09/04/2019

COLEGIO DE INGENIEROS Y AGRIMENSORES DE PUERTO RICO

FE Review:
Thermodynamics
Jorge E Carranza, PhD, PE 21861
jorgecarranza2004@yahoo.com
Hato Rey, 2019

Are you ready for FE?

A sample of a substance experience a change in
temperature from 23oC to 46oC, and a change in
specific enthalpy of 120 kJ/Kg, of what material is
the sample most likely to be composed?
a. Air
∆
b. Helium 𝐶 =
∆
c. Argon
𝐶 = 5.22 kJ/Kg· ℃
d. Nitrogen
HELIUM!

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How about this question

Select the best response that defines for an
isolate system
a. The entropy of the system remains constant
b. The heat transfer equals the work done
c. The heat transfer equals the internal energy
change
d. The heat transfer is zero

The answer: “d”

Agenda
Thermodynamic properties for single component
1. Properties and two-phase component systems. Ideal gases.

Energy and balance of energy. Closed and open

2. First Law thermodynamic systems. Processes, Steady state
and performance.

Basic cycles -Carnot, Otto, Rankine- and thermal

3. Power Cycles efficiency. Refrigeration cycle and COP. 2nd law of
thermodynamics.

Mixture of gases and vapors, moist air, dry-bulb

4. Psychometrics and wet-bulb temperature, and psychometric chart.

Stoichiometric reaction, complete and

5. Combustion incomplete combustion, air-to-fuel ratio.

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Section 1:
Properties of Ideal gases
and Pure Substances

Properties of Substances
 A substance state is defined by two or
more thermodynamic properties.
 Extensive properties are dependent on the
amount of mass (U, m, V, etc)
 Intensive properties are not dependent on
the amount of mass (P, T, etc)
 Specific properties are extensive properties
per unit of mass (v=V/m, u=U/m, h=H/m,
etc)

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Some Thermodynamic
Properties
 Absolute pressure, p (lbf/in2, psi, Pa, or kPa)
 Absolute temperature, T ( K or R)
 Specific volume, v (ft3/lbm or m3/kg)
 Specific internal energy, u (Btu/lbm or kJ/kg)
 Specific enthalpy, h (Btu/lbm or kJ/kg)
 Specific entropy, s (Btu/lbm-R or kJ/kg-K)

𝑑𝑆

 Specific heat, C (Btu/lbm-R or kJ/kg-K)

𝐶 𝐶

Pressure, Temperature,
and Specific Volume
 Atmospheric pressure:
1 atm = 14.7psi = 33.9ftw = 29.9inHg = 101.3kPa
 Absolute pressure ~ Pa, psi or psia
 Pressure gage = Pabs-Patm ~ psig
 Temperature scales:
𝑇 𝑇 459.67 ; 𝑇 𝑇 273.15
5
𝑇 𝑇 32
9
 Specific Volume ~ ft3/lbm or m3/kg; and molar
specific volume ~ 𝑣̅ 𝑀𝑊 · 𝑣

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Phases of a Substance
 A more detailed observation shows:
 Solid
 Solid-liquid mixture
 Saturated liquid
 Sub-cooled liquid
 Liquid-vapor mixture
 Saturated vapor
 Superheated vapor
 Ideal gas, real gas

P-V & T-V Diagrams

 Pay attention to the orientation of the lines
of constant T and P.

