Sperm, like Ginkgo are also multi flagellated and the pollinating agent is the wind. One sperm
may have as many as 10 000 to 70 000 spirally arranged flagella. They have large strobila and leaves
are palm-like.

PHYLUM: CONIFEROPHYTA (Fig. 15)

Pine trees are the most common tree in the Northern hemisphere. There are pine trees alive today
that are estimated to be over 4 500 years old i.e. 1 500 years older than the Pyramids. Like Ginkgo
they also have two types of leaves. The leaves are typically needle-like and arranged in groups called
fascicles. There are 2 - 8 needles in a fascicle depending on the specific species. The base of the
fascicle is surrounded by small scale-like leaves. The micro (male) strobila are small and produce
thousands of pollen grains. The pollination agent is wind. At the time of pollination, the mega
(female) strobila are small, and the scales bearing the ovule, open. After pollination the seed cones
close up and will develop in size. About 20 months later the cone will become dry, and the scales
will open to release the winged seeds.

b)
a) c)

Fig. 15: Coniferohyta: a) the pine tree, b) female and c) male cones

19
PHYLUM: GNETOPHYTA
This group comprises 70 species in three diverse and obscure genera (Gnetum, Welwitschia and
Ephedra). The genus Welwitschia consists of only one species W. mirabilis. It is confined to the
Namib Desert of south-western Africa. It consists of a short
concave woody stem, which can be 1.5 m in diameter,
connected to a large taproot. This stem bears two strap-like
leaves, which persists throughout the life of the plant. Each
leaf has a meristem at its base, which replaces tissue that is
lost at the tip. Male and female strobila are carried on
different plants. Fig. 16: Welwitchia mirabilis

THE ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering plants)

PHYLUM: ANTHOPHYTA
The angiosperms or flowering plants are the most successful plants today, with at least 300,000 living
species. These plants probably originated sometime before the Cretaceous period, and started to
replace the gymnosperms in the Tertiary period, about 65 million years ago. During that time there
was a worldwide decrease in temperature, rapid formation of mountains and the breaking up of
continents which created different vacant environments that provided new opportunities for
evolutionary radiation.

The angiosperms differ from the gymnosperms because the ovule/ovules are protected in an ovary.
The pollen grains need to grow into and through the tissue surrounding the ovule, before fertilisation
can take place. Pollination agents are usually insects like bees. Even birds act as pollinators. The
seeds are also contained in a fruit.

The angiosperms are clearly divided into two classes, the Monocotyledones or monocots (65,000
species), and the Eudicotyledones, or dicots (170,000 species). Most of the flowering plants today
are dicots.

20
Characteristics of the Monocotyledones e.g. the lilies, grasses, orchids, palms
1. Leaves are parallel veined
2. Whorls are arranged in three. Perianth
consists of only one whorl
3. The seed contains one cotelydon
4. Embryos have only one seedling leaf`

Characteristics of the Eudicotyledones are:

1. Leaves are net veined

2. Perianth consists of two whorls and the whorls
are arranged in four or five
3. The seed contains two cotelydons
4. The embryo has two seedling leaves

21
CHAPTER 5

KINGDOM 7: ANIMALIA
The animals probably originated in the sea and most of the larger groups are still water dwellers.
Animals are multicellular heterotrophs. There are no photosynthetic animals and no unicellular
animals. This kingdom includes amongst others the sponges, jellyfish, the true worms, the snails,
insects (arthropods) the echinoderms (sea stars and sea urchins) and the chordates. Except for the
sponges the cells are organised into specialised tissues. Specific tissues are grouped together to form
organs. Most animals reproduce sexually.

General Characteristics:
1. Body multicellular;
2. In all but simplest animals, cells may be arranged in layers to form tissues, tissues are organised
to form organs and organs form systems (e.g. Digestive-, vascular-, reproductive system, etc.);
3. Heterotrophs;
4. Diverse body plans (i.e. basic structure and functional design of the body);
5. Locomotion by means of special contractile (muscle) fibres; some animals such as sponges and
corals move about as larvae, but are sessile as adults.
6. Cell membranes lack cellulose;
7. Most reproduce sexually; development can be directly or indirectly (larval stages undo
metamorphosis before maturing to adults)

Tissues and tissue layers:

• Presence or absence of tissue layers divides the
animal kingdom into two distinct branches – Parazoa
(lacking tissues; e.g. sponges) and Eumatozoa (have
true tissues; e.g. all other animals);
• Some animals have a diploblastic (two tissue layers
– ectoderm and endoderm) body plan and others are
triploblastic (three tissues layers – ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm).

22
Body Symmetry:
• Most animals are symmetrical (i.e. their bodies can be divided by a plane into mirror-
image halves; but some have irregular
body plans (asymmetrical; e.g. sponges);
• Eumatozoans exhibit one of two body
symmetry patterns – Radiata with two
phyla Cnidaria (e.g. hydras, jellyfishes
and sea anemones) and Ctenophora
(comb jellies) have a radial symmetry.
These animals are usually sessile or
slow-moving;
• All other eumatozoan phyla fall within
the Bilateria, animals that have bilateral
symmetry.

Body cavities:
• Most bilateral symmetrical animals have a body cavity that separates the gut from the
muscle of the body wall;
• Acoelomate animals (do not have a body cavity) include flatworms;
Pseudocoelomates have a
false coelom (e.g.
roundworms); coelomate
animals have a coelom (a
fluid-filled body cavity, also
between the gut and the body
wall lined by the
peritoneum).

23
The following diagram represents an abbreviated classification of the Animalia:

Classification
The more important phyla are:

MAJOR CLADE: PARAZOA

PHYLUM: PORIFERA - the sponges (fig. 17)
These are the simplest of animals. There are about 10,000 species of marine sponges and about 150
additional fresh water sponges. Some are tiny, while others can measure up to two metres across. The
body of a young sponge is sac-like. They draw water in through their ostia (tiny pores) and drive the
water through the internal cavities, thus acquiring food and oxygen. Waste products are excreted into
the water that is expelled from the sponge through one or more large oscula. The water is circulated
by means of specialised flagellated collar cells called choanocytes.

24
General Characteristics
1. Multicellular - the body is a loose aggregation of cells; no organs or true
tissues
2. Body consists of pores, canals and chambers that serve for passage of
water
3. Mostly marine; all aquatic
4. All adults sessile and attached to substratum
5. They possess a skeleton of calcareous or siliceous crystalline Fig. 17: An example of a sponge
spicules and/or a protein called spongin.

MAJOR CLADE: EUMETAZOA

PHYLUM: CNIDARIA (COELENTERARTA)
A large group consisting of more than 9,000 species. They occur abundantly in shallow marine
habitats especially in warm temperate marine habitats. No terrestrial species and often colonial. All
cnidarians carry specialised cells called cnidocytes which carry stinging nematocysts which are used
for defence and feeding purposes.

