Unit 1 The Role of research in Education

1.1 EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE

With the emancipation of the mind in China following the implementation of reform and open
policies, the study of educational theories has entered an unprecedented era of development. Pure
scholastic studies of the past that covered but a limited number of traditional disciplines and
involved just a few scholars have now entered the great realm of educational practices. Rich and
vivid practices of educational reform have promoted the updating of educational theories and
broadened the scope of study. Maturing theories in turn have guided and promoted educational
reforms. The study of education as a science has become an important branch of learning in
China.

Educational Research in China

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, education authorities at or above the
county-level and normal colleges and universities established institutes to study education as a
science. After the mid-1950s, a number of institutions specializing in educational research were
established, and plans for educational research began to be drawn up. In January 1957, the
Central Institute for Educational Research was established. Studies of the institute focused on
education-related practical issues in China and covered the theories, history and current
condition of education abroad, in an effort to explore laws governing the development of
education and establish an educational research system in China to provide guidance over
educational practices in the country. Before the start of the Cultural Revolution in 1966, 15
educational research institutes had been established throughout China. About 300 people worked
in them and achieved progress in the study of education, educational psychology and educational
history.

In 1978 the Central Institute for Educational Research was reestablished. This was followed by
the establishment of educational research institutes by institutions of higher learning as well as
provinces, autonomous regions and centrally-administered municipalities. In 1983, the study of
education was listed as a social science and included in a general plan for national economic and
social development. In 1986, with approval of the State Council, the Ministry of Education
established a State Educational Development Research Center, whose work is to provide advice
and suggestions for major education-related decisions and study major issues affecting national
and regional educational reform and development.

In recent years, researchers have achieved remarkable results in reestablishing and developing
educational theories, and in studying educational development strategies, educational planning,
educational and teaching reforms, and educational reform and development in ethnic minority
areas. Their researches have provided a theoretical basis for educational reforms.
Research Institutes and Researchers

China has an educational research network that operates at the state, provincial, municipal and
school levels. And doing research is a contingent of full-time and part-time researchers.

Within the Ministry of Education is a National Educational Science Leading Group. Under the
group is a Discipline Planning Team, which is responsible for drawing up a national plan for
educational research, evaluating and identifying key research projects, and providing guidance
and examining the execution of such research projects. Educational research institutes operating
directly under the Ministry of Education are the Central Institute for Educational Research, the
State Educational Development Research Center and Institute of the Vocational Technical
Educational Center. Provinces, autonomous regions and centrally- administered municipalities
have established their own educational research institutes, and more than 700 institutions of
higher learning have established higher education research institutes (offices). There are four
national academic societies with active members: China Education Society, China Higher
Education Society, China Adult Education Society and China Vocational Technical Education
Society. In addition, there are numerous industry- and trade-affiliated educational research
bodies.

More than 10,000 full-time researchers study education-related issues in the country's
educational research system. Doing active research are also numerous teachers and school
principals.

Establishment of Disciplines, Research Results

Since the 1980s, a number of new and cross disciplines have been established in the field of
educational research in China. These include educational economics, educational management,
and educational sociology, branch of learning-specific educational psychology, educational
technology, educational statistics, higher education science, vocational technical education
science, adult education science and educational laws. Treatises such as Educational Economics,
Higher Education Science, Educational Sociology, Educational Statistics and Comparative
Education have been published.

Research projects cover elementary educational research, macro research and applied research as
well as major theoretical and practical issues that are encountered in educational development
and reform at home and abroad. People specializing in educational psychology, on the basis of
assimilating the latest results of research on educational psychology abroad, have established a
fairly complete Chinese educational psychology system. Research on educational history
covering general history, periodic history and special-topic history has achieved a series of
results. Comparative education in the last two decades has developed from scratch into a fairly
mature branch of learning. Researches on higher education, vocational education and adult
education have all developed from almost nothing. In the field of elementary education, an
increasing number of education administrators, and teachers and principals of primary and
secondary schools have done research consciously and produced a great number of influential
results. A good many provinces, autonomous regions and centrally-administered municipalities
have also launched and completed a great number of local-interest research projects.

1.2 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN EDUCATION AND CURRENT STATE OF

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

In the history of human civilization, man was encountered with many perplexing problems in
making life more comfortable and resolved such problems through a kind of systematic inquiry
into phenomena. This tendency of systematic inquiry resulted in rapid advancement in science
and technology, wherein the barriers of time and space were conquered. The method that
facilitated the scientists for their remarkable achievements is the scientific method. It is
necessary to understand the concept of scientific method, as it is the base for any experimental
research/action research. Scientific method is a systematic approach to verify ones assumptions
emerged out of observation of phenomena. The essential components in the process of scientific
method are:
• Observation • Formulation of assumptions • Deduction of consequences and • Verification
and proof

Observation:
This is the first step in scientific method. There are two types of observations, namely, common
and scientific. In scientific observation several doubts and assumptions are formulated, whereas
in common observation such doubts would not arise. Though two persons observe a same
phenomenon, for one it may be common but for the other it may be scientific. For example,
observing an apple falling from a tree is scientific observation for Newton but for others it is
common observation. Scientific observation alone can help a researcher to proceed to the second
step of scientific method.

Formulation of Assumptions:

Scientific observation produces certain doubts. Basing on these doubts one would arrive at some
assumptions. These assumptions are called as hypotheses. So all hypotheses are assumptions but
not vice versa. In Newton’s observation, the doubts emerged out are – why had the apple fallen
down? Why had it not gone up? These doubts result in formulation of a hypothesis that earth
must have some magnetic attraction.

Deduction of Consequences:
In the third step, the consequences are deduced. If the assumption were true, what would be the
consequences? In the present example, if the hypothesis of Newton is true, then all the objects
should have to be subjected to earth’s magnetic attraction and fall down.

Verification and Proof:

After deduction of consequences, in the final step of scientific method, one has to verify whether
these consequences are really present. Truth or falsity of hypothesis is verified in this step on the
basis of presence or absence of consequences respectively. In the current example, it is verified
and proved that all objects fall on to earth and the hypothesis is considered to be true.
Keeping this process of scientific method in mind let us. Now, peep in into the context where
experimental research is necessary in education.

