Minerals

Major and Trace

Michael Mathai
 Minerals: An Overview
 Inorganic elements
 Occur freely in nature
 Found in plants and animals
 Functions include:
 Skeletal Structure and maintenance

 Membrane function

 Hormone action

 Cell regulation
 Major vs Trace
 Minerals are divided into two main
categories:
 Major

 Trace

 Dependant on:
 Daily requirement

 Amount present in body

 Mineral Amounts in a 60-kg
Human Body
selenium 0.02

iodide 0.02

manganese 0.02

copper 0.09

zinc 2
Mineral

iron 2.4

magnesium 30

chloride 90

sodium 90

potassium 210

phosphorus 600

calcium 1150

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Amount (g)
 Calcium
Functions
 Bone structure and strength
 Blood clotting

 Nervous transmission

 Muscle contraction

 Hormonal signals

 Growth
 Absorption
 Adults absorb approximately 30%

 Absorption mainly in upper small

intestine

 Vitamin D involved in regulation

 Calcium Regulation
Role of Vitamin D (Calcitriol)

 Increases calcium gut absorption

 Increases calcium release from bones

 Increases kidney reabsorption

 Calcium Regulation
PTH Activity
 Parathyroid glands help maintain a
normal calcium environment - produce
parathyroid hormone (PTH)

 PTH – principal regulator of

extracellular calcium

 PTH acts on bone, kidney and intestine

 Decreased Blood Calcium
Levels
Short-term:
 Adjustment of rapid exchanges of
calcium held in bone, and free calcium
in solution in blood and ECF
Long-term:
 Absorption of calcium from the

intestine and calcium reabsorption from

the kidneys
 Increased Blood Calcium
Levels
 Calcitonin is released:
 Promotes bone mineralisation

 Decreases movement of calcium

from bone to blood

 Decreases rate of vitamin D

activation (thereby affecting PTH)

Recommended Dietary Intake
 Adults: 800 mg/day
 Postmenopausal females: 1000 mg/day
 Pregnancy: + 300 mg/day
 Lactating: + 500 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Milk, cheese, yoghurt,
 Deficiency
 In response to low dietary intake,
plasma calcium is maintained at
expense of bone calcium – bone loss
may result

 Growth retardation

 Spontaneous nerve discharge

 Osteoporosis
 Decrease in bone density through life –
leads to bone fractures
 Loss of bone accelerates at menopause
 Protection by ensuring highest peak
bone mass (PBM) in late adolescence
 PBM is influenced by genetics
 Osteoporosis (cont’d)
 Factors promoting:
•Low physical activity
•Low dietary calcium
•Declining vitamin D with age
•Loss of sex steroids
•Smoking and alcohol
 Phosphorus
Functions
 Bone health
 Involved in biochemical reactions
 Phosphorylation of enzymes
 Component of DNA and RNA
 Acid/base balance
 Phospholipids in cell membrane
 Absorption
 Efficiently absorbed as free phosphate

 Favourable conditions – when calcium and

phosphorus ingestion is similar (milk)

 High levels of calcium – inhibitory effect

 Vitamin D – improves absorption

Recommended Dietary Intake
 1000 mg/day
 Pregnancy / Lactation: +200 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Meat, fish, poultry
 Dried fruits
 Eggs
 Soft drinks
 Deficiency
 Secondary to other diseases:
• Starvation
• Alcoholism
• GI malabsorption
 Magnesium
Functions
 Parallels calcium and phosphate

 Co-factor in 300 enzymes in the body

 DNA and RNA synthesis

 Cardiac and smooth muscle contraction

 Absorption
 Approximately 33% absorbed
 Occurs mainly in the small intestine
 Levels are regulated by kidneys
 Excess is removed in urine
Excretion
 Increase urinary magnesium:
 Diuretics, thyroid hormones, aldosterone,
corticosteroids, catecholamines, alcohol
 Deficiency
 Not usually seen in humans eating a
normal diet
 Occurs in alcoholics, renal disease,
diabetes mellitus
 Symptoms:
 Growth retardation

 Nervous and muscular problems

 Cardiac arrhythmias
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Males: 320 mg/day
 Females: 270 mg/day
 Pregnancy: + 30 mg/day
 Lactation: + 70 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Nuts, legumes, chocolate, coffee, tea and
cocoa
Interactions
 Calcium, vitamin D, protein
 Sodium
Functions
 Principal extracellular cation:
 Regulates extracellular fluid
volume
 Maintains osmolarity