General Characteristics:
1. Entirely aquatic; mostly marine
2. Radial symmetrical
3. Two types of individuals, polyps and medusae
4. Body consists of two layers i.e. and epidermis and a gastrodermis (diploblastic)
5. One internal cavity, the gastrovascular cavity with a single opening serving both as a mouth
and anus.
6. Nematocysts on both epidermis and gastrodermis
7. No coelomic cavity

25
Classification:
The more important classes are:
Class: Hydrozoa (fig. 18)
These are mainly marine and colonial forms and can be polyps
and/or medusae e.g. Hydra, Obelia. Physalia utriculus, the blue
bottle/ “Portuguese man of war” causes discomfort to bathers when
blown ashore as their nematocysts are discharged as soon as they
are touched and the toxin released could cause a great deal of
discomfort. Fig. 18: Physalia and Obelia (polyps)

Class: Scyphozoa (fig. 19)

These are the true jelly fish that we find mostly floating
free in the open sea like Aurelia.
The adults are medusae.
Fig. 19: Aurelia; an example of the Schyphozoa

Class: Anthozoa (fig. 20)

The Anthozoa are only found in the polyp form. They include
the sea anemones, corals, sea fans, sea plumes, sea pansies.
Anemone fish are known to have formed an association with
anemones that is to the benefit of both organisms. The skin
mucus of the anemone fish protects it against the nematocysts
of the anemone. The anemone in turn provides protection for
the anemone fish. Fig. 20: Metridium; an example of the Anthozoa

PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES
These are the flat worms. They are the simplest animals in which true organs occur. We find both
free living and parasitic forms and the parasitic forms can be ecto- or endoparasites. Many species
are of economic importance (as parasites of livestock), or of medical importance to man.

General Characteristics
1. The body consists of three layers (triploblastic)
2. Symmetry is bi-lateral
3. Body flattened dorso-ventrally
26
4. No internal body space other than digestive tube (acoelomate)

Classification
The more important classes are:
Class: Trematoda - flukes (fig. 21)
Parasitic flukes, mostly endoparasites on all vertebrate classes. They feed and attach to the host by
means of an oral and ventral sucker. The digestive system is well developed and is branched with
two main branches. The life cycle includes an intermediate host, usually a mollusc and then a
vertebrate as the definitive host. The typical life cycle includes the adult (difinitive host), egg
(water), miracidium (free swimming, penetrates the snail), sporocyst (snail) rediae (snail),
cercariae (leaves the snail), metacercariae (encysted/unencysted in a second intermediate host or
on vegetation) to be eaten by the difinitive host. Examples are, Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica
(liver fluke causing liver rot), Chlonorchis sinensis (causing cirrhosis of the liver), Schistosoma
mansoni, S. japonicum, S. haematobium (the blood flukes causing schistosomiasis - bilharzia) and
Paragonimus (lung flukes, causing chronic cough and breathing difficulties).

Fasiola hepatica Schistosoma

Fig. 21: Examples of the Plathyhelminthes

Class: Cestoda - tapeworms (fig 22)

27
The tapeworms (> 1,000 species) usually have long flat bodies made up of
segments called proglottids. Digestive system is absent. They absorb their
nutrients directly through their integument. An entirely parasitic group that
attaches themselves to the host tissue by means of the scolex. The tapeworms
occurring in man are the beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata or Taeniarhynchus
saginatus), the pork tapeworm (T. solium), the fish tapeworm
(Diphyllobothrium), the dog tape worm (Dipylidium), the dwarf tapeworm
(Hymenolepis nana), and two Echinococcus species, E. granulosus and E.
Fig. 22: Anterior
multilocularis.
part of a tapeworm
PHYLUM: NEMATODA - the round worms (fig. 23)
(scolex and first few
More than 2,000 species resort in this phylum. Both parasitic and free living forms are present. They
proglottids)
occur in every conceivable ecological niche and habitat, from the arctic region to the tropics, in the
sea, fresh water and the terrestrial species occur everywhere on land, where they feed on decaying
matter, bacteria, yeasts, fungi, algae, other invertebrates and plant juices. The parasitic forms
parasitize every species of vertebrate. They range from microscopically to over a metre long.

General Characteristics:
1. The bodies are bi-lateral symmetrical, cylindrical, worm-like;
2. They have a pseudocoel or a false coelom;
3. They posses a flexible non-living cuticle;
4. The pharynx is very muscular with a tri-radiate lumen.

Examples of important parasitic nematodes are Ascaris lumbricoides (the

roundworm found in humans), Ancylostoma caninum, A. duodenale
(hookworms), Enterobius vermicularis (the pinworm), Strongyloides
stercoralis (the threadworm), Toxacara canis, T. cati (the intestinal
roundworms of cats and dogs), Trichuris trichiura (whipworms) and
Wuchereria bancrofti (filarial worm) and Necator americanus (the american
hookworm). Infestation of nematodes leads to discomfort, disease e.g. anaemia
and could lead to the death of the host. Infestation takes place through the host
either inhaling dust with ova, ingesting embryonated ova from contaminated
fingers or in contaminated food. Sometimes the juveniles penetrate the skin of
the host, from where they find their way into the bloodstream of the host
Fig. 23: A roundworm
e.g. Ancylostoma.

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 PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA
More than a 100,000 living species of molluscs have been named, not to mention 35,000 fossil species
discovered to date. The name Mollusca indicates that they have a soft body. This is a very diverse
group that includes the chitons, tooth shells, snails, slugs, clams, mussels, oysters, squid, octopusses
and nautilusses and range in size from almost microscopical to the giant squid. A mollusc consists of
a main body mass, the visceral hump, which is usually covered by a shell, from which extends the
head and a locomotor area, the foot.

Molluscs are found from the tropics to the polar seas, mostly marine, but they also live in ponds,
lakes, rivers, on mud flats and also on land. Terrestrial snails are limited in their distribution by their
need for humidity, shelter and the presence of Calcium in the soil.

A wide variety of snails are used for food. Pearls are obtained from the bivalves. Some molluscs are
destructive. The burrowing shipworm did and still does great damage to wooden boats, ships and
wharves. Snails and slugs do great damage to crops and gardens and many snails serve as intermediate
host for serious parasites causing diseases, e.g. bilharzia.