1 Experimental Research
Experiments in education may be carried out in both action research and fundamental research.
Action research experiments are generally preferred for classroom problems and experiments in
fundamental research are preferred for theoretical problems. Let us confine our discussion only
to action research. In day-to-day classroom teaching, teachers may face several problems in
bringing out desired changes among learners. In such situations they think about the problem and
also about possible solutions. They face difficulty in giving shape to their ideas in terms of well-
defined problem. Even if they define the problem correctly, they may not be able to decide the
strategy of research, statistical treatment of data and drawing conclusions. On this premise it may
not be apt to train them in research methodology, but it is necessary to make them understand the
need to systematically practice an idea and test it in a manner that can be appreciated. We cannot
expect teachers to undertake a systematic and sophisticated research to solve their classroom
problems. Hence teachers are to be acquainted with the process by which they can study their
problems scientifically in order to correct their actions and evaluate their decisions. Most of the
teachers face problems of various types and complexity relating to their teaching and many of
them attempt to do something about these problems. They think of number of ways to overcome
such problems and tries out the efficacy of their actions within normal classroom situation. Most
of these efforts may involve experimentation at least to some extent. Hence it is necessary to
acquaint teachers with the nature of experimental research.
Experimental research involves finding out the functional relationship among phenomena under
controlled conditions. The aim of experimental research is to study the cause and effect
relationships between two variables. In the process of experimental research, an experimenter
manipulates or introduces some changes in one variable and observes the consequent changes in
the other variable. In fact scientific method is the basis for experimental research. This can be
best be understood when both the processes are compared.

Characteristics of Experimental Research:

The essential characteristics of experimental research are:

Control • Manipulation • Observation

Control:

Researcher has to control all relevant variables except the independent variable. In experimental
research control plays a very important role. It is not possible to infer the effects of independent
variable without control. In order to understand the concept of control in experimentation, it is
necessary to know about two basic laws, on which the experimental research is based.

Law of the Single Variable:

This law states that if two situations are equal in all respects except for an independent variable,
any change between two situations can be attributed to the independent variable.

Law of the only Significant Variable:

This law states that if significant variables are made equal in two situations, any change between
the two situations after manipulation of independent variable to one of the situation can be
attributed to the independent variable.

Manipulation:

In the process of manipulation, a predetermined set of varied conditions is imposed on the

subjects selected for the experiment. The set of varied conditions is referred to as independent
variable, the experimental variable or the treatment variable.

Observation:

The experimenter is supposed to observe the changes that take place in a dependent variable as a
result of manipulation of an independent variable.

Steps in Experimental Research

The steps in experimental research are similar to that of scientific method. The important steps in
experimental research are:

• Selection of the problem • Stating the hypotheses • Preparing experimental plan • Execution of
the experimental plan • Data analysis

Selection of the problem:

The first step of experimental research is selection of problem. Scientific observation leads to
certain doubts and these doubts would be formulated into research problems. In classroom
researches, teachers’ introspection into their own practices is one of the potential sources of
locating the classroom problems. After selection of the problem it is to be defined. The variables
to be studied should be defined in operational terms. For example, in a problem that intends to
study the effect of source materials on the achievement of in history, the variables, namely,
source materials and achievement in history, are to be defined operationally. The experimenter
has to explain what exactly the meaning of these terms in his/her experiment. Here, source
materials are epigraphs, archaeological findings and minutes of various rulers and achievement
in history is the achievement test score.

Stating the Hypotheses:

The second step of experimental research is stating the hypothesis in terms of the causal link
between two variables under study. In the present example, the hypothesis cab be stated as, ‘use
of source material will improve the achievement in history.’

Preparing the Experimental Plan:

The third step of experimental research is to plan the procedure of experimentation. Following
points are to be kept in mind while planning the experiment.
• Identify non-experimental variables and decide the procedure of control • Select the procedures
of collecting evidences • Select the procedure of experimental treatment • Prepare time schedule
• Decide the statistical procedures

In the present example, intelligence and interest may be considered as non-experimental

variables and one group pre-test post-test design may help to control inter-subject differences.

Execution of Experimental Plan:

After preparing the plan, it is to be meticulously executed. In this fourth step of experimental
research, an experimenter is expected to introduce his/her experimental treatment and administer
the tools as per the experimental plan to collect necessary evidences to test the hypothesis.

Data Analysis:

The final step of experimental research is analysis of data/evidences. The data obtained should
be subjected to statistical treatment using the statistical techniques decided in the experimental
plan.

Limitations of Experimental Research

While conducting experimental research, teachers should keep in view the following precautions.

• The experiment should be based on classroom problems or the concerns that are bothering
teachers in their practices. • The results of an experiment conducted on a group under certain
conditions cannot be applied to other groups unless the experimental group is representative of a
large population. • The results should not be over generalized. • The results should be interpreted
with utmost caution because it is difficult to control so many variables. • The teacher should not
reflect her/his personal bias for a particular method or factor during experimentation. • The
experiment should be conducted under normal conditions of the schools.

Helping Teachers to Experiment

The general atmosphere of the school is very important to motivate teachers to undertake action
research. Teachers also require help in each aspect of action research/experimental research
process.

School Conditions:

The general conditions of school that help a teacher to conduct experimentation are:

• Encouragement • Freedom to conduct experiments • Providing staff cooperation • Staff

meetings or academic discussions • Providing material facilities

Teachers are allowed to express their views on their success and also failures. This kind of self-
examination and self-criticism would help teachers to undertake classroom researches. Freedom
should be given to teachers for conducting experiments to solve their classroom problems. For
conducting experiments, cooperation from other teachers is necessary. All teachers are
encouraged to experiment together collectively and cooperatively as action research is
collaborative. During staff meetings, the progress of experimental projects may be reviewed and
necessary feedback is provided to classroom researchers. Time and material that is needed to a
teacher who conducts experiment should be provided.

Helping in each aspect of the Action Research Process: besides school conditions, it is necessary
to help teachers in each aspect of the action research or experimental research process. Teachers
are helped to –

• Become constructively and constantly dissatisfied with their own teaching. • Develop hope that
his/her problem can be solved. • Define the classroom problem. • Diagnose the difficulty. •
Search for promising solutions. • Formulation of hypothesis. • Plan their experiment. • Execute
the experiment. • Analyze data. • Write report.

Qualitative and Quantitative research

There are numerous differences between qualitative and quantitative measurement.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is research involving the use of structured questions where the response
options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents is involved.

