UNIT-6

MINERALS

INTRODUCTION

Mineral elements are the chemical substances found in

body tissues and fluids. Most minerals that enter into the dietary physiology of
organisms consist of simple chemical elements. Larger aggregates of minerals
need to be broken down for absorption. Bacteria play an essential role in the
weathering of primary minerals that result in the release of nutrients for their
own nutrition and for the nutrition of others in the ecological food chain. More
than 50 minerals found are found in the human body but a few 24 minerals are
associated with clearly recognizable clinical situations in man.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

The minerals are classified into two types:

 Macro Minerals
 Micro Minerals

 Macro Minerals
This category contains seven minerals, such as calcium,
phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and sulfur,
which are needed in significant amounts—more than 100 mg per
day.
The Macro minerals are:
 Calcium
 Potassium
 Sodium
 Sulfur
 Phosphorus
 Magnesium
 Chlorine

 Calcium
The mineral with the greatest amount in the body, calcium
can be added to certain diets, found in other foods, and found in some
medications (for example: antacids). A element that is mainly found and
retained in the hard portion of bones. Osteoblasts are cells that add
calcium to bone, whereas osteoclasts are cells that take calcium out of
bone. In addition to being necessary for strong bones, calcium is also
necessary for heart function, muscle contraction, and appropriate blood
clotting.

Functions
 Calcium is required for vascular contraction and
vasodilation, muscle function, nerve transmission,
intracellular signalling and hormonal secretion.

 The body utilizes bone tissue as a source and reservoir for

calcium to maintain steady concentrations of the mineral in
blood, muscle, and inter cellular fluids. As a result, serum
calcium is extremely strictly regulated and is not affected by
variations in dietary intake.

 The bones and teeth store the remaining 99 % of the calcium

that the body needs to support their structure and functions.
Cement for connective tissues.
  The actual bone is constantly changing, with calcium
constantly being deposited into new bone and being
reabsorbed. As people age, the ratio of bone restoration to
deposition shifts. For good teeth and gums

 In childhood and adolescence, bone formation outpaces

restoration, but in early and middle adulthood, both
processes are roughly equal. Eye health

Source
 Rich natural sources of calcium include milk, yogurt, and cheese.
 Vegetables like Chinese cabbage, kale, and broccoli are examples
of non-dairy sources.
 Unless they are fortified, most grains do not contain large levels of
calcium; yet, because they are commonly consumed and do
contain tiny amounts of calcium, they provide calcium to the diet.
 A variety of fruit juices and beverages, tofu, and cereals are among
the foods fortified with calcium.

Deficiency of Calcium
A calcium deficit causes hypocalcemia. The main
causes of hypocalcemia include illnesses or medical interventions, such
as renal failure, stomach surgery, and the use of certain drugs (such
diuretics).

Inadequate calcium intake over time results in

osteopenia, which can progress to osteoporosis if left untreated.
Additionally, there is an increased risk of bone fractures, particularly in
the elderly. Rickets can also result from a calcium deficit; however
vitamin D insufficiency is more frequently linked to it.
 Recommended Dietary Allowances for Calcium
Age Male Female Pregnancy Lactation
0-6 m 200 mg 200 mg
7-12 m 260 mg 260 mg
1-3 y 700 mg 700 mg
4-8 y 1000 mg 1000 mg
9-13 y 1300 mg 1300 mg
14-18 y 1300 mg 1300 mg 1300 mg 1300 mg
19-50 y 1000 mg 1000 mg 1000 mg 1000 mg
51-70 y 1000 mg 1200 mg
71+ y 1200 mg 1200 mg

 Phosphorus
Phosphorus works with the B vitamins. Additionally, it
supports nerve conduction, renal function, cardiac regularity, and
muscular contraction.

Functions
 Digestive system: Controls calcium and many other trace element
absorption; too much phosphorus has a laxative effect.