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Evaluation of Compressed
Liquid Properties
“Liquids depend on temperature
stronger than on pressure”
In case no proper tables, use the
fallowing approximation:
 v(P,T)  vf(T)
 u(P,T)  uf(T)
 h(P,T)  hf(T) + vf(T)(P-Psat(T))
 s(P,T)  sf(T)

Evaluation of Liquid-Vapor
Mixtures
 P and T are not
independent.
 Define quality x:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚
𝑥
𝑚 𝑚

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Evaluation of Liquid-Vapor
Mixtures
 Specific volume:
𝑣 𝑣 𝑥·𝑣 𝑣 𝑥· 𝑣 𝑣
 Specific internal energy:
𝑢 𝑢 𝑥·𝑢 𝑢 𝑥· 𝑢 𝑢
 Specific enthalpy:
ℎ ℎ 𝑥·ℎ ℎ 𝑥· ℎ ℎ
 Specific entropy:
𝑠 𝑠 𝑥·𝑠 𝑠 𝑥· 𝑠 𝑠

Steam Saturation Tables

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Evaluation of Superheated
Vapor

Ideal Gases
 Gases that fallow the relation (low P, high T):
𝑷𝑽 𝒎𝑹𝑻
𝑷𝑽 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑷𝒗 𝑹𝑻
 Where P and T are given in absolute scale.
∗
𝑅 1545 ∗
1.986 ∗

𝑅 8.314 ∗
𝑹 𝑴𝑾 𝑹

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Ideal Gases
 For ideal gases,
𝑪𝒑 𝑪𝒗 𝑹
𝝏𝒉 𝝏𝒖
𝟎 and   𝟎
𝝏𝒑 𝑻 𝝏𝒗 𝑻

 Air may be considered as an ideal gas, then:

𝑇
∆𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝐶 ln
𝑇

∆𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑅 · 𝑙𝑛

Processes for Ideal Gases

 Isobaric process, P=constant.
 Isochoric process, V=constant
 Isothermal process, T=constant
 Adiabatic process, Q=0, no heat exchange
 Isenthalpic process, h=constant
 Isentropic process, s=constant
 Adiabatic & reversible process, s=constant

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Isentropic Process
 For ideal gases with constant specific heats

𝑇 𝑃 𝑣
𝑇 𝑃 𝑣

Real Gases
𝑃𝑣 𝑍𝑅𝑇
 Ideal gas if Z=1, and real gas if Z≠1
𝑍 𝑓 𝑃 ,𝑇
Where reduced pressure and reduced
temperature are defined as

𝑃 & 𝑇

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Real Gases - Z

Sample Questions
Question #1
All real gases deviate somewhat from ideal gas behavior:
PV=mRT. For which of the following conditions is the
deviation the smallest?
a) High temperature and low volume
b) High temperature and low pressure
c) High pressures and low volume
d) High pressure and low temperature

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Sample Questions
Question #2
An apple loses 4.5 kJ of heat as it cools per degree
Celsius drop in its temperature. The amount of heat loss
from the apple per each oF is:
a) 1.25 kJ b) 2.5 kJ c) 5.0 kJ d) 8.1 kJ

Solution:
 The heat capacity of the apple would be 4.5 kJ/oC
 On the other hand,
0oC 100oC 100oC – 0oC ≡ 212oF – 32oF
100oC ≡ 180oF
32oF 212oF
1oC ≡ 1.8oF

Sample Questions
 Then, the heat capacity for each degree Fahrenheit is
𝑘𝐽 100℃ 𝑘𝐽
4.5 2.5
℃ 180℉ ℉

The answer is “B”

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Sample Questions
Question #3
Water at a temperature of 140oC has a specific volume of
0.3 m3/kg. Its quality is closest to:
a) 0.36 b) 0.41 c) 0.62 d) 0.83

Solution:
From saturated water table at T=140oC
𝑣 0.001080 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 0.5089
. .
Then, 𝑥 0.59
.

answer “C”

Sample Questions
Question #4
A 300-m3 rigid tank is filled with a mixture of liquid-vapor
water at 200 kPa. If 25% of the mass is liquid and 75%
of the mass is vapor, the total mass in the tank is:
a) 451 kg b) 556 kg c) 300 kg d) 331 kg

Solution:
 From saturated water table at P =200 kPa
𝑣 0.001060 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 0.8919
.
Then, 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 0.75