By definition, measurement must be objective, quantitative and statistically valid. Simply put,
it’s about numbers, objective hard data.

The sample size for a survey is calculated by statisticians using formulas to determine how large
a sample size will be needed from a given population in order to achieve findings with an
acceptable degree of accuracy. Generally, researchers seek sample sizes which yield findings
with at least 95% confidence interval (which means that if you repeat the survey 100 times, 95
times out of a hundred, you would get the same response) and plus/minus 5 percentage points
margin error. Many surveys are designed to produce smaller margin of error.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research is collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do
and say. Whereas, quantitative research refers to counts and measures of things, qualitative
research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and
descriptions of things.

Qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative research and uses very different
methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The
nature of this type of research is exploratory and open-ended. Small numbers of people are
interviewed in-depth and/or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted.

Participants are asked to respond to general questions and the interviewer or group moderator
probes and explores their responses to identify and define people’s perceptions, opinions and
feelings about the topic or idea being discussed and to determine the degree of agreement that
exists in the group. The quality of the finding from qualitative research is directly dependent
upon the skills, experience and sensitive of the interviewer or group moderator.
This type of research is often less costly than surveys and is extremely effective in acquiring
information about people’s communications needs and their responses to and views about
specific communications.

Basically, quantitative research is objective; qualitative is subjective. Quantitative research seeks

explanatory laws; qualitative research aims at in-depth description. Qualitative research
measures what it assumes to be a static reality in hopes of developing universal laws. Qualitative
research is an exploration of what is assumed to be a dynamic reality. It does not claim that what
is discovered in the process is universal, and thus, replicable. Common differences usually cited
between these types of research include.

The Current State of Research

Since the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), there has been an increased
focus on using evidence-based practice to improve education and student learning. This
movement encourages educators to use instructional strategies backed by scientifically based
research—specifically, randomized controlled trials and other types of rigorous research that
address questions of effectiveness. Educators are also encouraged to use student and other types
of data to guide decisions. In short, educators are being asked to do “what works.”

Researchers are examining the circumstances under which educators use evidence, what factors
encourage and discourage the use of evidence, and how to create a school environment
conducive to the use of evidence.

Because of the increased demand for evidence-based practices in education, the amount of
rigorous education research has increased. Taking the next step, researchers have now begun
looking at educators’ use of this research. Specifically, researchers are examining the
circumstances under which educators use evidence, what factors encourage and discourage the
use of evidence, and how to create a school environment conducive to the use of evidence.

What Encourages and Discourages the Use of Evidence

Educators have reported a number of factors that influenced whether they were likely to use
research. The factors listed here, although not comprehensive, include those mentioned in several
research studies or literature reviews.

Availability of High-Quality Evidence. Although a large volume of education research reports

has been produced since the passage of NCLB, educators reported that only a small proportion of
the studies used rigorous research designs like randomized controlled trials or quasi-
experimental designs. As a result, educators found little high-quality evidence to guide
instructional practices (Hayward & Phillips, 2009; Nelson, Leffler, & Hansen, 2009).

Relevance and Ease of Implementation. Many educators expressed a desire for research
studies that applied to their specific situation. In a number of studies, educators reported they
were more likely to use research findings if they thought they could apply them directly to their
work (Honig & Coburn, 2008; Nelson et al., 2009).

Timeliness of Research. Some educators expressed concerns about the timeliness in which
research findings are disseminated. While research studies may take years to complete, these
educators felt the pressure to begin using evidence-based instructional strategies and decisions in
a much shorter timeframe (Honig & Coburn, 2008; Nelson et al., 2009).

Time Constraints. Educators reported that a lack of time in their busy schedules was a factor in
whether they used research evidence. One literature review of evidence-based decision making
concluded that “the sheer volume of [administrators’] responsibilities combined with limited
time for accomplishing them . . . seems to significantly curb evidence use” (Honig & Coburn,
2008, p. 598; Nelson et al., 2009).

Biases and Incentives. Personal biases and incentives also played a role. For example, many
educators stated they were more likely to believe a research report if it conformed to their
personal experiences. Educators also reported that they needed an incentive before they would
find the time to access evidence. Some studies found that educators only were willing to adopt a
new practice, including one that was evidence based, if they were dissatisfied with their current
practice (Millar & Osborne, 2009). Other studies found that educators often had ulterior motives
in using research: for example, they had a program or practice they already wanted to use and
were looking for evidence to support it (Honig & Coburn, 2008).

(In the classroom, research is just one of many factors that influence a teacher’s decisions and
practices. Other factors include teachers’ knowledge of their content area, how it is taught,
curriculum and standards, and available resources.)

How Educators Use Research

The barriers to using evidence can paint a discouraging picture, but many educators are in fact
accessing research and adopting or facilitating the adoption of evidence-based practices.
Educators’ use of research occurs within a specific context and as part of a larger process. In the
classroom, research is just one of many factors that influence a teacher’s decisions and practices.
Other factors include teachers’ knowledge of their content area, how it is taught, curriculum and
standards, and available resources. Such myriad factors form the context in which educators use
evidence. For example, educators often modify innovations to fit their setting and the practices
with which they are familiar (Millar & Osborne, 2009; Norris, Phillips, & Macnab, 2009). As
one report concluded, “Research is more likely to be adapted than adopted” (Nutley, Walter, &
Davies, 2007, p. 303). Yet the question of the effectiveness of such adaptations remains.

Acknowledging these findings, many studies describe educators’ implementation of evidence-

based practices as a dynamic process rather than a single act. “Research can make a difference
when teachers integrate new ideas or approaches into practice and then reflect on their own
experiences to abstract and construct new understandings,” observes one author. Evidence
suggests that professional development sessions give educators the opportunity to try new
practices and collaborate with colleagues as they reflect on the outcomes (Butler & Schnellert,
2008, p. 38).

Some studies have begun to place educators’ use of evidence within the larger organizational
change process. The decision to adopt a particular program is often made at the school, district,
or state level, yet it is often up to the individual to implement research. Whether this happens
depends on the organizational culture since barriers to using evidence often exist at the
organizational level. It is up to the school or district to create a culture that promotes the use of
evidence-based practices (Hemsley-Brown & Sharp, 2003; Nutley, Jung, & Walter, 2008).
Redefining the Researcher-Practitioner Relationship

In light of this information, researchers, educators, and policymakers are re-examining the
researcher-practitioner relationship. Calls for greater collaboration between researchers and
practitioners are encouraging researchers to seek educators’ input early on to ensure that
researchers are addressing relevant research questions and communicating findings in a way that
practitioners can use.