 Nervous system: A source of ATP, which is necessary for the

myelin sheath to form

 Endocrine system: Vitamin D is involved

 Blood: Controls the metabolism of red blood cells (RBC)

 Muscular system: The contraction of muscles requires adenosine

triphosphate, or ATP

 Bones: A part of the teeth and bones

  Immune system: Leukocytes require adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)

 Metabolic: Phosphorylation events produce energy

 In the liver, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) facilitates

detoxification

Source
 The protein dietary types of milk and meat are the primary
sources of nutrition.

 A diet that offers sufficient levels of protein and calcium also

offers sufficient amounts of phosphorus.

 Whole-grain breads and cereals contain more phosphorus than

cereals and breads made from refined flour; this is a storage form
of phosphorus called phytin, which is not absorbed by humans.

 The amount of phosphorus in fruits and vegetables is little.

Deficiency
 Arthritis - Inflammation of joints

 Weakness in muscles

 Lethargic

 Dental caries

 Brittle skeleton

 Reproductive problems
 Recommended Dietary Allowances for Phosphorus

 0 to 6 months: 100 milligrams per day (mg/ day)

 7 to 12 months: 275 mg/day

 1 to 3 years: 460 mg/day

 4 to 8 years: 500 mg/day

 9 to 18 years: 1,250 mg

 Adults: 700 mg/day

 Pregnant or lactating women:

Younger than 18: 1,250 mg/day

Older than 18: 700 mg/day

 Sodium
For the body to function correctly, sodium is a necessary
ingredient. Sodium is found in salt. The digestive system absorbs sodium
that is consumed through food. The kidney is the principal organ in
charge of preserving homeostasis, which regulates the amount of sodium
in the body and its concentrations in bodily fluids.

Functions

 Sodium is the primary cation in extracellular fluid and is

mostly responsible for maintaining extracellular fluid volume
and osmotic balance.

 Sodium serves as the extracellular fluid's osmotic framework.

  A sodium-potassium pump called sodium potassium ATPase
activity, which consumes a significant amount of energy when
the body is at rest, maintains the sodium-potassium gradient
across the cellular membrane.

 Normal growth and life depend on sodium.

Sources
 Most foods naturally contain sodium. Table salt, often known
as sodium chloride, is the most widely used type of sodium.

 Although the amount varies depending on the source,

drinking water, milk, beets, and celery all naturally contain
salt.

 Foods with added sodium include canned soups and

vegetables, as well as processed meats like ham, bacon, and
sausage. Fast food typically contains a lot of salt.

 Milligrams (mg) are used to measure dietary salt. One

teaspoon of table salt contains 2,300 mg of sodium, or 40% of
the total sodium content. In babies, balance is typically
maintained with intakes of no more than the minimal 69 mg of
Na (3 mmol).

Deficiency
 A low blood sodium concentration is known as
hyponatremia or hyponatraemia. Hyponatremia is almost
never the result of a diet low in salt.

 Low blood volume can result from sodium loss, and this
might trigger the production of anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH).
  The release of ADH causes the blood to dilute and retain
water, which lowers the sodium concentration in the blood.

 The main positively charged ion outside of the cell is

sodium, which is unable to freely pass across the
interstitial space and enter the cell.

 Up to 25 water molecules are drawn to charged sodium

ions, forming a polar structure called a pernatarge that is
too big to fit through the cell membrane. A person's normal
serum sodium levels range from 135 to 145mEq/liter, or 135
to 145mmol/L.

 A serum sodium level of less than 135mEq/L is commonly

referred to as hyponatremia, and a level of less than
125mEq/L is deemed severe.

 Low blood sodium levels are frequently linked to a number

of illnesses, such as pneumonia, liver failure, renal failure,
and congestive heart failure.

Recommended Daily Allowance for Sodium

 Adults (including pregnant and breastfeeding women):
1,500 milligrams (mg) per day.
 Children 1-3 years: 1,000 mg per day.
 Children 4-8 years: 1,200 mg per day.
 Children 9-13 years: 1,500 mg per day.
 Adolescents 14-18 years: 1,500 mg per day.