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Sample Questions
 Therefore,
𝑣 0.001060 𝑚
0.75 → 𝑣 0.6692
0.8919 0.001060 𝑘𝑔
 Finally,
𝑉 𝑉 300 𝑚
𝑣 → 𝑚 448.3 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 𝑣 𝑚
0.6692
𝑘𝑔

The answer is “A”

Sample Questions
Question #5
The enthalpy of refrigerant HFC-134a is reduced from
440 kJ/kg at 0.8 MPa to 300 kJ/kg in a water cooled
condenser. What is the approximate final quality of the
refrigerant?
a) 32% b) 37% c) 63% d) 71%
Solution:
- Enthalpy reduction occurs in a condenser, the process
is at constant pressure.
- No saturated table for HFC-134a, then use provided
diagram.

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Sample Questions
- The final
quality depends
only of the final
state.
- Quality x is
determined at
P=0.8 MPa and
h=300 kJ/kg.

32%

Sample Questions
Question #6
When the volume of an ideal gas is doubled while the
temperature is halved, the pressure is
a) Doubled b) halved c)quartered d) quadrupled

Solution:
Using the equation of ideal gas,

And knowing, 𝑣 2𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑣 𝑇 𝑣 𝑇 ⁄2 𝑝
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝
𝑣 𝑇 2𝑣 𝑇 4

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Sample Questions
Question #7
A rigid tank contains 2 kg of an ideal gas at 4 atm and 40oC.
Now a valve is opened and half the mass of the gas is
allowed to escape. If the final pressure in the tank is 2.3 atm,
the final temperature in the tank is?
a) 84oC b) 54oC c) 40oC d) 10oC
Solution:
 Initial state, 𝑃 𝑉 𝑚 𝑅𝑇 & Final state, 𝑃 𝑉 𝑚 𝑅𝑇
𝑃 𝑚 𝑇 𝑃 𝑚 2.3 2
→ 𝑇 𝑇 273 40
𝑃 𝑚 𝑇 𝑃 𝑚 4 1
𝑇 360 𝐾 87℃ → answer “a”

Sample Questions
Question #8
A 5.4 kg mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and butane in a 3m3
container is at atmospheric pressure and has a temperature
of 300 K. What is most nearly the molecular weight of the
mixture?
a) 28 kg/kmol b) 32 kg/kmol c) 44 kg/kmol d)58 kg/kmol
Solution:
At 1 atm and 300 K (close to standard air condition), this
mixture can be treated as an ideal gas, then
𝑅
𝑝𝑉 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑚 𝑇
𝑀𝑊

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Sample Questions
Solving for the molecular weight of the mixture
𝑚𝑅 𝑇
𝑀𝑊
𝑝𝑉
5.4 𝑘𝑔 8.314 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 300 𝐾
𝑀𝑊 44 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 3 𝑚

The answer is “C”

Sample Questions
Question #9
What is the change in internal energy of air (assume ideal
gas) cooled from 550oC to 100oC?
a) 320 kJ/kg b) 390 kJ/kg c) 450 kJ/kg d)550 kJ/kg

Solution:
As an ideal gas, 𝑐 →→ ∆𝑢 𝑐 𝑑𝑇 𝑐 𝑇 𝑇
from table, cv= 0.718 kJ/kgꞏK
∆𝑢 0.718 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 · 𝐾 550 𝐶 100 𝐶
∆u 323.1 kJ/kg, answer “a”

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Sample Questions
Question #10
A container contains half liquid water by volume and half
vapor by volume. Select the best estimate of the quality
if the pressure is atmospheric?
a) 0 b) 0.0006 c) 0.1 d) 0.5

Solution:
By definition, 𝑥 and by nature 𝜌 ≅ 10 𝜌

Also 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥≅

𝑥≅ ≅ 10 best answer “b”

Sample Questions
Question #11
A closed rigid tank filled with water vapor, initially at 20
MPa and 520oC, is cooled until its temperature reaches
400oC. Then, the specific volume of water in m3/kg at the
initial state is
a) 0.005 b) 0.015 c) 0.019 d) 0.025

