Study of Pollinators

Plant Breeding Report

2022-2023

Acharya Narendra Dev College

University of Delhi
Govind Puri, Kalkaji
New Delhi-110019

Submitted By:
Aishwary Kumar Chaturvedi
B.Sc. (H) Botany, Semester VI
Roll No- AC-003

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Abstract –
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the male (anther) to the female (stigma) sections of the
same or other flowers, which causes fertilisation and the germination of seeds. Numerous agents, such
as the wind, water, animals (such as insects, birds, and bats), and in some instances plant self-
pollination, can transport pollen.
Because it encourages genetic diversity and environmental adaptation, pollination is essential for the
reproduction and survival of many plant species. Because many animals depend on plants for food
and shelter and because plants also depend on mammals for pollination, it is crucial to ecology.
Many plant species, including both wild and domesticated plants, depend on a wide range of creatures
known as pollinators for reproduction. The numerous pollinator species that we have looked into are
summarised in this paper, along with their importance for plant reproduction. Insects, birds, bats, and
some mammals are the primary pollinators, with bees being essential for many crop plants. Pollinators
are crucial for both agriculture and the environment, contributing almost $200 billion in economic
value to the world each year. For pollinators, a lot of issues exist, including habitat loss, pesticide use,
climate change, and disease, which can have detrimental effects on the environment and the economy.

Introduction-
Pollination is a vital process for plant reproduction, as it enables the transfer of pollen from the male
part of a flower to the female part of the same or a different flower. This transfer is necessary for
fertilization to occur, leading to the production of seeds and the continuation of the plant species.
Pollination can occur in a variety of ways, depending on the plant species and the environment in
which it grows. The most common methods of pollination are by wind, water, and animals. Wind
pollination is prevalent in plants that produce large quantities of small, lightweight pollen grains that
are easily carried by the wind. These plants typically have small, inconspicuous flowers that lack
petals, scent, and nectar.
Water pollination, on the other hand, is limited to aquatic plants, where pollen grains are released into
the water and carried by currents to reach the female reproductive organs. Water-pollinated plants
often have long, thin strands of pollen that are well-suited for movement in water.
Animal pollination is the most common and diverse method of pollination and involves the transfer of
pollen by animals such as insects, birds, and bats. These animals visit flowers in search of food, either
nectar or pollen, and inadvertently transfer pollen grains between flowers.
Insects are the most common pollinators and include bees, butterflies, moths, flies, and beetles. They
are attracted to flowers by their bright colours, scent, and nectar. Some plants even have specialized
structures that make them more attractive to specific pollinators. For example, bee-pollinated flowers
have landing platforms, while butterfly-pollinated flowers have long, narrow tubes that the butterflies
can easily reach.
Birds and bats are also important pollinators, particularly in tropical regions where many plants rely
on them for pollination. These animals are attracted to flowers with a lot of nectar, and they often
have long, tubular flowers that are well-suited for their long beaks or tongues.
Pollination plays a crucial role in maintaining the diversity of plant species and is essential for the
survival of many ecosystems. Without pollination, many plant species would be unable to produce
seeds and would eventually die out, leading to a ripple effect throughout the ecosystem. In addition,

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many animals depend on plants for food and shelter, and the loss of pollinators could have severe
consequences for their survival.

Entomophily -Is a type of pollination that involves the transfer of pollen from the male
reproductive organs of a flower to the female reproductive organs by insects, such as bees, butterflies,
moths, flies, and beetles. Entomophilous flowers have evolved a range of adaptations to attract and
facilitate the movement of these pollinators. The insect - plant association is one of the oldest and
most thoroughly studied associations. According to Endress (1994), insects were the original
pollinators of early flowering plants, and all the non-insect pollinators came much 1 later in evolution.
Preserved gymnosperm pollen in insect guts provide direct evidence that insects were consuming
pollen as far back as the Permian, much before the appearance of angiosperms. The early associations
between angiosperms and insects were more generalized as insects were in the process of developing
adaptations for flower feeding.
One of the most important adaptations is the production of brightly coloured petals and strong
fragrances, which help to attract insects to the flowers. Many entomophilous flowers also produce
nectar, a sugary liquid that serves as a food source for the pollinators.
The structure of entomophilous flowers is also adapted to facilitate pollination by insects. For
example, bee-pollinated flowers typically have a landing platform that provides a stable surface for
the bees to land on, while butterfly-pollinated flowers often have a long, narrow tube that is well-
suited for the butterfly's long proboscis.
Entomophilous pollination is vital for the reproduction of many plant species and is responsible for
the production of much of the world's food supply. In fact, it is estimated that up to 80% of all
flowering plants rely on insect pollinators for reproduction. In addition, entomophilous pollination is
essential for maintaining the biodiversity of many ecosystems, as it allows for the exchange of genetic
material and the adaptation of plants to changing environmental conditions.