 Potassium
The minerals that make up the electrolyte family include
potassium, sodium, and chloride. These minerals collaborate closely
and are called electrolytes because they conduct electricity when
dissolved in water. The body stores around 95% of its potassium inside
cells, whereas sodium and chloride are primarily found outside of cells.
 Functions
 Potassium is required for the contraction of muscles, the

conduction of nerve signals, and the metabolism of proteins

and carbohydrates.

 The nutrient potassium aids in the maintenance of several

bodily processes, such as heart, kidney, and adrenal function

as well as muscular contractions.

 Potassium also contributes significantly to maintaining the

body's blood pressure.

 Construct proteins.

 Utilize and break down carbs.

 Gain strength.

 Continue your body's normal growth.

 Manage the heart's electrical activity.

 Maintain the acid-base equilibrium

Sources
 Fruits like papayas, bananas, oranges, cantaloupe, pears,
mangoes, apricots, dates, kiwi, and dried prunes are high in
potassium.

 Vegetables high in potassium are tomatoes, cucumbers, and

red cabbage. Brussels sprouts, broccoli, and white
cauliflower, spinach synthesized. Beans, yogurt, and tuna are
additional good sources of fat that are high in potassium.
Blood pressure and nutrition.
  Squash is one vegetable in particular high in potassium.
When it comes to fighting high blood pressure, this cuisine is
fantastic.

 A lot of foods include potassium. All meats, including poultry

and red meat, as well as fish like sardines, flounder, salmon,
and cod, are excellent providers of potassium.

 Other great sources of potassium are almonds, milk, and

yogurt.

Deficiency
Serum potassium levels were lowered by hypokalemia.
Heart problems, exhaustion, agitation, disorientation, and muscle
weakness are signs of potassium shortage. The illness known as
hypokalemia can be brought on by insufficient potassium levels.
Excessive blood pressure, cramps, and weariness are signs of
potassium shortage.

Recommended Daily Allowance for Potassium

Infants
 0 - 6 months: 0.4 grams a day (g/day)
 7- 12 months: 0.7 g/day

Children and Adolescents

 3 years: 3 g/day
 4 - 8 years: 3.8 g/day
 9 - 13 years: 4.5 g/day
 14 - 18 years: 4.7 g/day
 Adults
 Age 19 and older: 4.7 g/day

 Women who are producing breast milk need slightly higher

amounts (5.1 g/day).

 Magnesium
The body contains magnesium, which is the fourth most
prevalent mineral and is necessary for optimal health. Bone contains
around half of the magnesium in the body. The majority of the other half
is located inside the cells that make up human tissues and organs.
Blood contains only 1% of magnesium, but the body makes great efforts
to maintain consistent blood levels of this mineral.

Function

 The body uses magnesium for around 300 different metabolic

processes.

 It sustains healthy neuron and muscle function.

 Maintains a stable cardiac rhythm.

 Maintains strong bones and a robust immune system.

 Magnesium is believed to be important in energy metabolism and

protein synthesis, as well as helping to maintain normal blood
pressure and blood sugar levels.

 The small intestine absorbs dietary magnesium. The kidneys are

responsible for excreting magnesium.
 Dietary Source

 The heart of the chlorophyll molecule, which gives green veggies

their color, includes magnesium, making green vegetables like
spinach good suppliers of the mineral.

 Nuts, seeds, and whole, unprocessed grains are additional

excellent sources of magnesium, as do several legumes (beans
and peas).

 Grain refinement typically lowers magnesium content. The

magnesium-rich bran and germ are taken out of white flour
during processing and refinement. Compared to bread prepared
with white refined flour, bread made with whole grain wheat flour
has more magnesium.

 The amount of magnesium in tap water varies depending on the

water source. "Hard" water is defined as having a higher naturally
occurring mineral content. Compared to "soft" water, "hard"
water has higher magnesium content.