Another emerging trend is the role of third-party organizations in helping educators connect
research and practice. These organizations employ several strategies to help educators use
evidence-based practices: They survey the broad range of research findings; present findings in
shorter, user-friendly formats; help educators identify emerging issues; and build their capacity
to collect, analyze, and interpret data. A number of educators report that they access information
about evidence-based practices through trusted colleagues, conferences, professional
development sessions, and professional membership organizations and publications (Honig &
Coburn, 2008; Nelson et al., 2009; Hemsley- Brown & Sharp, 2003; Levin, 2004; Cooper, Levin,
& Campbell, 2009).

As policymakers, researchers, and educators continue to negotiate the best way to connect
research and practice, there are many indications that evidence-based practice will continue to
play a crucial role in education. Just as educators and other stakeholders learn from the growing
body of evidence, they are learning from the growing number of studies on effective
dissemination practices.

(Many studies describe educators’ implementation of evidence-based practices as a dynamic

process rather than a single act.)

1.3 IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION OF THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.

In this section, we highlight some findings as a way to elaborate on the theoretical framework
and methods of analysis used. We suggest ways that this research contributes to developments in
current research and pedagogical practice in financial capability education. More detailed
descriptions of our findings can be found in the briefing report.

Statistical Analysis of Response Patterns and Change

Our analysis of survey questionnaire responses has been both formal and informal.
For example, descriptive analysis showed us that over 90% of students reported that the course
helped them in understanding money issues better. We also conducted statistical tests which
indicated that the differences in responses to this item between male and female students were
not statistically significant (Mann Whitney test (P=0.977).

We were able to explore results from specific questions further by comparing across surveys to
analyse change. For example, cross-tabulation for students' responses to an item asking about
their confidence in their ability to manage personal finances showed male students reported a
greater level of confidence then female students. Three quarters of male students reported 'very
confident' compared with approximately half the female students. The likelihood ratio chi-square
shows that this difference across gender is statistically significant (p<0.01). We then examined
change across the surveys (ie: the survey completed at the beginning of the course and the survey
completed at the end of the course). The analysis found that a probability of a positive change in
response across the two surveys (i.e. from disagreeing to agreeing with this item) is much greater
than that of a negative change for both female and male students. Therefore, it appears that for
students in the longitudinal sample, confidence in managing students' own finances increased
during the period of the course. Furthermore, the percentage of a positive change for female
students is greater than for their male counterparts.

Identifying Discourses of Personal Financial Management

From our analysis of the interviews, we identified three main ways our 16-19 year old students
approached their finances - as consumer aware or savvy, as entrepreneur and as debt averse. 
Each main way reflects a set of beliefs and actions about personal financial management. More
specifically, we found students talked about personal finance in three main ways as:

'consumer aware or consumer savvy'  

Personal financial management is considered as being part of everyday life, now and in the mid
and more distant future, is about being able to make informed decisions about financial products,
planning ahead and managing money.

'Entrepreneur'
Implies being consumer aware and in addition a strong belief in making money work: money
makes money and wanting to play an active role in making this happen.

'debt averse'
May or may not be consumer aware, finance is seen as a matter of constraints, regarding things
to not do rather than things that could be done to advance one's financial position.

We analysed the frequency of these different cultural models across our year 3 cohort and found
that consumer aware or consumer savvy (55%) was the main way students enacted their financial
participation followed by debt adverse 21%, entrepreneur 11%.

Analysis of Course Impact

One way to evaluate course impact is to examine student responses in interview and survey data
regarding how the course has influenced their beliefs about finance and their personal financial
practices. These results show an overall positive impact.

Another way we sought to understand the course impact was by drawing on socio-cultural
perspectives on learning (see Research Design section). Using methods of discourse analysis, we
aimed to tease out the ways the course narrative and discourse of personal finance interacted
with other narratives and discourses learned from other times and places in their lives. We
propose that expectations of university or work, and future happenings in life acted as a
gravitational pole on the students at a time when they were becoming young adults, which
fuelled motivation to engage with the ifs School of Finance course and to become more
financially capable.
Implications for Financial Education
Several important implications for financial education arise from this research:

 There is evidence that a specifically designated and substantial course for which the aims
of improving personal financial management of students is explicit can be effective in
changing ways in which young people think about themselves in relation to personal
financial management and their participation.
 There is evidence that realistic personal financial management oriented curriculum can
engender a 'financially capable-consumer aware' approach to personal financial
management, and captured in this we imply a shift to a firm belief that personal financial
management is for life.
 There is evidence that personal financial management education is effective when
provided at a time when young people are experiencing a marked transition towards
greater 'life' independence and adulthood.

Future research

 This research has focused on 16-19 year old students who opted to take a course in
financial studies at AS level. Conducting this research has identified the need to
understand better socio-cultural influences (e.g. ethnicity, gender and social class) on
young people's ways of participating in personal financial management.
 Further research is needed to compare personal financial management practices and
identification for students who have chosen financial studies with otherwise comparable
students who have not, in relation to their identification and participation in personal
financial management; a future study should scope the 14-19 year old age span.
 This research suggests that financial education may be more effective when provided at a
time of marked transition to greater independence. This suggests that the time for
financial education may be better earlier for vocation students who are not likely to
continue to level 3 courses. Further research is needed.
 Unit 2 Research Procedures

2.1 PLANNING AND IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM

Successful prevention efforts begin with a comprehensive and well-grounded

understanding of the key problem areas on campus and within a particular community.
After identifying the AOD problems on campus, the prevention team can examine how
these problems manifest themselves in the environment and identify priority issues and
concerns.
 