History-
The study of pollinators has a long history that dates back to ancient times when humans first began
cultivating plants for food and medicinal purposes. Early civilizations, such as the Greeks and the
Romans, observed that the presence of bees and other insects was necessary for the production of fruit
and seeds in many plants.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, botanists began to study the structures and mechanisms of pollination
in more detail. Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus was one of the first to develop a system for
classifying plants based on their reproductive structures. He observed that plants with large, showy
flowers were often pollinated by insects, while plants with small, inconspicuous flowers were
typically wind-pollinated.
In the 19th century, the role of insects in pollination was further elucidated by the work of scientists
such as Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Darwin observed that certain orchids had
developed highly specialized structures to attract and facilitate the movement of specific pollinators,
such as moths or bees. He also noted that some plants had evolved the ability to self-pollinate, while
others relied on cross-pollination for reproduction.
In the early 20th century, the study of pollinators began to take on greater significance as the
importance of insect pollination for agriculture became more widely recognized. Scientists began to
investigate the relationships between specific plants and their pollinators, as well as the factors that
influenced pollinator behaviour, such as temperature, humidity, and light levels.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the study of pollinators continued to expand and diversify, with
increasing attention being paid to the ecological and evolutionary aspects of pollination. Researchers

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began to investigate the impacts of habitat loss, pesticide use, and other environmental factors on
pollinator populations, and to develop strategies for promoting pollinator conservation and
management.
Today, the study of pollinators is a multidisciplinary field that encompasses genetics, ecology,
behaviour, and conservation biology. Scientists continue to explore the complex relationships between
plants and their pollinators, as well as the critical role that these relationships play in maintaining the
health and biodiversity of ecosystems around the world.
The evolution of pollination in seed plants has been a subject of interest among scientists for many
years. Early seed plants relied primarily on wind to disperse their pollen. However, the emergence of
gymnosperms during the Permian period saw the development of flower-like structures that were
likely pollinated by insects. Extinct long proboscis insect groups, including scorpionflies, lacewings,
and Zhangsolvid flies, as well as some extant families such as Nemestrinid, Tabanid, and Acrocerid
flies, have been identified as potential pollinators of gymnosperms. Living cycads have also
developed mutualistic relationships with specific beetle species that act as their pollinators. These
relationships extend back to at least the late Mesozoic, as evidenced by the discovery of preserved
cycad pollen with oedemerid and boganiid beetles from the Cretaceous period.
Angiosperms first appeared during the Early Cretaceous, and during their radiation from 125 to 90
Ma, displaced many of the gymnosperm lineages and caused the extinction of many of their
pollinators. Some pollinators, however, transitioned to angiosperms, and new families formed
pollination associations with angiosperms. Interestingly, some angiosperm families have
independently evolved traits, such as sapromyophily, which emit the odour of carrion to attract flies
for pollination purposes. Overall, the study of the evolution of pollination in seed plants provides
insight into the complex relationships between plants and their pollinators over millions of years of
evolutionary history.

Methodology-

Study Sites –
The present study is conducted in Delhi at different location. These locations are considered
because they have variety of flower in the season. This study is conducted in between the
February and March 2023 in Aravalli ranges of Delhi.

S.No Study Sites

1 Sunder Nursery

2 Nehru Park
3 Amrit Udyan
4 College Campus
5 Sanjay Lake
Table- Study Sites

Sample collection-

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At the study sites look for the pollinators that are pollinating the flowers and capture their
photograph for further analysis.

Observation and Analysis-

Analyses the different pollinators on different flower species and according to them interpret
your result.