Deficiency
 Hypomagnesemia- Decrease in serum magnesium levels. Early
signs of magnesium deficiency include loss of appetite, nausea,
vomiting, fatigue, and weakness.

 Seizures (sudden behavioural changes brought on by an excess

of electrical activity in the brain) and symptoms of numbness,
tingling, cramping and spasms of the muscles occur as the
magnesium deficit gets worse.

 Personality changes.
  There may be irregular cardiac rhythms and coronary spasms.

 Low blood calcium levels can be caused by a severe magnesium

deficit (hypocalcemia).

Recommended Dietary Allowance for Magnesium

Age Male Female Pregnancy Lactation

(mg/day) (mg/day) (mg/day) (mg/day)
0-6 m 30 30 - -
7-12 m 75 75 - -
1-3 y 80 80 - -
4-8 y 130 130 - -
9-13 y 240 240 - -
14-18 y 410 360 400 360
19-30 y 400 310 350 310
31 + 420 320 360 320

 Micro minerals
Micro minerals, also known as trace minerals or micro
minerals are essential minerals that the body requires in smaller
amounts compared to macro minerals. While macro minerals are
needed in larger quantities, micro minerals are essential in trace
amounts for various physiological functions in the body. Some of the
important micro minerals include:

 Iron
 Copper
 Iodine
 Zinc
 Manganese
 Chromium
● Iron
A vital mineral is iron. It is absolutely necessary for life.
Many proteins and enzymes necessary for healthy health contain iron.
Iron is a necessary part of the proteins in humans that carry oxygen. It is
also necessary for controlling the division and development of cells.
Iron deficiency restricts the amount of oxygen that can reach cells,
which leads to weariness, subpar performance at work, and weakened
immunity. However, an overabundance of iron can be poisonous and
even fatal.

Functions
 Iron is essential for cell respiration and oxygen transfer.

 It is a necessary component of several oxidative enzymes.

 It is essential for the production of hemoglobin, brain

growth, controlling body temperature, and activating

muscles.

 It makes it easier for the cell to completely oxidize proteins,

lipids, and carbs, releasing energy needed to carry out

physical labor.

Sources

Iron comes from diet in two ways:

 Heme iron, or iron linked to the protein called globin. Only

flesh foods like fish, chicken, and liver meat have this iron.
In addition to being significant providers of easily
accessible iron, they also facilitate the assimilation of non
heme iron from concurrently consumed plant-based foods.
  Ferric iron, a kind of non heme iron, is firmly bonded to
organic molecules. Vegetables such as grains, leafy green
vegetables, legumes, oil seeds, dried fruits, and jaggery are
examples of these. Because phytates, oxalates, carbonates,
phosphates, and dietary fibers impede the absorption
of non heme iron, it has low bio availability.

Deficiency
Iron insufficiency has been described in three stages. Iron
storage declines without any other discernible aberration
throughout the first stage. Iron stores are depleted in the
second stage of latent iron insufficiency, but anemia has not yet
developed. Serum ferritin levels must be measured in order to
diagnose it. In India, this stage is the most common stage. The
third stage is distinguished by a drop in the amount of
hemoglobin in circulation. We refer to this phase as nutritional
anemia. In addition to anemia, there might be other issues like
lowered immunity to infection and less productivity at work.

Recommended Daily Intake of Iron

Age Male Female Pregnancy Lactation
(mg/day) (mg/day) (mg/day) (mg/day)
0-6 m 0.27 0.27 - -
7-12 m 11 11 - -
1-3 y 7 7 - -
4-8 y 10 10 - -
9-13 y 8 8 - -
14-18 y 11 15 27 10
19-50 y 8 18 27 9
51+ y 8 8 - -
  Copper
Due to the simple inter conversion of Cu (I) and Cu (II), copper
proteins play a variety of roles in biological electron transport and
oxygen transport activities.

Functions
 The introduction of oxygen into the earth's atmosphere marked the
beginning of copper's biological function. These species have blue
blood instead of the red blood observed in those that depend on
hemoglobin because hemocyanin is blue.