Accurate problem identification relies on gathering and analyzing data systematically at
both the individual and environmental levels. This data collection and analysis seeks to
identify the quantity and frequency of AOD use by individual students; the academic,
medical, and social consequences of college students’ alcohol use; and the environmental
factors that contribute to use, such as easy access to alcohol or lax enforcement of
campus AOD policies.
Many prevention teams typically examine individual factors, such as what students think
and do, in problem identification. In order to facilitate environmental change, it is
essential for teams also to examine the environmental conditions that shape students’
decisions. Environmentally focused data-gathering will inform the development of
effective environmentally based strategies.
After compiling and analyzing the data, the prevention team can prioritize which
problems to address so that they can create an appropriate course of action. Politics on
campus and in the community, and money, staff time, and other resources may dictate
which problem to undertake first. If the team or coalition is newly formed, it may make
sense to start with a problem that is easy to address to establish an early success and build
momentum.
With a clear understanding of the nature of the problem, the team can focus their
prevention efforts on defining the desired changes on campus and in the community.

The development of action plans is an important part of any goal setting or problem solving. 
Yet, surprisingly, it is often neglected.  Action plans are the means by which the future is
planned, and thereby controlled and changed.  Action planning converts a goal or a solution into
a step by step statement of who is to do what by when.

I have called the technique described here "event track".  It uses effective small-group processes
for information collection and analysis.

In using it, you decide a goal.  You then develop an initial sequence of actions to achieve it.  This
gives you a rough action plan.  You then refine the initial plan.  First, you identify where it might
go wrong.  Then you decide how you would know it has gone wrong and what you might do
about it.
This approach gives you a double action plan.  Your purpose is to get from where you are to
where you want to be.  Part of the action plan describes in detail how you are going to do that. 
The other part describes in detail how you are going to check that it's working.

But first there are some other issues to be addressed. 

Preparation for action planning

Action planning is likely to be most effective when you also carry out some preparatory
activities:

a. Select participants from the relevant stakeholders.  Negotiate your role and theirs.  Obtain
their agreement to the process, modifying it if necessary.
b. Goal setting or visioning.  The participants decide the goals which the planning is to
achieve.  You might use processes such as "search" for this purpose.  There are also other
goal-setting processes.
 
c.  Situation analysis.  Define the main features of the existing situation.  For a large system,
this might take the form of some type of evaluation.  In a small group setting, there are
processes such as force field analysis which are effective.
 The simplest approach is sometimes called a "problem census".  Participants list the
main obstacles to goal achievement.
d.  It may be important as part of this process to define the constraints on resource use.
 
e. The action planning.

Steps (b) and (c) can be reversed.  The order I've given is most common;
but if there are salient problems which occupy most of people's attention,
situation analysis can usefully precede goal setting. Now to the
description.  First, an overview.  Then, a more detailed account.

An overview of event track

The overall procedure as described here has seven main phases.  After describing the solution
(from a previous stage of problem solving) as a mutually-desired goal...

1. Generate a list of actions which might occur on the event track from now to the
attainment of that goal.
 
2. Identify any other events which would have to occur to bring about any of the key
events.
 
3. Add them to the event track.

Then, for each key event in turn...

1. Identify any other events which have to occur.

 
 2. Identify the assumptions made in compiling the event track.  Build into the plan the
necessary checks on the assumptions (including assumptions about coordination
between parts of the plan).
 
3. Identify problems most likely to lead to failure of the action plan.  Develop
preventive or contingency plans, and plans for monitoring progress.  Add these to the
event track.
 
4. Include occasional reviews to check that the goal is still appropriate.

I've described this as if you are doing the planning.  And indeed, perhaps you are.  More likely,
though, you are facilitating the process.  The stakeholders are doing the planning.

A detailed description

Here is the event track described in detail.  If you are interested only in an overview, you can
read the main steps and skip the sub-steps.

A.   Develop a rough action plan

(This description assumes that you have already defined the goal in a previous activity.)

The first phase has three steps: list possible actions, choose key events, and arrange them in
sequence.

1.   List possible actions

An action plan is a sequence of actions: generate a list of possible actions, choose the key
actions, and then arrange them in sequence.

1.01   Working individually and without discussion, participants list activities that might be used
to achieve the goal.

1.02   Collect a combined list of the activities on newsprint.  Ask participants to include any
other ideas that occur to them while the list is being prepared. 

2.    Choose key actions

Use a voting technique, cyclic if necessary: choose the actions which must occur if the goal is to
be achieved.  2

3.    Arrange them in sequence

3.01   On a separate piece of newsprint fixed horizontally (to give you plenty of width), draw a
line to represent the event track.  Label the start now and the end with the goal.

now -------------------------------------------> goal

3.02   Write in on this event track the key events, in the order in which they would have to occur
to be effective.

The easiest way to do this is to start with the most important key event, and locate it on the event
track.  Then take the next most important key event and locate it relative to the first key event. 
And so on ...

Check that all events are recorded as actions by someone present.

It is quite usual for an event to occur twice, or occasionally more often.  It typically occurs once
when it is planned or verified, and a second time when it is carried out.

B.   Refine the action plan

In this phase, the rough action plan from phase 1 is amplified and made more robust.  Other
events which must occur are first identified.  Potential problems are then identified and dealt
with.  Each event is recorded in the form: "who will do what by when"; the "who" is a member
of the team.

These steps are applied to each event in turn ...

4.    Identify other key events

For each key event in turn, identify other events which have to happen (in effect, this applies a
miniature event track to each key event).

4.01   Participants work individually to identify other actions which have to occur if the key
event is to be brought about.

4.02   Collect these events on a piece of newsprint.

4.03   Check these events in turn.  If they are necessary, transfer them to the appropriate place on
the event track.

5.    Check assumptions

Identify the assumptions made in compiling the event track.  Add to the action plan the necessary
checks on those assumptions.  The assumptions it is most important to check are those
characterized by uncertainty and risk.

For each event in turn ...

5.01   Identify the assumptions that have been made about the attitudes and approval and
cooperation of other people.  Add a check on important assumptions into the event track.

5.02   Consider the assumptions made about resources (materials, time, money, and especially
skills).  Add necessary checks.
5.03   Consider the assumptions made about coordination.  If one event depends on another, add
the necessary actions for coordination.  This step begins to build in the monitoring of the plan. 

6.  Plan for potential problems

Identify the most likely problems.  Develop preventive or contingency plans, and plans for
monitoring progress.    If the event track becomes crowded create a partial event track for each
key event.

6.01   Ask participants, working individually, to think of everything that could go wrong with the
key event: "If we carry out this action as planned, what can possibly go wrong?"