Observation Table –

Serial No. Plant Species Pollinator Group Type of pollination

1 Ixora coccinea Ant and wasps Myrmecophily

2 Elcipta prostrata Ant, wasps, bee, flies Myrmecophily,

Myophily,
Melittophily

3 Crotalaria retusa Different Butterfly, Melittophily,

bees Psychophily

4 Pericallis x hybrida Bees and wasps Myophily,

Melittophily

5 Cosmos bipinnatus Hawks Moths, bees Phalaenophily,

Melittophily

Results-
Melittophily
Nearly 80% of blooming plants that are pollinated by insects are pollinated by bees. Bees are regarded
as generalist pollinators and are important in the pollination of most agricultural species as well as
decorative plants. Members of the Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Burseraceae, and Orchidaceae,
Rosaceae, Rutaceae, Sapotaceae, Clusiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. Bee pollinated species can be
identified by their beautiful, vibrantly coloured flowers, which are typically blue or yellow. These
flowers frequently include "nectar guides"—markings that are visible in ultraviolet waves and that
make it easier for these insects to find nectaries.

Melittophilous flowers produce enormous amounts of nectar that is concealed but not very deeply
inside the flower and have a sweet, delicate scent. These flowers come in a variety of sizes, bloom
during the day, conceal sex organs, and offer a good landing area for pollinators. Honey bees,
bumblebees, and orchid bees are pollinator bees that vary in size, tongue length, and pollination
habits.

Bees can be as small as 2mm to as large as 32mm, with the average honeybee being about 12mm
long.

Myophily

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Myophily is a type of pollination in which flies are the primary pollinators of certain plant species.
Flies are attracted to plants for a variety of reasons, including the production of foul-smelling or
rotting-smelling flowers or the production of sugary nectar.
Unlike bees and butterflies, which are more efficient pollinators, flies tend to visit flowers in a less
orderly manner, moving from one flower to the next without following a specific pattern. As they
move around the flowers, they may accidentally brush against the plant's reproductive structures,
transferring pollen from one flower to another.
Some plants have evolved specific adaptations to attract flies for pollination. For example, some fly-
pollinated flowers produce an odour similar to that of rotting meat or other decaying organic matter,
which is attractive to carrion flies. Other fly-pollinated flowers may produce dark or dull-coloured
petals and lack the bright colours and patterns that are typically associated with bee and butterfly
pollination.
Overall, myophily is an important type of pollination that contributes to the reproduction and survival
of many plant species. While flies may not be as efficient as other pollinators, they play an important
role in the biodiversity and functioning of ecosystems.

Psychophily-
Psychophily is a type of pollination in which flowers are pollinated by butterflies. The name
"psychophily" comes from the Greek word "psyche," which means "butterfly."
Butterflies are attracted to flowers that have bright colours, sweet fragrances, and nectar guides.
Nectar guides are patterns or markings on the flower that guide the butterfly to the nectar-producing
parts of the flower. Butterflies are also attracted to flowers that provide a suitable landing platform
and a source of food for their larvae.
Some examples of plants that exhibit psychophily include milkweeds, butterfly bushes, and
passionflowers. Milkweeds are a common host plant for monarch butterflies, which lay their eggs on
the leaves. The larvae of the monarch butterfly feed on the milkweed leaves, while the adult
butterflies feed on the nectar produced by the milkweed flowers. Butterfly bushes, also known as
buddleia, produce large, showy clusters of flowers that are highly attractive to butterflies. The flowers
are rich in nectar and are available throughout the summer months, making them an important source
of food for many butterfly species. Passionflowers are another example of a plant that exhibits
psychophily. The intricate flowers of the passionflower are highly attractive to butterflies, which are
drawn to the bright colours and sweet fragrances of the flowers.
Overall, psychophily is an important type of pollination that contributes to the reproduction and
survival of many plant species. Butterflies are important pollinators that play a crucial role in
maintaining the biodiversity and functioning of ecosystems.