 Participates in nutrient absorption

 Creates electrical potential charge
 Involved in muscle contraction and
nerve impulses
 Absorption
 95% of ingested sodium is absorbed
 Readily absorbed from:
– Stomach
– Small intestine
– Colon
 Enters epithelial cells passively or with
glucose
 Excretion
 Excretion is regulated by kidneys

 95-99% is reabsorbed along nephron

tubules

 Smaller losses through skin

(perspiration)
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Upper desirable intake
 Minimum requirement: 500 mg/day
 Typical daily intake: 4000 – 7000 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Most sodium in food is added by food
manufacturers
 ~25% added ‘at the table’
 Processed meats, snack foods and take-away
foods
 Deficiency
 Rare
 Possible causes:
vomiting/diarrhoea/excessive perspiration
 Symptoms:
 Muscle cramps, nausea / vomiting,
dizziness, shock, coma

Toxicity
 Hypertension: Systolic BP > 140mmHg,
Diastolic >90mmHg
 Risk factor for: stroke, coronary heart
disease, renal failure
 Potassium
Functions
 Major cation of intracellular fluid:
 Control of cell volume and fluid
balance
 Nerve impulse transmission
 Muscle contraction
 Enzymes
 Lowering blood pressure
 Absorption / Excretion
 90% is absorbed

 Levels are regulated by kidneys and

aldosterone

 Excess is removed by kidneys

 It is not stored in the body

Recommended Dietary Intake
 Minimum Requirement: 2000mg/day
 Typical Intake: 2000 – 3000mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Abundant in all living cells
 Richest sources are fresh foods; fruits
(banana) and vegetables
 Deficiency
 Hypokalaemia:
 Seen in alcoholics, anorexia and bulimia
and diuretic use

 Symptoms: loss of appetite, muscle cramps,

confusion, constipation, irregular heartbeat
 Chloride
Functions
 Major anion in extracellular fluid

 Synthesis of hydrochloric acid in stomach

 Regulation of acid-base balance

 Involved in immune and nerve function

 Absorption / Excretion
 Absorbed in stomach and small intestine

 Excreted through kidneys and perspiration

 Ingested largely as sodium chloride (salt).

Ordinary diets contain sufficient amounts of
chloride
Trace Minerals
 Iron
Functions
 Haemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells
 Myoglobin
 Electron transport chain
 Enzyme cofactor
 Immune function
 Drug detoxification pathway
 Iron In Foods
Haem Iron
 Animal products
 10-15% of western diet
 Haem is cleaved from Hb prior to absorption
 More readily absorbed
Non-Haem Iron
 Plant and plant products
 Consists of iron salts bound to food
 Must be hydrolysed prior to absorption
 Iron in food

If the body
does not Iron is not absorbed and is
Mucosal cells in the
need iron excreted in shed intestinal
intestine store excess
iron in mucosal ferritin cells instead. Thus, iron
(a storage protein). absorption is reduced when
the body does not need iron.

If the body
needs iron

Mucosal ferritin releases iron to

mucosal transferrin (a transport
protein), which hands off iron to
another transferrin that travels
through the blood to the rest of
the body.

Stepped Art
Fig. 13-1, p. 443
 Absorption
Enhance Absorption Decrease Absorption

Haem iron in food Phytates (storage form of

phosphorus in plant tissues
Vitamin C Oxalates
Animal protein Excess Zn, Ca and Mn
Low iron stores High iron stores
HCl (alters solubility) Polyphenols
Decreased HCl
production
 Transportation / Storage
 Following absorption – oxidised to ferric form

 Transported in blood via transferrin

 60% of stored iron is in liver

 40% of stored iron is in muscle tissues

 Some losses
via sweat, skin, Transferrin carries
and urine iron in blood.

Some iron
delivered to
myoglobin of
muscle cells
Liver (and spleen) dismantles
red blood cells, packages Bone marrow incorporates
iron into transferrin, and iron into hemoglobin of red
stores excess iron in ferritin blood cells and stores
(and hemosiderin). excess iron in ferritin
(and hemosiderin).

Some losses Iron-containing

if bleeding hemoglobin in
occurs red blood cells
carries oxygen.