6.02   Compile participants' individual lists of potential problems into a combined list.

6.03   Rate probability and severity of each potential problem (a rating of low, medium or high is
usually enough).  If a potential problem is of moderate or high severity, and moderate or high
probability, continue onto the next step.  Otherwise return to step 6.01 for the next key event.

6.04   Identify the most likely causes of the potential problem.   Devise a series of actions to
remove the cause.  Add them to the event track.

6.05   Develop a contingency plan in case the problem still occurs.  Add these actions to the
event track.

6.06   Decide what monitoring has to be done so that the potential problem will be identified if it
occurs.  Add the measures for monitoring to the event track.  This may also require adding
preparatory measures, to act as a baseline (for example, counting something may not mean much
unless you know how many there were at the start).  Note that this step, too, adds monitoring to
your action plan.

7.    Add regular goal reviews

Take into account the length of time over which the action plan has to operate, and the rate of
change.  Then decide how often the overall goal should be reviewed for suitability.  This step,
too, adds monitoring to the event track.  

The event track is a clear example of the problem-solving process.  It alternates between
information-generation and -analysis, as many such processes do.  The nature of the information
and the criteria for evaluation differ, depending on the phase that is active.

The completed event track has a number of features which satisfy the requirements of effective
action plans:

 The actions (including those for assumption checks, monitoring, and the like) are all
stated specifically.  They identify who, what, and by when.  (Note that the plan seldom
needs to specify how the action is to be done, provided it sufficiently describes the end
state to be attained.  If the action is accomplished, it does not usually matter what specific
 method a person uses.)
 
 As mentioned previously, there are really two event tracks.  One is the primary sequence
of events which (if all goes well) will achieve the goal.  The other is a set of actions for
ongoing evaluation.  It includes checks on the accuracy of assumptions, the provision of
resources, and the like.  It also contains the actions necessary to monitor the action plan
and implement contingency actions if warranted.
 
 The first event track, of primary events, provides specificity.  The required actions are
described in enough detail for everyone to know what she is to do and when she is to do
it.  The rigidity of this approach is balanced by the second event track, which allows
flexibility in the light of developments.
 
 The person specified by the final form of the event track is a person who is present and
able to speak for herself.  In this way, the event track and its timing are decided by those
who will have to carry out the actions.

The event track also illustrates a general principle which can be applied at other parts of the
problem solving cycle.  Starting with a rough plan and then reviewing its shortcomings can often
lead to a thorough and detailed plan. 

2.2 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

When research is conducted hypothesis formulation is one of the most preliminary step.
Hypothesis formulation helps in formulating research problem. Hypothesis formulation is not a
necessary but an important step of research. A valid and reasonable research can be conducted
without any hypothesis. Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible.

Definition of Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the
bases of which a study has to be conducted. This hypothesis is tested for possible rejection or
approval. If hypothesis get accepted it shows that your hunch was right if it get rejected it still
does not mean that your research was not valid but it means that it is the opposite way you
thought and perceived. Whether it is approved or not it gives you some conclusion and adds to
the available body of knowledge.
A hypothesis which has been tested again and again by various researchers can still be tested for
making it more valid but if the hypothesis has been approved in such a manner that it has become
a law than it is better to test something that adds to the available knowledge rather than
approving something which has been approved many times before.
Example:
For example if you want to conduct a study on the Effects of Parental Depression on the
Academic Performance of Children, you may like to conduct it without any hypothesis but then
you will have many dimensions to think upon and will be more likely get distracted. If you
formulate a hypothesis, that parental depression results in depression in children too and this
depression leads to low grades, your research will get a direction and you will not think about the
broader effects of depression everything is well defined you have to test the impact of depression
on the children's depression and as well as on the grades of children. You may not need to test
the impacts on the extra-curricular activities, class conduct and other such things.

Characteristics of a Well-formulated Research Hypothesis:

Testable and Verifiable: A research hypothesis has t5o be checked for possible approval or
rejection. This analysis is done statistically and, therefore it should be such that can be tested and
analyzed. After analysis the results can be obtained. Some hypothesis cannot be tested because
they are too subjective and they are not suitable for research. Research needs objectivity and
evidences without these two things any research is impossible to conduct. For example you may
want to conduct a research on the existence of God but to prove the existence of God is a far
different phenomenon and even you may formulate a hypothesis is but you cannot test it
statistically, therefore, such hypothesis and research questions should be avoided.

Simple and Clear: The wording of the hypothesis should have to be simple and clear. Any
complex ideas and wordings should be avoided. A simple hypothesis will make it easier for you
to carry on throughout the research and will be easy for the reader to understand. In addition to
the terminology and phrasing the hypothesis should have to be clear in your mind from every
perspective. If there are any ambiguities or questions in your mind, resolve them at this stage; if
they are not clear you will find it hard to conduct the study in later stages.

Relevant: The hypothesis should have to be relevant to the study that you are about to conduct.
An irrelevant hypothesis will lead to an invalid research. Hypothesis is the possible answer to
your research question if your presumption or your presumed answer is wrong and irrelevant
your method to find its accuracy too will not result in any relevant conclusions. Check whether
your hypothesis is related to the direction in which you have planned to take your research or
not.

Importance of Research Hypothesis:

For a new researcher it is important to have research hypothesis so as to be directional. Research

hypothesis can be present in research and it may not be but if it is present it can have following
benefits.
Clarity: Hypothesis brings clarity to research. It makes your mind clear about the way in which
you have to carry on the research. Methodology of research depends greatly on research
hypothesis. Clarity brings 50 % chances of success in research. At each step you need to be clear
about every aspect and dimension. If you are not clear about a single thing you should not go
forward, stay where ever you are and resolve the issue and then move to the next step.

Focus: You formulate your research hypothesis and you get a focal point in your research. You
need not go off the track and stay intact to the main objective which you set after the hypothesis.
Your research becomes organized and haphazard actions are minimized.

Direction: Hypothesis sets a direction of research. This direction shows you what should be the
objectives, methodology, mode of analysis and research design. With hypothesis you have a
confidence that whatever you have presumed will be tested rather than testing something that is
irrelevant to the research.

Objectivity: Every research requires objectivity but without hypothesis you may collect data
which is not relevant to the research and hence decreases the objectivity of the research. When
you know that your hypothesis only deals with a particular aspect of the phenomenon you will
not collect data that is not required and the objectivity and validity of the research increases. 