Solution:
- From saturated water table, Pc=22.09 MPa & Tc=374.1 oC
- Then, water vapor is not an ideal gas (P1 ~Pc)
- Use the generalized compressibility model (or “Z” model).
𝑃𝑣 𝑍𝑅𝑇

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Sample Questions
- Finding the reduced pressure and temperature for the
water vapor.
𝑃 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑃 0.91
𝑃 22.09 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑇 520 273 𝐾
𝑇 1.23
𝑇 374.1 273 𝐾
Then,  Z 0.83
𝑅 𝑇
𝑣 𝑍
𝑀𝑊 𝑃
8.314 520 273
𝑣 0.83
18 20000
𝑣 0.0152 𝑚 /𝑘𝑔

Section 2:
Energy and the First Law
of Thermodynamics

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Energy
 Heat Q (q=Q/m) is energy transfer due to
difference in temperature
Heat (+) into the system,
Heat (-) out of the system
 Work W (w=W/m) is positive if it is work
done by the system, otherwise it is negative
 Internal energy U (u=U/m) is stored energy
inside the system. Internal energy depends
mainly on temperature. At T=0, U=0

First Law of
Thermodynamics
It is an statement of conservation of energy in a
thermodynamic system.
Closed System:
𝑄 𝑊 ∆𝑈 ∆𝐸 ∆𝐸
Open System:

𝑄 𝑊 𝑚 ℎ 𝑚 ℎ

𝑑𝐸
𝑑𝑡

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1st Law – Closed systems

No change in potential & kinetic energy:
𝑄 𝑊 ∆𝑈
 Q, heat exchange by conduction, convection or
radiation.
 W, work by a moving boundary, a shaft, or
electric work
 Boundary work,
𝐽
𝑊 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 𝑃𝑑𝑣
𝑘𝑔

Work in Closed systems

For a reversible (quasi-equilibrium) process,
boundary work, Wb, can be:
 At constant volume (ideal gases P/T=const.)
𝑤 0
 At constant pressure (ideal gases T/v=const.)
𝑤 𝑃 · ∆𝑣
 At constant temperature (Pv=const.)
𝑣 𝑃
𝑤 𝑅𝑇 · 𝑙𝑛 𝑅𝑇 · 𝑙𝑛
𝑣 𝑃

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Work in Closed systems

 For a polytrophic process, Pvn=const.
𝑃𝑣 𝑃𝑣 𝑅 𝑇 𝑇
𝑤
1 𝑛 1 𝑛
Relation valid for, n≠1 and if n=k=cp/cv the
process is called isentropic

Work in Open Systems

For a reversible (quasi-equilibrium) process,
there is a work flow done by the mass entering
the system.

𝑤 𝑣𝑑𝑝 ∆𝑒 ∆𝑒 𝑣𝑑𝑝

 At v=const. process: 𝑤 𝑣 𝑃 𝑃
 AT P=const. process: 𝑤 0

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Work in Open Systems

 At T=const. process (ideal gas Pv=const.):
𝑣 𝑃
𝑤 𝑅𝑇 · 𝑙𝑛 𝑅𝑇 · 𝑙𝑛
𝑣 𝑃
 Polytrophic process (ideal gas), Pvn = const.
𝑛 𝑛
𝑤 𝑃𝑣 𝑃𝑣 𝑅 𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑛 𝑛 1

𝑤 𝑅𝑇 1 , n=k (isentrophic)

Steady-State and Steady-

Flow Conditions
 Steady state means thermodynamic
properties don’t change in time. Enough
assumption usually applicable to closed
systems.
 Steady flow means flow conditions don’t
change with time. This assumption is valid
for steady operation of open systems such as
turbines, pumps, compressors, etc..