 Tyrosinases and laccases share structural similarities with

hemocyanin. These proteins hydroxylate substrates rather than
reversibly binding oxygen, as evidenced by their involvement in
the creation of lacquers.

 Copper is also a component of other proteins associated with the

processing of oxygen.

 Superoxide dismutases are proteins that detoxify superoxides by

disproportionating them into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide.
Copper is also present in many of these proteins:

2HO2 H2O2 + O2

Sources
Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and lamb liver, Brazil nuts,
blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include
lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados, and wheat
bran
Deficiency
 Copper deficiency can induce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia,
bone abnormalities, hypo pigmentation, delayed growth, an
increased risk of infections, and irregularities in the metabolism of
glucose and cholesterol because of its function in promoting the
absorption of iron.

 Wilson's illness is brought on by an excess of copper in bodily

tissues.

 Low red blood cell superoxide dismutase, low ceruloplasmin, and

low plasma or serum copper levels can all be used to identify
severe deficiency; these tests are not sensitive to marginal copper
status.

Recommended Dietary Intake

Certain microbes lack copper, although plants
and animals require it as a trace metal. Copper levels in the human
body range from 1.4 to 2.1 mg/kg of body mass. The recommended
daily allowance (RDA) for copper in healthy individuals is 0.97 mg and
3.0 mg, respectively. After being absorbed in the stomach, copper is
carried to the liver attached to albumin. It is transported into the
bloodstream by the plasma protein ceruloplasmin, where it undergoes
metabolism-regulating changes before being eliminated in bile.

 Iodine
Iodine is a trace element that can be obtained as a dietary
supplement, added to other foods, and found naturally in some foods.
The thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) require
iodine as a necessary component.
 Thyroid hormones have a pivotal role in determining
metabolic activity by regulating numerous significant biochemical
events, such as enzyme activity and protein synthesis. Additionally,
they are necessary for the healthy development of the skeleton and
central nervous system in fetuses and new-borns.

Functions
 Thyrotropin, or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is the
main hormone that controls thyroid function.

 The pituitary gland secretes it to regulate the production and

secretion of thyroid hormones, shielding the body from
hyper- and hypothyroidism.

 TSH secretion promotes the production and release of T3

and T4, as well as increasing the thyroid's absorption of
iodine. Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland reflecting
the body's attempt to trap more iodine from the circulation
and generate thyroid hormones, results from TSH levels
remaining elevated in the lack of enough iodine.

 The body may use iodine for additional physiological

purposes. For instance, it seems to be involved in the
immunological response and may be advantageous in the
treatment of fibrocystic breast disease and mammary
dysplasia.

Source
 One of the best nutritional sources of iodine is seaweed, which
includes kelp, nori, kombu, and wakame.

 Seafood, dairy products (mostly because the dairy sector uses

 iodine feed additives and iodophor sanitizing agents), grains, and
eggs are other excellent sources. Iodine is mostly found in dairy
products—especially milk—and grain goods, which make up the
American diet.

 Additionally, human breast milk and baby formulae include iodine.

 Iodine can be found in fruits and vegetables, although the amount

varies according on soil iodine level, fertilizer application, and
irrigation techniques.

 Foods made from plants can contain anywhere from 10 mcg/kg to

1 mg/kg of dry weight of iodine. Because it influences the iodine
level of the nutrients that the animals eat, this fluctuation in turn
impacts the iodine content of meat and animal products.

Deficiency
Iodine deficiency causes cretinism, which causes developmental
delays and other health issues, as well as goiter, sometimes known as
endemic goiter.

Goiter
Due to a deficiency of dietary iodine, low blood levels of
thyroxine (one of the two thyroid hormones) cause high levels of thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland to
increase several biochemical processes. The resultant cellular growth
and proliferation can cause goiter, the characteristic swelling or
hyperplasia of the thyroid gland.