General Characteristics:
1. Body bilaterally symmetrical or asymmetrical, unsegmented with usually a definite head
2. Ventral body wall form the foot
3. Dorsal body wall forms a pair of folds, the mantle. The mantle cavity is responsible for
respiration and it secretes the shell (where a shell is present)
4. A coelom is present
5. Feeding takes place with the aid of the radula
6. Circulatory system open or closed - heart present

Of the seven classes the following are the most important

Class: Gastropoda - the snails and slugs. (fig 24)

A single shell might be present and might be coiled or uncoiled. The soft body can be extended or
withdrawn into the shell which is then sealed by the operculum. Examples are many thousands of
sea snails like the Conus spp. that contain a neurotoxic venom, fatal to man should this venom be
injected by means of the radula tooth, Helix (the garden snail), and the freshwater snails Radix spp.
(also known as Lymnaea spp.) (the intermediate host for the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica and
Fasciola gigantica; Bulinus africanus (the intermediate host for Schistosoma haematobium) and
Biomphalaria pfeifferi (the intermediate hosts for Schistosoma mansoni).
29
 Conus

Typical gastropod with the body extended

Fig. 24: Examples of the Gastropoda

Class: Bivalvia - the mussels, clams and oysters (fig 25).

They have two shells held together by a hinge ligament. The two shells are pulled closely together
and seal when the abductor muscle contracts. When the abductor muscle relaxes the hinge muscle
pulls the two shells apart. Large clams of the genus Tridachna, found in the Pacific can reach a length
of more than one metre and weigh as much as 225 kg. The black mussel, Choromytilus meridionalis
and the Cape oyster, Crassostrea margaritacea, often used for food by man, become toxic to humans
during a >red tide= when they feed on great numbers of the toxic dinoflagellates, Gymnodinium and
Gonyaulax.

Fig. 25: Shells of bi-valve gastropods black mussel

Class: Cephalopoda – squids and octopuses

squid octopus

Fig. 26: Examples of two types of cephalopods

30
The foot is modified to form arms e.g. the squids (ten arms) and octopuses (eight arms) (fig. 26).
Shells are often reduced, could be external (Nautilus), internal (Loligo - the squid) or absent
(Octopus). The two octopuses found in our waters are venomous and can inflict a nasty bite causing
a great deal of discomfort. The venom is neurotoxic, but not fatal.

PHYLUM: ANNELIDA - the segmented worms.

These are the earthworms, the freshwater worms, the marine worms and the leeches. They have a
world-wide distribution. The body is externally divided into similar rings or segments that are
separated by circular grooves called annuli. Segmentation or metamerism is, however, also internal,
resulting in the repetitive arrangement of organs and systems. Septa separates the segments (also
called a metamere or somite). Each segment bears tiny chitinous bristles called setae (except in the
class Hirudinea).

General Characteristics:
1. Body metamerically segmented, symmetry bilateral;
2. Chitinous setae present except in the leeches;
3. Coelom well developed;
4. Blood system closed;
5. Ventral nervous system.

Classification:
The more important classes are:
Class: Polychaeta - marine worms e.g. the clam worm Nereis and the fire worm Eurythoe
complanata (fig. 26)

Fig. 26: Nereis; a marine polychaete

31
The head is distinct, bearing eyes and tentacles. The many setae are born on fleshy parapodia. The
clitellum is absent. The setae of the fire worm contain venom glands. Touching this worm can be
very painful and could lead to necrosis of the tissues.

GROUP: CLITELLATA (with clitella = a packsaddle)

This Class includes annelid worms that had previously been classified as Class Oligochaeta and Class
Hirudinea:
Oligochaetes [the earth worms e.g. Lumbricus terrestris (fig. 27)] are terrestrial and freshwater
animals, some parasitic. The head is absent. Few setae per metamere. Parapodia is absent, clitellum
present.

Fig. 27: Lumbricus terrestris, an example of a terrestrial oligocheate

Hirudineans [the leeches e.g. the medicinal leech, Hirudo (fig 28)] are also called leeches, of which
mostly are fluid feeders, preferring to pump blood from open wounds. Some species are true parasites.
Mostly fresh water organisms, few marine and terrestrial forms. Anterior and posterior suckers are
present, clitellum present. Parapodia and setae are absent.

Fig. 28: Hirudo; a freshwater example of the Hirudinea

PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
This is the most extensive and successful group in the animal kingdom, making up three quarters of
all known species. Approximately 1,100,000 species have been described. This phylum includes two
major clades (subphyla), Chelicerata and Mandibulata. The arthropods include the insects,
spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, crustaceans, millipedes and centipedes. Although arthropods compete

32
with the human for food supplies and spread serious vertebrate diseases, they are essential in
pollination of many plants. They also serve as food, yield useful drugs and dyes and produce useful
products such as honey, silk and beeswax. They are found in all types of environment from the tropics
to the polar regions.

General Characteristics:
1. Bodies are bilateral symmetrical, segmented, often divided into head and trunk; head thorax
and abdomen; or cephalothorax and abdomen
2. Appendages are jointed, primitively one pair per segment
3. An exosketeton is secreted by the underlying epidermis. The organism outgrows its
exoskeleton so that it has to be shed at regular intervals, a process called ecdysis
4. Complex muscular system
5. Open circulatory system with a large haemocoel. Contractile heart dorsal
6. Dorsal brain, but ventral nervous system
7. The eggs hatch into immatures, which may bear no resemblance to the adults. Characteristics
change as they develop from stage to stage through a process called metamorphosis

Classification:
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida -spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites and horse-shoe crabs.
Adults have four pairs of walking legs. Eyes when present are simple. Respiration through tracheae
or book-lungs. The first pair of appendages, the chelicerae, are fanglike structures that are used for
biting prey; the second pair of appendages, the pedipalps, serve as grasping organs, sensory organs
or walking legs. All chelicerates have two major body regions, the prosoma (a fused head and thorax)
and opisthosoma (abdominal region)

Order: Araneae (spiders) (fig. 29)

The body of the spiders consists of a cephalothorax (prosoma) and an abdomen (opisthosoma).
Both are unsegmented and joined together by a slender pedicel. Mouthparts consist of a pair of
chelicerae with terminal fangs provided with ducts from the poison glands, and a pair of pedipalps.
Respiration through book-lungs and/or trachea.

33
Mostly terrestrial although a few are aquatic, all spiders are
predacious and feed mostly on small insects and other
invertebrates, but in some cases mice and fledgling birds are
caught by large spiders and the fishing spider is known to catch
small fish. Many spiders spin some sort of web with their
spindle-shaped spinnerets found on the abdomen to snare and
entangle the prey. There are, however, also hunting spiders, Fig. 29: Latrodectus; the button spider
jumping spiders and trapdoor spiders. Well-known South African
spiders are the poisonous button spiders Latrodectus geometricus, L. rhodesiensis, L. indistinctus.
The bite of the latter, the black button spider, can be fatal. The venom is neurotoxic.
Order: Scorpiones - scorpions (fig 30)
Terrestrial. The body consists of a cephalothorax and an abdomen. The
cephalothorax is broad. The abdomen consists of two parts, the
mesosome (seven segments) and a metasome (five segments) which
terminates in a telson (sting). The sting has a bulbous base and a curved
barb that injects the venom. Chelicerae are small, the pedipalps are
large and terminate in a pincer.
Secretive animals that hide in burrows or under objects by
Fig. 30: An example of the Buthidae
day and feed at night. They feed largely on insects and
spiders. They seize the prey with the pedipalps and then proceed to tear it up with the chelicerae.
Females are ovi-viviparous (the eggs hatch as they are lain) or truly viviparous, i.e. the eggs hatch
within the reproductive tract of the mother. The young, only a few millimetres long, crawl onto the
mother’s back until after the first moult.