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Nozzles and Diffusers

 Nozzles increase
kinetic energy by
decreasing enthalpy.
 Diffusers increase
enthalpy by
decreasing kinetic
energy

Nozzles and Diffusers

Devices considered to be:
 Single mass stream (one inlet, one exit).
 No work interactions
 Usually adiabatic systems
 No potential energy changes

𝑽𝟐𝒊 𝑽𝟐𝒆 𝑽𝟐𝒆 𝑽𝟐𝒊

𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒆 𝜼𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒆𝒔
1st law of thermodynamics Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles

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Turbines, Compressors, &

Pumps
e

i
i e
 Turbines decrease pressure (enthalpy) to produce
work (h1>h2)
 Compressors increase pressure (enthalpy) by
using work (hi<he)
 Pumps are like compressor for incompressible
fluids

Turbines, Compressors, &

Pumps
 Single mass stream (one inlet, one exit).
 Usually adiabatic systems
 Negligible potential energy changes
 Negligible kinetic energy changes
𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒆 𝒘
𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒉𝒊 𝒗𝒊 𝑷𝒆 𝑷𝒊
𝜼𝒕 𝜼𝒄 𝜼𝒑
𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒊
Turbines Compressors Pumps

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Throttling Valves
 Single mass stream (one inlet, one exit).
 No work interactions
 Adiabatic systems
 Negligible potential & kinetic energy changes
 Enthalpy remains constant,
hi = he
 Pressure drops from inlet to
exit, Pi>Pe

Heat Exchangers
 Multiple inlets and exits, fluids no mix.
 No work interactions.
 Usually no heat transfer from/to surroundings.
 No potential & kinetic energy changes

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Heat Exchangers
 For a single mass stream, energy balance
results:
h i + q = he
 In the absence of stray heat lost to the
surrounding
Heat gained by one fluid = heat lost by the other fluid

𝑚 ℎ ℎ 𝑚 ℎ ℎ

Mixers, Separators, Open

or closed feedwater heaters
 Fluid streams mix directly.
 Multiple inlets and multiple exits.
 Usually no heat exchange to/from surroundings.
 No potential and kinetic energy change.

𝑚 𝑚

𝑚ℎ 𝑚 ℎ

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Sample Questions
Question #12
Water is boiled in a pan on a stove at sea level. During 10
min of boiling, it is observed that 200 g of water has been
evaporated. If 20% of the heat from the stove is loss to the
ambient, then the rate of heat leaving the stove is
a) 0.84 kJ/min b) 35 kJ/min c) 55 kJ/min d) 88 kJ/min

Solution:
- At sea level, water boils at 100oC.
- During 10 min of boiling, 200 g of liquid water absorbs
enough energy (heat) to be transformed in vapor.

Sample Questions
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 𝑚ℎ , 𝑎𝑡 100℃ → ℎ 2257
𝑘𝑔
Then, 𝑄 0.2 𝑘𝑔 2257 451.4 𝑘𝐽

- And the heat leaving the stove is

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 0.2𝑄
𝑄 451.4
𝑄 564.25 𝑘𝐽
0.8 0.8
- Therefore, the rate of heat leaving the stove is
.
𝑄 56.4 Answer ‘c’
∆

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Sample Questions
Question #13
A frictionless piston-cylinder device and a rigid tank each
contain 3 kmol of an ideal gas at the same temperature,
pressure, and volume. Now heat is transferred and the
temperature of both systems is raised by 10oC. The amount
of extra heat that must be supplied to the gas in the piston
cylinder is
a) 84 kJ b) 100 kJ c) 150 kJ d) 250 kJ

Solution:
- The ‘frictionless piston-cylinder device ’ and the ‘rigid tank’
are both closed systems.