Add to the Body of Knowledge: A hypothesis adds to the available body of knowledge. For
example you study different literature and you find out that this much work has already been
done on this topic and you should concentrate on the gaps that are yet to be filled by new
research you formulate a hypothesis and keep your direction towards it. 
2.3 REVIEWING AND KEEPING RECORD OF THE LITERATURE

It is imperative that you keep good records of your search as you are going along. Keeping a
record of your search will:

 allow you to leave your search and return to it at a later time

 provide you with something to demonstrate your progress to your supervisor
 allow you to review or check your search
 allow you to assess your search: how successful it has been and how much is left to do
 prevent you from repeating part of your search
 allow you to easily record changes and record notes as your search progresses

Even where you have produced a comprehensive search strategy you should still keep a record of
your search. During the course of your search you may find that your search has produced too
few or too many results (Rumsey 2004) or you may discover new or alternative search terms or
new resources to use. If your search strategy is altered you need to have a record of what you
have searched to date.

 Services to accommodate their customers. Presently, they are still using manual record
keeping system using paper files stored in folders. Consequently, their task...
 Chapter Ii: Related Literature And Studies Of Inventory System
Chapter II: Related Literature and Studies Review of Related Literature In exploration,
we find new techniques, new knowledge, even develop new substances...

 Related Literature And Methodology Of Inventory System

Chapter2 Related Literatures Foreign Literature Eugene F. Brigman, Fundamentals of
Financial Management, 5th ed., (Hinsdale: Holt, Richard and Winston Sounders...

 Related Literature Of Sales And Inventory System

and Disadvantages of the BBW Inventory System A problem that this inventory system
faces is the added cost of record keeping. Handheld PCs must be purchased...

 Related Literature Of Sales And Inventory System

manner. By using a computerized inventory system, a business owner can ensures that all
orders, reports and other documents relating to inventory are uniform in...

 Records Management System

@must.ac.ug Tel +256-774437989. Supervisor April, 2011. A Records Management
System for Mbarara Hospital DECLARATION I Acheng Doris Odit hereby declares...

 Impact Of Computer On Record Keeping

the past five decades has a greater impact on record keeping system, accounting and
business management system than the advent of computer application.

 Baby Thesis-Computerized Ssc Record Keeping

The researchers choose to analyze the existing condition regarding the record keeping
system of the student council office where in the SSC Secretary and Treasurer...

 Building Records Appraisal System

The process of bringing under control the unapprised products of former record-keeping
systems. Where appropriate, general statements of theory and principle are...

 Documentation For Related Literature

Related Literature of Sales and Inventory System Inventory Systems Summary
According to the U.S. Small Business Administration, Inventory refers to stocks of...

 Review Of Related Literature And Studies (Autism)

And it helps to known about the autism behaviors and gestures. Related literature about
the Decision Support Systems (DSS) area has diversified and the development...

 Medical Record Keeping

Record keeping systems are: a. It should store and manage the medical and health
information in one central place. b. It should be personalized i.e. the patient...
 The Problem Of Record-Keeping
Successful business is based on sound record keeping practices. An appropriate record-
keeping system can determine the survival or failure of a new business...

 Related Literature
Complied with HIPAA standards for patient privacy and data security now we cannot
easily track when or to whom patient records are transmitted. We also cannot know...

 Paper-Based Versus Electronic Medical Record Keeping

type device. The patient records are kept digitally within the EMR system and are
accessed via the computer. This type of record-keeping system does not require the...

 Record Keeping
refer back to at a later date. ARKS - (Animal Record Keeping System) Specialized
computer system Developed by ISIS for collecting, Reporting and analyzing animal...

 Criminal Record Management System

and other organization to manage increasingly decentralized record-keeping systems. As
a result, many organizations find that it is more and more difficult to...

 Record Keeping Thesis

directed towards the improvement and development of Jumils Funeral Co. Record
Keeping System. The study is largely dependent on the honesty, sincerity and integrity...

 Online Record Keeping

Statement of Scope Automated Medical Record Keeping System SMCL Online Clinic
Record Keeping Problem Description: Based on observations, Saint Michaels...

 Out-Patient Department Record Management System

Less paper works, organized compilation of patients’ records or files once the proposed
system is implemented. With this, they will have more time to accommodate the...

2.4 DEVELOPING AND VALIDATION OF RESEARCH TOOLS.

Unit 3 Types of Research

3.1 Applied.
Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science.
It accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academy's) accumulated
theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-, business-, or client-
driven purpose. Applied research is compared to pure research (basic research) in discussion
about research ideals, methodologies, programs, and projects.
Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally
employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real world,
strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use
a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for
interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology
should also be considered.
The OECD's Frascati Manual describes Applied Research as one of the three forms of research,
along with Basic research & Experimental Development.
Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated
with individual disciplines.
3.2 CROSS-SECTIONAL VS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Cross-sectional studies (also known as cross-sectional analyses, transversal
studies, prevalence study) form a class of research methods that involve observation of all of a
population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time. They differ from case-control
studies in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-
control studies typically include only individuals with a specific characteristic, with a sample,
often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. Cross-sectional studies are descriptive studies
(neither longitudinal nor experimental). Unlike case-control studies, they can be used to describe,
not only the Odds ratio, but also risks and relative risks from prevalence (sometimes
called prevalence risk ratio, or PRR). They may be used to describe some feature of the
population, such as prevalence of an illness, or they may support inferences of cause and
effect. Longitudinal studies differ from both in making a series of observations more than once
on members of the study population over a period of time.

Qualitative research
Qualitative research uses data which is descriptive in nature. Tools that educational researchers
use in collecting qualitative data include: observations, conducting interviews, conducting
document analysis, and analyzing participant products such as journals, diaries, images or blogs.
Types of qualitative research

 Case study 
 Ethnography 
 Phenomenological Research 
 Narrative Research 
 Historical Research 
3.3 Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is by definition exploratory, and it is used when we don’t know what to
expect, to define the problem or develop an approach to the problem. It’s also used to go deeper
into issues of interest and explore nuances related to the problem at hand. Common data
collection methods used in qualitative research are focus groups, triads, dyads,  in-depth
interviews, uninterrupted observation, bulletin boards, and ethnographic
participation/observation.
Quantitative research is conclusive in its purpose as it tries to quantify the problem and
understand how prevalent it is by looking for projectable results to a larger population. Here we
collect data through surveys (online, phone, paper), audits, points of purchase (purchase
transactions), and click-streams.