Members of the South African families, the Scorpionidae and the Buthidae both inflict a very
painful wound. However, the venom of the Scorpionidae is not dangerous, but the sting of the
Buthidae can be fatal as the venom is neurotoxic e.g. Uroplectus spp., Buthotus spp. and Parabuthus
spp. Some of these scorpions can also squirt the venom over a distance of one metre.

Order: Acari - the hard ticks, soft ticks and mites (fig. 31)
Terrestrial. The cephalothorax and abdomen are fused into an
unsegmented ovoid body with eight legs. Members of this group are
found all over the world. Some are terrestrial, others aquatic and many
are parasitic. Respiration through trachea.

34
The hard ticks (family Ixodidae) are ectoparasites of vertebrates. Immatures and adults pierce the
skin of the host and engorge on the blood of the host until they are Fig. 31: Hyalomma spp
enormously distended. The engorged immature will then fall to the
ground and moult into the next stage, while the female will proceed to lay many thousands of eggs.
Many ticks are important vectors of disease e.g. Hyalomma marginatum rufipes and Hyalomma
truncatum vector for Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever in man. Many of the tick species also act
as vector for Erlichia conori, the causative agent for tick bite fever in man.

The soft ticks or tampans (Argasidae) feed repeatedly, moulting each time
into the next immature stage. An adult female also feeds repeatedly, producing
eggs after each feed. Well-known genera are Argas (reptile, bird and bat
tampans) and Ornithodorus moubata (the hut tampan).
Mites are minute, usually less than 2 mm long. Some are destructive to plants
like the red spider mite, while others like Sarcoptes scabiei, the human itch
mite and Demodex folliculorum (the hair follicle mite) cause mange in
Argas spp
mammals.

AQUATIC MANDIBULATES
Subphylum: Pancrustacea - shellfish (fig. 32)
Class: Malacostraca
This group includes the crabs, crayfish, lobsters, waterfleas and barnacles. They are segmented with
between 16 - 20 segments, grouped together and sometimes fused to form a head, thorax and an
abdomen. The body is encrusted in a hard exoskeleton. Growth by means of ecdysis. Most
crustaceans are free living but parasitic forms do occur as parasites of fish and other crustaceans like
crabs. Especially crayfish and crabs are utilised by man as food.

General Characteristics:
1 The crustaceans are primarily aquatic - respiration by means of gills
2. They have characteristically two pairs of antennae
3. The appendages are primitively biramous and can be carried on segments of the thorax and
the abdomen
4. They have large compound eyes

35
 crayfish
crab
Fig. 32: Examples of the Crustacea

TERRESTRIAL MANDIBULATES
Subphylum: Myriapoda
Class: Chilopoda - the centipedes (fig. 33)
Wormlike land organisms with somewhat flattened segmented bodies. A pair of jointed appendages
is present on each of these segments, bar the first, just behind the head and the last two. Chewing
mouthparts are present on the head.

The appendages of the first segment are modified to form a pair of poison claws. They are carnivorous
feeding on earth worms and insects. They kill their prey with the poison claws. The large centipede,
Scolopendra can inflict quite a painful bite if handled by man.

Fig. 33: Example of a centipede

Class: Diplopoda - the millipedes (fig. 34)

Each abdominal segment bears two pairs of appendages. The thorax is short (four) segments with
each segment only bearing one pair of legs. The centipedes are herbivorous, often feeding on decayed
matter. When disturbed a millipede might roll up and fake death, or turn over and slide on his back
to scare of his assailant off.

36
 Fig. 34: Example of a millipede

Subphylum: Hexapoda (hexapoda = six feet)

Class: Insecta - the insects (fig. 35)
This is the most successful class of all animal classes. More than 70% of all animals named, are
insects. Insects are relatively small and the body is made up of a head, thorax and abdomen. They
differ from the other arthropods in having only three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings
attached to the thorax. The insects have spread into every possible habitat. They are the only class of
the arthropods that bear two compound eyes in addition to the simple eyes (ocelli) found in the other
arthropod classes. Relatively few are marine living, but they are common in fresh water and on land.
Many are parasitic on and in the bodies of animals and plants. They possess an exoskeleton made up
of a complex system of plates known as sclerites. The exoskeleton consists of chitin.

Characteristic of all insects is their changing life cycle. In some insects the changes are abrupt and
different instars can be distinguished, (eggs, larvae, pupae and lastly the adult stage). In others, the
stages change gradually from the one to the next every time the insect sheds its exoskeleton. The
immatures are usually called nymphs.

beetle butterfly
Fig. 36: Examples of insects

Classification:
The most common orders are:
Subclass: Apterygota (primitive wingless insects without metarmophsis)
Order: Thysanura (silverfish) - Small grey flightless insects with three long terminal cerci,
often found in homes, causing damage to books and pictures.

37
Fig. 37: An example of the Thysanura

Subclass: Pterygota (winged insects with metarmophosis)

Order: Odonata (dragon flies & damselflies) - Brightly coloured insects with beautiful
transparent wings, often seen over water. Eggs are laid in the water and the nymphs are aquatic.

Fig. 38: Examples of the Odonata

Order: Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, and cockroaches) - Forewings are thickened, with the
hind wings folded like a fan under the forewings.

Fig. 39: Example of the Orthoptera, grass hopper

Order: Isoptera (the termites) - Social insects (a queen with different casts). Known to cultivate
fungi underground on which they feed. They have two pair of narrow transparent wings equal in size.
Usually flightless as they shed their wings at maturity. Termites can do considerable damage to
wooden frames and floors in buildings. The wood shavings are then used as a substrate to cultivate
the fungi on.
38
Fig. 40: Examples of the Isoptera, termite adult, worker, soldier and queen

Order: Mallophaga (the biting lice) - These insects are wingless, the legs are adapted to cling to the
host and they are ectoparasites on birds and mammals

Fig. 41: Examples of the Mallophaga

Order: Anoplura (the sucking lice) - They are also wingless but the mouthparts are adapted for
piercing and sucking. They are ectoparasites on man e.g. the pubic louse Phthirus pubis, the head
louse Pediculus humanis capitis and the body louse Pediculus humanis corpus.