Sample Questions
- For the frictionless piston-cylinder device (system A), the
energy balance is
𝑄 𝑊 ∆𝑈 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
- For the rigid tank (system B), the energy balance is
𝑄 𝑊 ∆𝑈 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 0
- Also, both systems are ideal gases that have the same
temperature and both have the same temperature
increase. Then,
∆𝑈 ∆𝑈
- And, 𝑄 𝑄 𝑊 0 → 𝑄 𝑄 𝑊
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑊 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛/𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

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Sample Questions
- The expansion work of the piston-cylinder device is the
expansion work of an ideal gas at constant pressure

𝑊 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑃 𝑉 𝑉

𝑊 𝑛𝑅 𝑇 𝑇 𝑛𝑅 · ∆𝑇
𝑘𝑃𝑎 · 𝑚
𝑊 3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 8.314 10℃ 249.4 𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 · 𝐾
Therefore, the extra heat would be 249.4 kJ

The answer is “D”

Sample Questions
Question #14
0.4 kg of a gas is contained within a piston-cylinder
assembly at 3 bar and 0.1 m3 and it expands according to
the relationship PV1.5=const. to a final volume of 0.2 m3.
The change in specific internal energy is u2-u1=-55 kJ/kg.
Determine the net heat transfer for the process
a) 4.40 kJ b) -4.39 kJ c) 3.49 kJ d) -3.94 kJ

Solution:
- The system (gas) is a closed system.
- The undergone process is a polytrophic process, n=1.5
- Ek & Ep are negligible

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Sample Questions
𝑄 𝑊 𝑈 𝑈 → 𝑄 𝑊 𝑈 𝑈
Where:
𝑈 𝑈 𝑚 𝑢 𝑢 0.4 𝑘𝑔 55 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 22 𝑘𝐽
- And the polytrophic work (closed system),
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉
𝑊 , 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
1 𝑛
.
- For the polytrophic expansion,
. .
𝑣 0.1 𝑚
𝑃 𝑃 3𝑏𝑎𝑟 1.06 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑣 0.2 𝑚

Sample Questions
- Then, work W is
106 𝑘𝑃𝑎 0.2 𝑚 300 𝑘𝑃𝑎 0.1 𝑚
𝑊 17.6 𝑘𝐽
1 1.5
- Therefore,
𝑄 𝑊 𝑚 𝑢 𝑢 17.6 𝑘𝐽 0.4 𝑘𝑔 55 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑄 17.6 22
𝑄 4.4 𝑘𝐽
Answer: “b”

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Sample Questions
Question #15
A fixed mass of air is heated in an isentropic process from
an initial temperature of 80oF and pressure of 15 psia to a
final pressure of 300 psia. The work (BTU/lb-m) done on
the air in this process is closest to:
a) -128 b) 128 c) 8 d) -8

Solution:
- For air, isentropic process means (k=1.4)

, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤

Sample Questions
- Then,
.
𝑃 300 .
𝑇 𝑇 80 460 1278 𝑅
𝑃 15
- From table,
R = cp – cv = 0.240 – 0.171 = 0.069 BTU/lbm-R
- Therefore, the work done is
𝑅 𝑇 𝑇 0.069 1278 540
𝑤
1 𝑘 1 1.4
𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑤 127.3
𝑙𝑏𝑚
Answer: “a”

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Sample Questions
Question #16
One kg of liquid water is heated from 15oC to 90oC in a
small coffee pot containing a 500 W heater. The time to
heat the water in minutes is closest to:
a) < 1 b) 6.3 c) 10.5 d) 32.1

Solution:
- The 1 kg of water is a closed system.
- There is no work interaction, W = 0, and the heat
transfer Q is provided by the heater. Then:
𝑄 𝑊 ∆𝑈 → 𝑄 ∆𝑈 𝑚𝑐 𝑇 𝑇

Sample Questions
- From table for water, cp = 4.18 kJ/(kgꞏK)
𝑄 1 4.18 90 15 313.5 𝑘𝐽
- By definition of heat rate,
𝑄 𝑄 313.5 · 10
𝑄 → 𝑡 627 𝑠
𝑡 𝑄 500
𝑡 10.45 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Answer: “c”