Stepped Art
Fig. 13-3, p. 445
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Adult Males: 7 mg/day
 Pre-menopausal females: 12 – 16 mg/day
 Post-menopausal females: 5 – 7 mg/day
 Pregnancy: 22 – 36 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Organ meats (liver and heart)
 Other meats
 Green leafy vegetables (e.g., spinach)
 Legumes
 Deficiency
I. Pre-latent iron deficiency: absence of
iron stores and increase in iron absorption
II. Latent iron deficiency: plasma iron falls,
sufficient iron to continue erythropoiesis
III. Iron-deficiency anaemia: causes iron-
deficient erythropoiesis and anaemia
 Symptoms:
 Reduced energy, lethargy, reduced
immune function, behavioural
disturbances, reduced intellectual
and work function
Iron
 Toxicity
 Iron and Heart Disease – may be a link to high iron

stores
 Iron and Cancer – may be a link with free radical

activity resulting in damage to DNA

 Iron Poisoning

 UL for adults: 45 mg/day

 Accidental supplement poisoning in children

 Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,

constipation, rapid heartbeat, weak pulse, dizziness,

shock, and confusion
 Zinc
Functions
 Co-factor to many enzymes
 Synthesis of nucleic acids
 Wound healing
 Blood clotting
 Development of bones & sexual organs
 Insulin function
 Retinal production
 Absorption / Transport /
Storage
 Occurs mainly in the ileum via a carrier
mediated system
 Then enters the intracellular zinc pool
 In the liver, bound to metal-binding protein
(metallothionine)
 This enzyme regulates zinc homeostasis
 Transported in the blood with albumin and
transferrin
 Factors Affecting Absorption
 Other nutrients ingested
 Pancreatic and biliary secretions in GI
tract
 Calcium supplements
 Phytates
 Iron and copper absorbance
 Animal products
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Males and females: 12 mg/day
 The requirements for zinc are based on demands
for tissue growth and to replace body losses

Dietary Sources
 Oysters (rich source)
 Meat, poultry, seafood
 Eggs
 Legumes and cereals (phytates interfere
with absorption)
 Deficiency
 People vulnerable to zinc deficiency:
 Children, pregnant women, elderly, chronic

illness, stress, trauma, lactovegetarians,

malabsorption syndromes, impoverished

 Symptoms: poor growth, reduced sense of smell and

taste, impaired pancreatic function, hair loss,
mental confusion, inadequate sexual development,
delayed wound healing, lack of appetite
 Copper
Functions
 Increases iron absorption
 Part of enzyme that forms cross-links in
collagen and elastic
 Part of enzyme involved in conversion of
dopamine to noradrenaline
 Involved in formation and maintenance of
myelin
 Participates in immune function, white and
red blood cell maturation, blood clotting,
bone strength, brain development and
cholesterol and glucose metabolism
 Absorption / Transport /
Storage
 Absorbed in small intestine via carrier
mediated process
 Absorbed copper transported in blood
bound to albumin or trancuprein
 Following absorption, accumulates in
liver
 Over 80% is bound to ceruloplasmin
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Males and females: 0.7 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Organ meats, seafood, cocoa,
mushrooms
Deficiency
 Not common
 Symptoms: bone fragility, anaemia,
decreased white blood cells
 Iodine
Functions
 Production of thyroxin (T4) and smaller
quantities of tri-iodothyronine (T3)

Absorption/Storage/Excretion
 Readily absorbed in small intestine
 Absorbed iodine removed by thyroid
 Excess removed via urine
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Males and females: 150 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 Seaweeds, bread and milk have been
supplemented with iodide
 Deficiency
 Cretinism:
• Neurological impairment, deafness /
muteness, characteristic gait
 Goitre:
• Characteristic increase in mass of
thyroid due to cell enlargement

Toxicity
 Hyperthyroidism: high metabolic rate, high
body temperature, lose body weight
 Chromium
 Acts to increase the actions of insulin
 Body’s content is small and gradually
decreases through life
 Poorly absorbed
 Transported in blood bound to transferrin
 Lost in the urine
 RDI Males: 35mg/day & Females: 25mg/day
 Molybdenum
 Notable for interaction with copper
and iron

 Required by several enzymes

 Food sources: milk/milk products,

beans, liver
 Selenium
 Component of enzyme (glutathione
peroxidase) that with Vitamin E are
involved in anti-oxidant activity

 Recently shown to play a role in

production of thyroid hormones
Selenium
 Selenium is an antioxidant nutrient
associated with protein foods.
 It may provide some protection against
certain types of cancer.
 Selenium Roles in the Body
 Defends against oxidation

 Regulates thyroid hormone

Selenium
 Selenium Deficiency
 Keshan disease – a pre-disposition to
heart disease where a virus causes the
cardiac tissue to become fibrous
 Prevalent in regions of China because the
soil is low in selenium
 Selenium
 Selenium and Cancer
 May protect against certain forms of cancer

 Inconclusive evidence and more research is

needed
 Food sources are better than supplements?
Recommended Dietary Intake
 Males: 85 mg/day
 Females: 70 mg/day
 Pregnancy: +10 mg/day
 Lactation: +15 mg/day

Dietary Sources
 In Western diet, more than 60% is from
meats and cereals