Myrmecophily -
Myrmecophily is a type of symbiotic relationship between plants and ants in which the ants provide
protection for the plant in exchange for food or shelter. Although myrmecophily is primarily a
protective relationship, there are some instances where ants can assist with pollination.
In some myrmecophilous plants, the flowers are specialized to attract ants as pollinators. For example,
some plants produce flowers that are rich in nectar and have extrafloral nectaries, which are
specialized glands that produce nectar outside of the flowers. The ants are attracted to the nectar and
may accidentally transfer pollen as they move from flower to flower.
Another example of myrmecophily in pollination is the interaction between the plant species called
Macaranga and the ant species called Crematogaster. The Macaranga plant produces specialized

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structures called domatia that provide shelter for the ants. In return, the ants protect the plant from
herbivores and may also assist with pollination. The ants move around the flowers of the Macaranga
plant, potentially aiding in the transfer of pollen.
Overall, myrmecophily is primarily a protective relationship between plants and ants. However, in
some cases, ants may also play a role in pollination, either through accidental transfer of pollen or
through intentional movement around the flowers of the plant. Myrmecophilous plants have evolved
specific adaptations to attract and reward ants, contributing to the biodiversity and functioning of
ecosystems.

Phalaenophily-
Phalaenophily is a type of pollination in which moths are the primary pollinators of a plant species.
The name "phalaenophily" comes from the Greek word "phalaina," which means "moth."
Moths are attracted to flowers that have a strong, sweet fragrance and are typically active at night.
Many moth-pollinated flowers are white or pale in colour to increase their visibility in low-light
conditions. Some moth-pollinated flowers also have long, narrow floral tubes that are well-suited for
the long proboscises (tongues) of moths.
Examples of plants that exhibit phalaenophily include species in the genus Yucca. Yucca plants are
pollinated by a specialized moth called the yucca moth. The female yucca moth collects pollen from
the flowers of the yucca plant and then deposits the pollen onto the stigma of a different flower,
ensuring cross-pollination. The moth also lays its eggs inside the ovary of the flower, where the
developing moth larvae feed on some of the developing seeds, ensuring the survival of some seeds for
future generations.
Another example of phalaenophily is the relationship between the orchid species Angraecum
sesquipedale and the hawk moth Xanthopan morgani. This orchid has an extremely long floral spur
(up to 35 cm), which was thought to be too long for any insect to pollinate. However, Charles Darwin
predicted that there must be a moth with a long enough proboscis to reach the nectar at the bottom of
the spur, and later, the hawk moth was discovered to be the primary pollinator of this orchid species.
Overall, phalaenophily is an important type of pollination that contributes to the reproduction and
survival of many plant species. Moths are important pollinators that play a crucial role in maintaining
the biodiversity and functioning of ecosystems.

Discussion –
Flowering plants are immobile organisms, and therefore, they rely on external agents for the transfer
of pollen from the anther to the stigma, which is known as pollination. Pollination services are
rendered by various biotic and abiotic agents, and their presence is essential for optimal reproductive
performance of a flowering plant. Biotic pollination occurs when a plant attracts a particular type of
pollinator, and when the same pollinator visits the next flower, there are chances that its pollen is
carried to another flower of the same species. In exchange for this service, the pollinator gets access to
the food (pollen and nectar) offered by the flower. Thus, by visiting a particular type of flower, the
pollinator gets important food resources, and the plant gets pollinated in return. This mutually
beneficial relationship between the angiosperms and the pollinators has led to co-evolution and
adaptations among these groups over millions of years to increase chances of successful interactions.
In order to understand the various biotic agents of pollination, field observations were conducted on
several species of flowering plants. It was found that all of the species observed were pollinated by
bees, making them the most important pollinating agents. The next most common pollinating agents
were members of the Lepidoptera order, which includes moths and butterflies. Other insects that
caused pollination in the observed species included hoverflies and ladybirds.