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Sample Questions
Question #17
Steam is accelerated by a nozzle steadily from a low
velocity to a velocity of 280 m/s at a rate of 2.5 kg/s. If the
temperature and pressure of the steam at the nozzle exit
are 400oC and 1 MPa, exit area of the nozzle is:
a) 28 cm2 b) 21 cm2 c) 14 cm2 d) 9.4 cm2

Solution:
- At the exit of the nozzle,
𝑚

Sample Questions
- Where specific volume v is evaluated at 1 MPa & 400oC.
Then, from steam table v = 0.3066 m3/kg
- Then,
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
2.5 0.3066
𝑚𝑣 𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐴 𝑚 0.002737 𝑚
𝑉 280
𝑠
𝐴 27.37 𝑐𝑚
Answer: “A”

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Sample Questions
Question #18
Argon flows through a nozzle with an inlet pressure of 1
MPa, a temperature of 20oC and a velocity of 10 m/s. The
outlet pressure is 100 kPa and the velocity is 100 m/s.
The temperature (oC) of the Argon at the exit of the nozzle
is closest to:
a) 4 b) 10 c) 24 d) 36
Solution:
- Assume the argon behave as an ideal gas.
- Neglect Q and W, then energy balance on nozzle:
𝑉 𝑉
ℎ ℎ
2

Sample Questions
- As an ideal gas (from table cp = 520 J/kgꞏK),
𝜕ℎ ∆ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑐
𝜕𝑇 ∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
- Then,
ℎ ℎ 𝑉 𝑉
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑐 2𝑐
𝑉 𝑉 10 100
𝑇 𝑇 20 20 9.5
2𝑐 2 · 520
𝑇 10.5 𝐶
Answer: “b”

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Sample Questions
Question #19
The pump work required to compress water from 1.5 MPa
and 50oC to 15 MPa is 15 kJ/kg. What is the efficiency of
the pump?:
a) 88% b) 90% c) 91% d) 94%
Solution:
- By definition, 
- Consider water as incompressible, 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 at 50oC
and from saturated water table, 𝑣 0.001012 𝑚 ⁄𝑘𝑔
0.001012 15000 1500
 0.91 ≡ 91%
15

Sample Questions
Question #20
A steady-state mixing tank is being
used to condensate steam returning 2.2 kg/s
from a distillation process. The
maximum mass flow rate,𝑚 in kg/s,
Kg/s? 
allowed that will result in no exceeding 125 kPa
20 C o
200oC 
the permitted outlet temperature is x=0.6

closest to:
125 kPa
a) 0.25 b) 1.1 c) 2.2 d) 4.0 Tperm=65oC

Solution:
- Assume a negligible heat transfer to the surrounding
- No work and no Ek & Ep

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Sample Questions
- The condensation process at maximum 𝑚 implies
T3=Tmax
- At inlet 2 and outlet 3, water is sub-cooled.
- From mass balance, 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
- From energy balance, 𝑚 ℎ 𝑚 ℎ 𝑚 ℎ
- At 𝑇 𝑇 200 𝐶 → ℎ 852.45 &ℎ 2793.2
And knowing x=0.6,
ℎ ℎ 𝑥 ℎ ℎ 852.45 0.6 2793.2 852.45
ℎ 2016.9
- At 𝑝 125 𝑘𝑃𝑎 & 𝑇 20 𝐶 → ℎ ≅ ℎ , 83.96
- At 𝑝 125 𝑘𝑃𝑎 & 𝑇 65 𝐶 → ℎ ≅ ℎ , 272.06

Sample Questions
- Combining mass and energy balance.
𝑚 ℎ 𝑚 ℎ 𝑚 𝑚 ℎ
ℎ ℎ
𝑚 𝑚
ℎ ℎ
272.06 83.96 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 2.2 0.237
2016.9 272.06 𝑠

The answer “a”

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Sample Questions
Question #21
A supply line carries a two-phase liquid mixture of steam
at 300 lbf/in2. A small fraction of the flow in the line is
diverted through a throttling calorimeter and exhausted to
the atmosphere at 14.7 lbf/in2. The temperature of the
exhaust steam is measured as 250oF. The quality of the
steam in the supply line is closest to:
a) 57% b) 87% c) 96% d) 98%

Solution:
- The diverted steam undergoes a throttling process, then
the enthalpy of the steam sample is kept constant.