Fig. 42: Example of the Anoplura

Order: Hemiptera (the true bugs) - Wings can be present or absent. The basal portion of the front
wing is leathery, the apical portion membranous. The hind wings are membranous. At rest, the wings
are held flat over the body. This group includes the well-known enemy of man, the bed bugs Cimex
lectularis and C hemipterus. Many representatives have odorous scent glands like the stinkbugs.

39
Fig. 43: The stinkbug, an example of the Hemiptera

Order: Homoptera - the leafhoppers and the aphids

They resemble the Hemiptera but their front wings, when present are uniform. They feed on plants
and especially aphids cause great crop losses.

Fig. 44: The cicada, an example of the Homoptera

Order: Neuroptera - the antlions and lacewings

These insects have beautiful lacelike transparent wings and are often confused with the dragonflies.
They, however, hold they wings over the body and not at a 90o angle with the body. Metamorphosis
is complete. The larvae of the antlions make craters in the sand to trap ants.

Fig. 45: Larva and adult of the antlion, and example of the Neuroptera

40
Order: Coleoptera (the beetles) - This is the largest order of animals in the world.

Fig. 46: Mylabris omlata and other examples of the Coleoptera

The front wings are thick and hard, called elytra. The hind wings are membranous and are folded
under the elytra when at rest. Metamorphosis is complete. Some of the beetles are poisonous, e.g.
The pupae of the beetle Diamphidia nigroornata which were used by the primitive Bushmen to make
the poison for their arrows. Traditional healers (witchdoctors) used to give their patients a potion
prepared from the poisonous Mylabris as an aphrodisiac.

Order: Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) - The two pair of wings are membranous and covered
with scales. These scales can be brightly coloured and form a pattern typical to the species.
Metamorphosis is complete. The larvae are wormlike in appearance and feed on plants. The fully
fed larva will prepare a cocoon around him. In this cocoon the larva is transformed into a pupa and
the adult will appear from the pupa. The pupa and very often the adult stage, do not feed at all. Many
moths are of economic importance as the larvae often destroy crops.

Fig. 47: A larva, pupa and adult stage of an example of the Lepidoptera

Order: Diptera (the flies and mosquitoes) - Only a single pair the front wings are present. The
hindwings are reduced to inconspicuous balancers called halteres. This group are of great importance
to man. The housefly, Musca domestica is a constant irritation and carrier of disease. The larvae of
41
the blowfly, Crysomya bezzianna feed in a wound on the living tissue, while the adults of others are
blood sucking, eg. Stomoxys. The tsetse fly Glossina morsitans act as vector for sleeping sickness in
man and Nagana in cattle. Different species of mosquitoes are of great medical and economic
importance as ectoparasites of man and his life stock e.g. Aedes, Culex and Anopheles spp. Apart of
parasitizing their hosts, they also act as vectors for different pathogens eg. Aedes spp. act as the vector
of yellow fever, while Anopheles spp. act as vector for the malaria parasite in man.

Fig. 48: The house fly, tsetse fly and a mosquito, examples of the Diptera

Order: Siphonaptera (the flees) - Small, laterally flattened, hard insects adapted for jumping.
Bloodsucking ecto-parasites on mammals and birds, e.g. Pulex and Xenopsylla spp. X. cheopis and
the house rat are the two main carriers of plague. Ctenocephalides canis acts as intermediate host for
the dog tapeworm, Dipylidium canis.

Fig. 49: An example of the Siphonaptera

Order: Hymenoptera (ants, bees and the wasps) –

42
Fig. 50: Examples of the Hymenoptera - the honey bee, and wasps
Four wings, if present. Hind wings, subordinate. Ovipositor often modified into a stinger. Some
species are social e.g. the honey bee Apis mellifera while others are solitary.

DEUTEROSTOMES: VERTEBRATES AND THEIR CLOSEST RELATIVES

INVERTEBRATE DEUTEROSTOMES
• Two phyla: Echinodermata and Hemichordata.

PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA
The echinoderms are beautiful, often colourful, marine forms. They are adapted to live on the ocean
bottom and occur from the inter-tidal zone to great depths. Echinoderms include the sea stars, brittle
stars, sea urchins and sand dollars.

General Characteristics:
1. A calcareous endoskeleton in the form of plates or scattered tiny ossicles with spines;
2. The body is unsegmented with a radial, pentamerous symmetry. The body is rounded,
cylindrical or star shaped with five radiating areas, the umbulacra alternating with inter-
umbulacral areas;
3. No head or brain;
4. Locomotion by tube feet;
5. Development through free-swimming bilateral larva stages.

Classification:

43
The best known classes are:

Class: Ophiuroidea - the brittle stars (fig. 51)

Star shaped organisms with slender radiating arms, sharply marked off from the central disc e.g.
Ophiura.

Fig. 51: An example of a brittle star

Class: Asteroidea - sea stars (fig. 52)

Star shaped echinoderms with arms not sharply marked off from the central disc. Found on hard
surfaces on the ocean floor e.g. Asterias.

Fig. 52: Asterias; the sea star

Class: Echinoidea - sea urchins and sand dollars (fig. 53)

Globular or disc shaped echinoderms with no arms e.g. Echinus spp. (the sea urchins) and Mellita
spp. (the sand dollars). They are adapted for living on the ocean bottom. The spines of the sea urchins
can inflict a very painful wound when trodden on.

44
Fig. 53: Echinus; the sea urchin

Class: Holothuroidea - sea cucumbers (fig. 54)

Cucumber shaped with no arms. They lie on the ocean floor, often concealed by seaweed e.g.
Cucumaria. The body wall of certain large sea cucumbers is considered a delicacy in some oriental
countries and the gonads of the sea urchin are eaten raw or roasted.

Fig. 54: An example of a sea cucumber

PHYLUM: CHORDATA
All the members of this phylum share one characteristic, the presence of a notochord. The notochord
is a rod-like structure formed by vacuolated cells. It extends, in most cases, along the length of the
body and is situated between the enteric canal and the central nervous system. Its primary function
is/was to support and stiffen the body i.e. it acts as a skeletal axis. The notochord can be present either
in the larval or embryonic form only, or throughout life.

General Characteristics:
1. Bilateral symmetry. The body is segmented with well-differentiated head and tail regions,
a well-developed coelom
2. Notochord present at some stage in the life cycle
3. Nerve chord dorsal and tubular, enlarged to form the brain at the anterior end
4. Pharyngeal gill clefts present at some or other stage in the life cycle
5. Post-anal tail present
6. Cartilaginous or bony endoskeleton present in most (vertebrates)
The chordates can be divided into two main groups, the Protochordata, and the Craniata

45
GROUP: PROTOCHORDATA
Two subphyla resort under this group.

SUBPHYLUM: THE UROCHORDATA - the tunicates (fig 55)

These are marine organisms. The notochord and nerve chord are present only in the free living larval
forms. The adults are sessile and can be found attached to rocks in the tidal zone, e.g. Pyura.

adult tadpole-like larva

Fig. 55: Pyura; red bait

SUBPHYLUM: CEPHALOCHORDATA - the lancelets (fig. 56)

Fig. 56: Branchiostoma; the lancelet

These are marine organisms, fishlike forms with a notochord and nerve chord along the entire length
of the body - also in the adult form e.g. Branchiostoma.