Cretinism
One of the main preventable causes of mental impairments in
worldwide, iodine deficiency typically results in IQ reductions of 10 to 15
points. Iodine and other micronutrient deficiencies have been proposed
as potential contributing factors.
 Iodine deficiency milligrams (mg): causes hypothyroidism, which
manifests as extreme fatigue, goiter, mental slowing, depression, weight
gain, and low basal body temperatures in areas where there is little
iodine in the diet, usually remote inland areas and semi-arid equatorial
climates where no marine foods are eaten.
Iodine deficiency is the most prevalent preventable cause
of mental impairment in the world and has numerous detrimental
impacts on growth and development. Disorders caused by insufficient
thyroid hormone production as a result of insufficient iodine lead to
iodine insufficiency. Iodine deficiency can have permanent
repercussions throughout pregnancy and the first few months of
infancy.

Recommended Dietary Intake

 Infants (0-6 months): 110 micrograms (mcg) per day

 Infants (7-12 months): 130 mcg per day

 Children (1-8 years): 90 mcg per day

 Children and Adolescents (9-18 years): 120 mcg per day

 Adults (19 years and older): 150 mcg per day

 Pregnant women: 220 mcg per day

 Breastfeeding women: 290 mcg per day

● Zinc
People require zinc as a nutrient to keep healthy. Zinc is
present in every cell in the body. It supports the immune system's
defense against bacterial and viral invasions. To build proteins and
DNA, which is the genetic material found in every cell, the body also
need zinc.
 For healthy growth and development, the body need zinc during
pregnancy, infancy, and childhood. Zinc is necessary for healthy taste
and smell perception and aids in the healing of wounds.

Function
 Enzyme Function: Zinc is a crucial component of many enzymes,
serving as a cofactor that facilitates various biochemical reactions.
Enzymes with zinc play roles in processes such as DNA synthesis,
cell division, and protein metabolism.

 Immune System Support: Zinc is known to be vital for the normal

development and function of immune cells. It plays a role in both the
innate and adaptive immune responses, helping the body defend
against infections.

 Wound Healing: Zinc is involved in the process of wound healing. It

plays a role in cell division and the synthesis of proteins necessary
for tissue repair.

 DNA Synthesis and Repair: Zinc is a component of DNA-binding

proteins, including transcription factors, which are essential for the
synthesis and repair of DNA.

 Sense of Taste and Smell: Zinc is involved in the proper functioning

of taste and smell receptors. A deficiency in zinc can lead to a
reduced ability to taste and smell.

 Reproductive Health: Zinc is important for reproductive health in

both males and females. In males, it is a component of sperm cells,
and in females, it is involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle.

 Antioxidant Activity: Zinc has antioxidant properties, helping to

protect cells from oxidative stress by scavenging free radicals.
Sources
There are many different foods that contain zinc. The following
are just a few of the foods that will provide you with the necessary levels
of zinc:

 Oysters, which are the best source of zinc

 Red meat, poultry, seafood such as crab and lobsters, and fortified
breakfast cereals, which are also good sources of zinc.

 Beans, nuts, whole grains, and dairy products, which provide some
zinc.

 Red meats, especially beef, lamb and liver have some of the highest
concentrations of zinc in food.

Deficiency
 It results in impotence in adults, delayed sexual development in
teenagers, and poor growth in babies and young children.

 Loss of appetite, eye and skin sores, diarrhea, and hair loss are
further symptoms of zinc insufficiency. It is also possible to
experience weight loss, issues with wound healing, a decline in
food taste perception, and decreased alertness.

Recommended Dietary Allowance of Zinc

0-6 m 2 mg
7-12 m 3 mg
1-3 y 3 mg
4-8 y 5 mg
9-13 y 8 mg
14-18 boys 11 mg
14-18 girls 9 mg
Adults 11 mg
 ● Manganese
In 1931, manganese—a trace mineral involved in numerous
enzyme systems throughout the body—was initially identified as a
necessary nutrient. There are roughly 15–20 milligrams of manganese in
the human body. The majority of this mineral is found in the bones, with
the rest being found in the kidneys, liver, pancreas, pituitary glands, and
adrenal glands.