Quantitative Research
Qualitative
Research

Objective /  To gain an understanding of underlying  To quantify data

purpose reasons and motivations and generalize
 To provide insights into the setting of a results from a
problem, generating ideas and/or sample to the
hypotheses for later quantitative research population of
 To uncover prevalent trends in thought and interest
opinion  To measure the
incidence of
various views
and opinions in a
chosen sample
 Sometimes
followed by
qualitative
research which is
used to explore
some findings
further

Sample Usually a small number of non-representative Usually a large number

cases. Respondents selected to fulfil a given quota. of cases representing the
population of interest.
Randomly selected
 respondents.
Data collection Unstructured or semi-structured techniques e.g. Structured techniques
individual depth interviews or group discussions. such as online
questionnaires, on-street
or telephone interviews.

» Click to see an
example of a short
online questionnaire

Data analysis Non-statistical. Statistical data is usually

in the form of
tabulations (tabs).
Findings are conclusive
and usually descriptive
in nature.

» View video showing

typical analyses and
cross tabs

Outcome Exploratory and/or investigative. Findings are not Used to recommend a

conclusive and cannot be used to make final course of action
generalizations about the population of interest.
Develop an initial understanding and sound base
for further decision making.
3.4 ACTION VS EXPERIMENTAL
ACTION RESEARCH
The Nature of Action Research
Action research is conducted by a teacher, administrator, or other education professional to solve
a problem at the local level.
Each of the specific methods of research can be used in action research studies, although on a
smaller scale.
A given research question may often be investigated by any one of several methods.
Some methods are more appropriate to a particular research question and /or setting than other
methods.
Assumptions Underlying Action Research
Several assumptions underlie action research studies. These are that the participants have the
authority to make decisions, want to improve their practice, are committed to continual
professional development, and will engage in systematic inquiry.
Types of Action Research
Practical action research addresses a specific local problem.
Participatory action research, while also focused on addressing a specific local problem, attempts
to empower participants or bring about social change.
Level of Participation in Action Research
Participation can range from giving information to increasingly greater involvement in the
various aspects of the study.
Steps in Action Research
There are four steps in action research: identifying the research question or problem, gathering
the necessary data, analyzing and interpreting the data and sharing the results with the
participants, and developing an action plan.
In participatory research, every effort is made to involve all those who have a vested interest in
the outcomes of the study-the stakeholders.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The Uniqueness of Experimental Research
Experimental research is unique in that it is the only type of research that directly attempts to
influence a particular variable, and it is the only type that, when used properly, can really test
hypotheses about cause and effect relationships. Experimental designs are some of the strongest
available for educational researchers to use in determining cause and effect.

Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research

Experiments differ from other types of research in two basic ways-comparisons of treatments
and the direct manipulation of one or more independent variables by the researcher.
Randomization
Random assignment is an important ingredient in the best kinds of experiments. It means that
every individual who is participating in the experiment has an equal chance of being assigned to
any of the experimental or control conditions that are being compared.

Control of Extraneous Variables

The researcher in an experimental study has an opportunity to exercise far more control than in
most other forms of research.
Some of the most common ways to control for the possibility of differential subject
characteristics (in the various groups being compared) are randomization, holding certain
variables constant, building the variable into the design, matching, using subjects as their own
controls, and using analysis of the covariance.

Weak Experimental Designs

Three weak designs that are occasionally used in experimental research are the one shot case
study design, the one group pretest-posttest design, and the static group comparison design. They
are considered weak because they do not have built in controls for threats to internal validity.

In a one shot case study, a single group is exposed to a treatment or event, and its effects are
assessed.

In the one group pretest posttest design, a single group is measured or observed both before and
after exposure to a treatment.

In the static group comparison design, two intact groups receive different treatment

3.5 DESCRIPTIVE
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomena to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The
methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study
which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to
determine changes over time.

1: Statement of the problem

2: Identification of information needed to solve the problem

3: Selection or development of instruments for gathering the information

4: Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure

5: Design of procedure for information collection

6: Collection of information

7: Analysis of information

8: Generalizations and/or predictions

3.6 HISTORICAL RESEARCH AND LIBRARY RESOURCES

e NERA network Historical Research assembles researchers sharing an interest in educational
history – for instance how school and education as social institutions has taken shape historically
– and the historical dimension of education. This means that history is seen not as events and
matters from yesteryear, but as a dimension always there that requires attention and should be
taken account of in educational research. Like some years before, the network sessions will
during the 2008 Conference include the theme Life History. The network maintains its existence
mainly through the sessions at the NERA Conferences. Between conferences the Swedish parts
of the network are maintained through the cooperation between researchers from the universities
of Stockholm, Örebro and Uppsala working together in several projects focussing historical
dimensions of education.
Unit 4 Designing, Planning and Management of Research

4.1 Making problems researchable

Without a strong research question, your collaborative research project is going to lack
momentum and result in a weak response from students. In order to make sure you are taking
your students in the right direction, carefully facilitate the selection of the research problem to be
addressed, whether it is one you choose or one that your students come to through consensus. It
may take some time and effort, but finding the “right” problem for a particular learning
community is essential.
A good research problem is compelling. The problem that you and your students choose to
explore must be important to them, to you, and to a larger community you share. The problem
chosen must be one that motivates students to address it—to authentically engage in the goal of
reasoned decision making.

A good research problem must support multiple perspectives. The problem most be phrased
in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple
perspectives. A general rule of thumb is that a good problem is one that would generate a variety
of viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people. 

A good research problem must be researchable. It seems a bit obvious, but more than one
instructor has found herself or himself in the midst of a complex collaborative research project
and realized that students don’t have much to draw on for research, nor opportunities to conduct
sufficient primary research. Choose research problems that can be supported by the resources
available to your students. 

Umbrella topics must be sufficiently complex. If you are using an umbrella topic for a large
class of students who will be working on related, more manageable problems in their learning
teams, make sure that there is sufficient complexity in the research problems that the umbrella
topic includes. These research topics must relate strongly to one another in such a way that there
will be a strong sense of coherence in the overall class effort.

4.2 REVIEWING AND RESHAPING THE PROBLEMS