GROUP: CRANIATA
SUBPHYLUM: VERTEBRATA
Eight classes resort under this subphylum. True jaws are absent in the representatives of two more
primitive classes, the Petromyzontes and the Myxini (marine forms). Jaws and usually paired
appendages are found in the remaining six classes.

General Characteristics:
1. Notochord more or less replaced by the spinal column consisting of bony or cartilagenous
vertebrae surround the spinal chord. The notochord is visible in the embryonic stage
46
2. Muscles are attached to the endoskeleton to provide movement
3. Ventral heart and closed vascular system
4. Well-developed coelom
5. Dorsal nervous system and a well-developed brain consisting primarily of five vesicles

Class: Chondrichthyes - sharks, rays, skates (fig. 57)

Marine animals, mostly carnivorous with streamlined bodies. The skeleton is cartilagenous and the
tail heterocercal. The mouth is ventral. Respiration through gill clefts (5 - 7) which are naked i.e.
there is no operculum covering the gill clefts. They have a two chambered heart e.g. Squalus
(dogfish) and Raja (ray or skate). Skin covered with small scales.

shark
ray

Fig. 57: Examples of the Chondrichthyes

Class: Osteichthyes - the bony fishes (fig. 58)

Aquatic animals occurring in both marine and freshwater environments. The skeleton is mostly
ossified and the tail is homocercal. The mouth is terminal. Respiration by means of gills that do not
open separately to the exterior but are covered by an operculum behind the head on each side of the
body. They have a two chambered heart e.g. Salmo (the salmon), Tilapia. Skin covered with
scales.

Fig. 58: An example of the Osteichthyes

Class: Amphibia - amphibians i.e. the frogs and the salamanders (fig. 59)
They are poikilothermic vertebrates. Respiration takes place through lungs, gills or through the skin.
Larval stage present. This is the first class to have colonised the terrestrial environment but they are
still dependent on moisture and are seldom found far from water. Some representatives are fully
aquatic, however most are amphibic, mostly depending on water for reproduction. The skin is smooth
47
and moist and devoid of scales. They have a three chambered heart, two atria and one ventricle,
e.g. frogs and toads like Xenopus, Bufo, Rana and the newt Triturus.

Triturus; the newt

Bufo spp
Fig. 59: Examples of the class Amphibia

Class: Reptilia - the reptiles i.e. snakes, lizards, chameleons, tortoises and crocodiles (fig 60).
Poikilothermic tetrapods, terrestrial and marine. Terrestrial forms are good swimmers. Respiration
by lungs, embryo develops within a shelled egg called the amniotic egg that can be laid on dry land.
The embryo develops within its own aquatic medium in this egg. The body is covered by an
exoskeleton of horny epidermal scales. Except for the crocodiles, they have a three-chambered
heart. Respiration takes place through lungs eg. Geochelone spp. the mountain tortoise, one of the
lizards, Lacerta spp. the crocodile Crocodylus spp. and the snakes.

As some snakes immobilise and kill their prey, or protect themselves by injecting venom into the
body of their prey or assailant by means of specialised venom teeth, a number of snakes are of
medically importance to man. The bite of some snakes can be, or is fatal, e.g. the boomslang,
Dispholidus typus, the rinkhals Hemachatus haemachatus the green mamba, Dendroaspis
angusticeps and the black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis, different cobra species belonging to the
genus Naja and some of the adders belonging to the genus Bitis.

There are four marine snake species of which one, Pelamis platurus occurs in the Indian ocean. The
bite of the sea snake is also fatal.

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Fig. 60: One of the venomous South African snakes

Class: Aves - the birds (fig 61)

Fig. 61: Example of South African birds

Endothermic animals with the front appendages modified for flight (wings). The body is covered
with feathers; scales on the feet. Jaws covered with horny beaks. They have a four-chambered
heart with a right aortic arch. Respiration takes place by means of lungs. They reproduce by means
of a shelled amniotic egg. Birds can be terrestrial, are found over all our continents and on all the
oceans, many can swim and live partially on water. They are mostly dependent on land for their
breeding sites. e.g. the African ostrich (flightless and the largest living bird today), the penguin (a
marine bird), the sea gull (uses the skies over our oceans) and the house sparrow (uses the sky over
our continents).

Class: Mammalia - the mammals

Endothermic and homeothermic. The young are fed by milk from mammary glands and the body
is covered with hair. They have a four-chambered heart with a left aortic arch. Respiration by
means of lungs. Eggs develop in the uterus (viviparous) with placental attachment (except in

49
monotremes). Mammals occur in the sea (whales), fresh water (dugong) and on land. Some mammals
have adapted to flight (bats).

The class Mammalia is divided into two subclasses:

Subclass: Prototheria
Order: Monotremata - these are egg-laying mammals
Found in Australia and surrounding islands Tasmania and New Guinea. Although they lay eggs, these
animals, however, have hair and the young are fed by milk e.g. the platypus and the spiny ant eaters.

Fig 62: The monotremes - the platypus and spiny ant eater

Subclass: Theria
Infraclass: Metatheria
Order: Marsupialia - opossums, kangaroos, koalas, wallabies, wombats etc.

Fig 63: Examples of the marsupials - the kangaroo and the koala bear

These mammals are mainly restricted to Australia and Tasmania although the opossum occurs in
South America. They all have a marsupium, a pouch in which they rear their young. The young are
nourished for a very short time by means of a primitive placenta. The helpless young are born, after
which it crawls into the marsupium and attaches to a nipple, where it stays until it becomes
independent.

Infraclass: Eutheria
These are the placental mammals.
Classification:

50
Sixteen orders resort under the infraclass Eutheria.
Order: Afrosoricida (golden moles)
The golden moles, have only vestiges of eyes and ears. The coat has an iridescent sheen, from there
the name “golden” moles. They are subterranean mammals, insectivores, little larger than a big rat,
that move in subsurface runs which show on the surface as raised dome-like or cracked elevations.
The front appendages carry enlarged nails for digging.

Fig.64: Examples of the Afrosoricida – a golden mole (Smithers &

Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Macroscelidea (Elephant shrews)

The elephant shrews are “mouse-like” animals with long pointed noses and an exceptionally long
tong. They feed exclusively on insects.