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Flowers of the observed species possessed several floral characters that were associated with specific
pollinating agents. For instance, flowers pollinated by bees were highly variable in morphology,
brightly coloured, and had concealed sex organs. They were mild in odour and often zygomorphic
with landing platforms and nectar guides. Nectar, although hidden, was not located deep in the flower
and, therefore, easy to access. Flowers pollinated by flies, on the other hand, were small to large,
reddish-brown with a fleshy texture, and emitted a characteristic rotten odour. They were without
nectar guides and exhibited a fly-trap mechanism in some myophilous species. Flowers pollinated by
moths were pale and heavily scented, exhibited nocturnal blooming, and could be horizontal or
pendant. Nectar was deeply hidden in long tubular corolla or spurs. Flowers pollinated by butterflies
were large, showy, pink or purple, mildly scented with a wide landing area, and possessed nectar
guides with nectaries hidden in narrow tubes or spurs. These flowers often contained more nectar than
pollen.
Flower morphology and coloration are crucial for attracting pollinators, and therefore, have evolved to
match the preferences of specific pollinators. For instance, bee-pollinated flowers often have a distinct
landing platform and nectar guides that guide bees to the nectar and pollen. The landing platform also
allows the bees to collect pollen from the anthers, ensuring successful pollination. In addition to
morphology, nectar production and scent are also important in attracting pollinators. Nectar
production varies among flowers, and some flowers produce more nectar than others. The scent of
flowers also plays an important role in attracting pollinators. For instance, moth-pollinated flowers
produce a strong, sweet fragrance to attract moths that are active at night.
In conclusion, biotic pollination is a critical process for the reproduction and survival of flowering
plants. The mutualistic relationship between angiosperms and pollinators has resulted in the evolution
of floral traits and adaptations that optimize the chances of successful interactions. Field observations
have shown that different types of pollinators are attracted to specific types of flowers that possess
morphological and chemical traits that match their preferences. Understanding the complex
relationships between pollinators and flowering plants is crucial for the conservation of both plant and
pollinators.

Importance of this study-

Many plant species depend on entomophily, or insect pollination, for their reproduction and upkeep.
The bulk of angiosperms depend on biotic agents, with insects being the most significant type of
pollinators, to move pollen between blooms. Understanding the intricate ecological connections that
occur between plants and their pollinators and determining how environmental changes may affect
these interactions depend on the study of pollinators.
The most diverse group of animals on Earth are insects, and their significance as pollinators matches
their diversity. The most frequent insect pollinators are bees, wasps, flies, butterflies, and moths. Each
has special qualities that make them suited for particular kinds of flowers. Bees, for instance, have
developed specific behaviours, such as buzz pollination, that enable them to obtain difficult-to-reach
pollen. Bees are well equipped to collect pollen and nectar from blooms. Wasps, on the other hand,
are drawn to flowers with potent scents and frequently consume the flower's petals or other elements.
Many plant species depend on flies for pollination, including carrion flowers, which have evolved to
resemble the stench of rotting flesh in order to draw their flies. Important pollinators of flowers that
are blooming during the day and at night, respectively, are butterflies and moths.
A variety of methods are used in the study of pollinators, from straightforward observations of flower
visitation to more intricate genetic analysis of pollen delivered by insects. Studies on pollination can
be conducted in the field or in a lab setting, and they can use a variety of techniques, such as
behavioural tests, morphological examinations, and genetic examinations. The discovery of plant-

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pollinator networks, which depict the relationships between various plant species and their pollinators,
is one of the most crucial methods for understanding pollinators.
Maintaining ecological production and biodiversity depends on pollinators. Reduced seed output,
smaller fruits, and lower genetic variety brought on by the lack of pollinators can ultimately result in
the decline or extinction of plant species. Pollinators are crucial to the environment, but they are also
important to the economy and culture. The value of pollinators' contributions to the production of
numerous commodities, including fruits, vegetables, and nuts, is estimated to be in the billions of
dollars every year. Because they have been the focus of literature, art, and religious traditions for
thousands of years, pollinators also have cultural value.
However, because to human activities such as habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change,
pollinators are more threatened. Pollinators have less places to find food and to build their nests as a
result of the loss of natural habitats like grasslands, forests, and wetlands. Pollinators may experience
sublethal effects from pesticides, particularly neonicotinoids, such as decreased reproductive success
and poorer navigation. Climate change is also influencing when plants bloom and how they are
distributed, which might affect when and where pollination activities take place.
A number of conservation initiatives, including as the development of pollinator-friendly habitats, the
decrease of pesticide usage, and the construction of pollinator protected areas, have been established
to address these challenges. In order to involve the general public in pollinator monitoring and
conservation efforts, citizen science programmes like the Great Sunflower Project and the Bumblebee
Conservation Trust have been formed. Additionally, studies into the ecology and behaviour of
pollinators are continuing, and new understandings and discoveries into the intricate interactions
between plants and their pollinators are continually being developed.
In conclusion, entomology and pollinator research are crucial for comprehending the intricate
ecological connections that exist.

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Pericallis x hybrida Elcipta prostrata

Ixora Coccinea
Crotalaria retusa

Cosmos bipinnatus

Fig- Colour plates for Pollinators pollinating species

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Khosla Gupta, Priyanka Khanduri. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2022
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