Function
 Metabolism: Manganese is a co factor for several enzymes involved
in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol.
For example, it is a component of the enzyme pyruvate carboxylase,
which is crucial for gluconeogenesis.

 Antioxidant Defense: Manganese is a component of the antioxidant

enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), which helps
protect cells from oxidative stress by converting harmful superoxide
radicals into less damaging forms.

 Bone Formation: Manganese is involved in the formation of bone and

connective tissues. It plays a role in the synthesis of
glycosaminoglycans, which are important components of cartilage
and bone.

 Blood Clotting: Manganese is a co factor for some enzymes involved

in blood clotting. It plays a role in the synthesis of prothrombin, a key
protein in the blood clotting cascade.

 Neurotransmitter Regulation: Manganese is involved in the

regulation of neurotransmitters in the nervous system. It plays a role
in the synthesis of certain neurotransmitters like serotonin,
norepinephrine, and dopamine.
  Enzyme Activation: Manganese acts as a cofactor for various
enzymes involved in diverse metabolic pathways. This includes
enzymes in the metabolism of amino acids, fatty acids, and
carbohydrates.

 Photosynthesis: In plants, manganese is essential for

photosynthesis. It is a co factor for the oxygen-evolving complex of
photosystem II, which is crucial for the production of oxygen during
photosynthesis.

Sources
The following foods are excellent sources of
manganese: oats, spelt, green beans, brown rice, garbanzo beans,
ground cloves, cinnamon, thyme, peppermint, pineapple, romaine
lettuce, spinach, collard greens, turnip greens, kale, maple syrup,
molasses, garlic, grapes, summer squash, and strawberries.

Very good sources of manganese include leeks, tofu, and broccoli:

foodspice, beets, beets, whole wheat, and tempeh.

Cucumber, peanuts, millet, barley, figs, bananas, kiwifruit, and black

beans are good sources of manganese.

Deficiency

Manganese deficiency is relatively rare in

humans, as the body requires only small amounts of this trace element.
However, when it does occur, it can have several consequences. Here
are some potential effects of manganese deficiency:
  Bone and Connective Tissue Issues: Manganese is involved in
the formation of bone and connective tissues. A deficiency
may contribute to skeletal abnormalities and impaired growth.

 Impaired Growth and Development: Manganese plays a role in

the metabolism of amino acids and the synthesis of proteins. A
deficiency may affect overall growth and development,
particularly in children.

 Reproductive Issues: Manganese deficiency has been

associated with reproductive problems, including abnormal
development of the reproductive organs and impaired fertility.

 Alterations in Carbohydrate Metabolism: Manganese is a

cofactor for enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. A
deficiency may impact glucose utilization and energy
production.

 Neurological Effects: Manganese is involved in the regulation

of neurotransmitters in the nervous system. Deficiency may
lead to neurological symptoms such as altered mood, impaired
motor skills, and cognitive issues.

 Increased Susceptibility to Oxidative Stress: Manganese is a

component of the antioxidant enzyme manganese superoxide
dismutase (MnSOD). A deficiency may reduce the body's
ability to combat oxidative stress, potentially leading to
cellular damage.

Recommended Dietary Allowance for Manganese

The following were determined in 2000 by the National
Academy of Sciences' Institute of Medicine:
 0-6 months: 3 µg

 7-12 months: 600 µg

 1-3 years: 1.2 mg

 4-8 years: 1.5 mg

 Boys 9-13 years: 1.9 mg

 Boys 14-18 years: 2.2 mg

 Girls 9-13 years: 1.6 mg

 Girls 14-18 years: 1.6 mg

 Women greater than 70 years: 1.8 mg

 Pregnant women 14-50 years: 2 mg

 Lactating women 14-50 years: 2 mg

 Men 19-70 years: 2.3 mg

 Men greater than 70 years: 2.3 mg

 Women 19-70 years: 1.8 mg