Fig.65: Example of the Macroscelidea – elephant shrew (Smithers &

Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Tubulidentata
The aardvark is the only living representative of this order. It is a much larger animal, with a long
muzzle and ears and a long snout. The body is sparsely haired giving them a superficial resemblance
to a pig. It is heavier in the hindquarters, has an arched body and a thick tapering tail. They feed on
ants and termites, destroying the termite mounds with their strong powerful limbs and strong claws.
The long sticky tong is then inserted into a tunnel and the ants/termites are withdrawn sticking to the
tongue and stripped off in the mouth. Dentition is much reduced (adults have no incisors or canines),
and take the shape of little studs. They are nocturnal, and rest in burrows

Fig.66: Example of the

Tubulidentata, aardvark
(Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

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Order: Hyracoidea (dassies or hyraxes). The closest relatives to the dassies are the dugong and the
elephants. Dassies are small, tail-less, compact animals commonly seen in groups in rocky areas.
The living species are about the size of a domestic cat. They have a vegetarian diet, feeding on
grasses, forbs and browse.

Fig 67: The Rock hyrax (Smithers &

Chimimba, 2005)
.
Order: Proboscidea (elephants) - There are three elephant spp alive today, the African savanna
elephant, the forest elephant, that occur in the forests of central equatorial Africa and the Indian
elephant. The African savanna elephant is the largest land mammal alive, measuring over 4 meters at
the shoulder. The two upper incisors are elongated as tusks, and the nose has the shape of a trunk.
Destruction of habitat and hunting especially for the illegal ivory trade has diminished is affecting
elephant numbers in many African countries. Elephants browse and graze.

Fig. 68: The African savanna elephant

Order: Sirenia (dugong)

Fig 69: A dugong (Smithers &

Chimimba, 2005)

This order includes the dugong that occurs along coasts in the warmer seas of the world and around
islands in the Indian Ocean, and the South American manatee. An adult dugong is about 3 meters
long and weighs up to 400 kg and feed on sea grasses. Their numbers are drastically reduced due to
over-exploitation and in some areas they have become locally extinct.

Order: Lagomorpha (hares and scrub hares and rock rabbits)

52
Characteristic nocturnal group with long ears, with four upper incisor teeth and one pair of lower
incisors that need to be worn down continually. One of the southern African species, the Riverine
rabbit is amongst the rarest of our mammals, occurring only in a small area of the Central Karoo on
the narrow alluvial fringe of seasonally dry watercourses. They feed on plant material, and are known
to exhibit coprophagy, i.e. they eat their own faeces. This is necessary to replenish bacteria necessary
for digestion.

Fig. 70: One of the Lagomorpha – the Cape hare

(Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Rodentia (rodent-moles, mole-rats, squirrels, rats, mice, the Springhare and the Procupine)

2.
1. 3.

4. 5.

6.
Fig. 71: Examples of the rodents - 1) the Porcupine, 2) Springhare, 3) Damaraland mole-rat, 4) Rock
dormouse, 5) Four-striped grass mouse and 6) the Damara ground squirrel (Smithers & Chimimba,
2005)

53
This is a very large group, that includes the tiny Pygmy mouse to the largest, the Porcupine. Canine
and anterior premolar teeth are absent. The incisors (four - two upper and two lower) are chisel-like
and grow continually enabling them to gnaw. The porcupine is well known for the quills it carries on
its back. These quills are erected when threatened, and serve as protection.

Order: Primates (galagos, bush babies, monkeys, baboons, chimpanzees, gorillas and the human)

Fig. 72: An example of the primates -

Grant’s galago (Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

The brain well developed with especially large cerebral hemispheres. Five digits on both front and
back limbs. Forelimbs are adapted for grasping. Most have a prehensile tail facilitating an arboreal
way of life. The primates are mostly omnivores

Order: Eulipotyphla (shrews, hedgehog)

Shrews are small mouse-like animals that feed almost exclusively on insects and other arthropods.
Some seeds and plant material are also taken. The hedgehog is unique. The upper part of the body is
covered with short spines. They roll themselves into a ball when threatened. They are mostly
nocturnal and omnivorous although arthropods make out a large part of their diet.

Fig 73: Examples of the Eulipotyphla – the Least

dwarf shrew and the Southern African hedgehog
(Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Chiroptera (insect-eating and fruit-eating bats)

Bats are the only true flying mammals. The wings are modified forelimbs. A thin integument
membrane is supported by the elongated digits (2 to 5). They sense objects and prey (in the case of
the insect-eating bats through echolocation. Bats hang upside down during the day in protected places
like caves and emerge at dusk to feed.

54
 Fig 74: Examples of bats – the Equiptian
rousette (a fruit-eating bat) and the Rufous
mouse-eared bat (an insect-eating bat)
(Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Pholidota(pangolin)
The pangolin is covered with an armour of heavy yellow-brown scales. The scales are agglutinated
hair. When threatened they roll themselves into a ball. Like the aardvark the pangolin feeds
exclusively on ants and termites, using a long elongated tongue to extract the ants and termites from
the nests. They are nocturnal.

Fig 75: The Ground pangolin (Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Carnivora (hyenas, cats, civets and genets, surricates and mongooses, dog, lion, leopard,
jackal, otters, honey badger as
well as the marine species,
the fur seals and the true seals)

55
Fig. 76: Examples of the Carnivora, 1) the South African large-spotted genet, 2) surricate or
meerkat, 3) African clawless otter and 4) the South African fur seal (Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

This group is carnivorous with teeth specially adapted to kill the prey and for tearing flesh. Some
species have however adapted to a specialized diet like the bat-eared fox and the aardwolf that feed
exclusively on insects, while others have largely a vegetarian diet like the African Civet

Order: Perissodactyla (the rhinoceroses, horses and zebra)

Fig. 77: Examples of the order

Perissodactyla - the White rhinoceros
and Plains zebra (Smithers &
Chimimba, 2005)

These are the odd toed (either 1 or 3 toes) hoofed animals. Herbivorous with teeth adapted for
chewing. They are either grazers or browsers.

56
There are 5 living rhinoceros species in the world today of which two occur in the southern sub-
region. All 5 species are endangered due to habitat loss and the illegal trade in rhino horn for its
supposed medicinal value and for ornamentation.

The only true horses in the southern region are the Mountain zebra and the Plains zebra

Order: Suiformes (pigs, bushpigs and warthog)

The pigs have a stout body with sparecely spaced bristly hair. They have four toes both pairs armed
with hooves, but only the central pair touches the ground. The head is elongated tapering towards the
snout. They are diurnal and omnivorous.

Fig 78: An example of the Suiformes – the Common warthog

(Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

Order: Whippomorpha (Pygmy hippopotamus the Hippopotamus, whales and dolphins)

The pygmy hippopotamus occurs in the freshwater bodies of the forests and plains of West Africa
and the hippopotamus in the freshwater bodies of sub-Saharan Africa. They have a vegetarian diet.
They come out onto land to feed at night but spend most of the day, submerged or semi-submerged
in water.

Fig 79: Example of the Whippomorpha – the Southern right whale, the Humpback dolphin and the
Hippopotamus (Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

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The whales and dolphins are highly specialized marine mammals. They breathe air and suckle their
young. The hair cover is reduced to a few hairs scattered in specific places. Front appendages are
modified into flippers for swimming, while there is no trace externally of the posterior appendages.
The tail is divided. The nose is a single or a paired blow hole on top of the head. Skin glands and
external ears are absent. Most whale species have been exploited by man and are at risk of becoming
extinct. The blue whale is the largest mammal that has ever lived and could weigh 125 tons. Whales
feed on small marine organisms.

Dolphins are smaller, with a distinct beak. They feed mostly on fish

Order: Ruminantia (cattle, sheep, goats, giraffe end the wild antelope like the impala, springbok,
kudu, buffalo and wildebeest)
These are the two-toed hoofed animals. They are herbivorous and ruminants. In some cases, both
male and female, (e.g. the Sable antelope), while in other cases only the males (as in Impala and
Kudu), carry horns.

Fig. 80: Examples of the order Ruminantia -

the Blue wildebeest, the Suni and the Giraffe
(Smithers & Chimimba, 2005)

REFERENCES:

Arms, K. & Camp PS. 1987. Biology, 3rd ed. Saunders College Publishing, New York.

58
Hickman, CP., Roberts, LS., Larson, A., I’Anson, H. and Eisenhour, DJ. 2006. Integrated Principles
of Zoology. Mosby Publishers, London
Raven, PH, Evert, RF & Curtis, H. 1983. Biology of Plants, 5th ed. Worth Publishers, New York.
Russell, PJ., Hertz, PE & McMillan, B. 2017. Biology: The Dynamic Science, 4th ed. Cengage
Learning Publishers, USA.

Skinner, JD & Chimimba, CT. 2005. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge
University Press, Cape Town.
Solomon, EP, Martin, CE, Martin, Martin, DW, & Berg, LR. 2015. Biology, 10th ed. Cengage
Learning Publishers, USA.

PRACTICAL 9 –

TAXONOMY I

9.1. Introduction
In this practical you will learn how living things are classified. A myriad of selected organism
will be feature in videotape material to illustrate their classification.

9.2. Aim
The aim of this practical is ensure you have a better and clarified understanding of how living
things are classified.

9.3. Objectives

• To ensure that you are able to classify organism using the binomial nomenclature
system inherited from Carolus Linnaeus.
• To ensure that you understand basic principles behind classification schemes used
today.

59
 9.4. Materials and Methods

The following materials shall be used for the purposes of this lesson and they include the
following:
• Videotape titled “How living things are classified” and “Classification of simple to
complex organisms”
Other supporting materials will include the following:
• Video cassette player
• PA system etc.

9.5. Assessment:

The assessment for this practical lesson shall be on information emanating from the two
video materials.

PRACTICAL 10 –

TAXONOMY II

10.1. Introduction
This practical lesson focuses on organisms from the kingdoms algae, fungi, Plantae and
Protista.

10.2. Aim

• To familiarize students with the identification and classification of different animal

species through the use of:
o Systematic nomenclature
o Diagrammatic or schematic representation.
• To enhance their practical skills with regards to light microscope usage, handling of
specimens and ability to diagrammatically reproduce the specimen received under
the microscope

10.3. Objectives

Students should be able to

60
 • View and correctly focus on the specimen under the light microscope.
• Schematically or diagrammatically reproduce the specimen viewed under the light
microscope.
• Name and specify different animal species according to the complete classification
format inherited from Carolus Linnaeus, i.e. Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Genus,
Species
• Correctly label the diagram according to the format as prescribe on the laboratory
poster.

10.4. Materials

Microscope and photographic slides of the specimen relevant to the practical shall be used,
they include:
a) Spirogyra, b) Rhizopus (bread mould), c) Moss plant (Tortulia muralis) d) Plasmodium
fulciparum, Giardia lamblia and Vorticella.

Students should draw and label:

• Spirogyra and identify the cytoplasm, nuclei with nucleolus, spiral chloroplast and
cell wall of cellulose. (photographic slide)
• Bread mould and identify root-like rhizoids, mycelium, sporangia and sporangiopore.
(photographic slide)
• Moss plant and identify the head of moss plant, leaves surrounding sex organs, flask
shaped archegonia and ovum.
• Trypanosoma brucei and identify kinetoplast at the anterior end from which the
undulating membrane starts, the nucleus and a flagellate tail. (PHOTOGRAPHIC
SLIDE)
• Giardia lamblia trophozoite and identify the pear-shaped trophozoid, two distinct
nuclei, adhesive discs, exostyle and 3-4 pairs of flagella. (PHOTOGRAPHIC SLIDE)
• Vorticella and identify the u-shaped macro and micro nuclei, spiral stalk and the
crown of cilia along the rim of the “cup”.(microscopic slide)

10.5. Assessment

Students shall be assessed at end of the practical

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 PRACTICAL 11 –

TAXONOMY III

1.1. Introduction
This practical lesson focuses on the taxonomy of animals emanating from the Kingdom
Animalia. All members of the Animalia are multicellular organisms, and all are heterotrophs
(that is, they rely directly or indirectly on other organisms for their nourishment). Most ingest
food and digest it in an internal cavity.

1.2. Aim

• To familiarize students with the identification and classification of different animal

species through the use of:
o Systematic nomenclature
o Diagrammatic or schematic representation.
• To enhance their practical skills with regards to light microscope usage, handling of
specimens and ability to diagrammatically reproduce the specimen received under
the microscope

1.3. Learning Outcomes:

Students should be able to draw and label:

• Obelia polyps and identify the hydranth terminating into the hypostome where the
mouth is situated and covered by hydrotheca, a ring of nematocyst bearing tentacles
arising from the base of the hypostome, the coenosarc covered with perisarc.
gonangium containing medusoid buds.
• Paramecium and identify the cilia, cytoplasm, food vacuole, macronucleus,
micronucleus, contractile vacuole and oral groove.
• Fasciola hepatica and identify the mouth, oral and ventral suckers, excretory pore
and lateral braches of intestines on both sides.
• Taenia solium (scolex) and identify head or scolex, rostellum with hooks, 2 pairs of
suckers, neck and undeveloped proglottids) strobila.
• Euglena and identify the nucleus, flagellum, chloroplast and contractile vacuole.

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 1.4. Materials and methods
Materials to be used include microscopic slides of the following organisms:
• Obelia (polyp)
• Fasciola hepatica( liver fluke)
• Taenia solium (pork tapeworm)
• Euglena
• Paramicuim

1.5. Assessment

Students shall be assessed at the end of the practical

63