Sample Questions
ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ 𝑥 ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ
𝑥
ℎ ℎ
- At 𝑝 300 ≡ 2.07 𝑀𝑃𝑎
- From table by interpolation, ℎ
909.19 & ℎ 2799.5

- And at 𝑝 14.7 ≡ 0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 & 𝑇 250 𝐹 ≡ 121.1 𝐶

. .
ℎ 2718.5 , therefore: 𝑥 0.957
. .

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Section 3:
Power and Refrigeration
Cycles

Basic Cycle - Heat Engine

Heat engines take heat from a high temperature
reservoir, reject some heat at one of low
temperature and produce work.
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑊
𝜂
𝑄
𝑄 𝑄
𝜂
𝑄

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Carnot Cycle
It is a cycle with reversible heat exchanges.
𝑄 𝑄
𝜂 ,
𝑄
𝑇 𝑇
𝜂 ,
𝑇
Temperatures are absolute, K or R.
 If th < th,Carnot  heat exchange irreversible
 If th = th,Carnot  heat exchange reversible
 If th > th,Carnot  heat exchange impossible

Carnot Cycle
 It has two isothermal process (heat addition 2-3
@ TH and heat rejection 4-1 @ TC) and two
isentropic processes (expansion 3-4 and
compression 1-2).
 Power cycle always run clockwise. For any
cycle, Qnet=Wnet

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Basic Refrigeration Cycle

It is the reverse of heat engine cycle. Heat is
moved from low to high temperature requiring
work.
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝑊 𝑄 𝑄

𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝑃 ,
𝑇 𝑇

Heat Pump
It is the reverse of heat engine cycle. Heat is
added to hot reservoir and is required work.

𝑄 𝑄
𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝑊 𝑄 𝑄

𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝑃 ,
𝑇 𝑇

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Highlight on Cycles
 Carnot cycle has the maximum efficiency
compared to any other cycle.
 For internally reversible cycles, heat transfer
can be easily calculated by Ts for isothermal
processes.
 For ideal cycles (all internally reversible
processes): W=area under P-v diagram, and
Q=area under the T-s diagram.
 Ideal vapor compression cycle is not
completely internally reversible (@ throttling)

Otto Cycle
Air-standard Otto cycle is composed by internally
reversible processes.

qin qin

qout
qout

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Otto Cycle
𝑞 𝑢 𝑢
𝑞 𝑢 𝑢

Thermal efficiency:
𝑞 𝑢 𝑢
𝜂 1 1
𝑞 𝑢 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
𝑟
1 𝑣 𝑣
𝜂 1 𝑇 𝑇 1
𝑟
𝑇 𝑇 𝑟

Rankine Cycle
Power generation in steam power plants.

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Rankine Cycle
Power generation in steam power plants.

Vapor Compression Cycle

Reverse Rankine cycle, refrigeration cycle.

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Vapor Compression Cycle

𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟒 𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟑
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹𝑭 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑯𝑷
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟏

Two-Stage Refrigeration Cycle

6
6

B
Side cycle A 
Heat exchanger
8 5

Side cycle B 
Heat exchanger

𝑸𝒊𝒏
𝑪𝑶𝑷
𝑾𝒄𝑨 𝑾𝒄𝑩

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Two-Stage Refrigeration Cycle

𝑸𝒊𝒏
𝑪𝑶𝑷
𝑾𝒄𝟏 𝑾𝒄𝟐

Second Law of
Thermodynamics
 Clausius’ Statement: No refrigeration o heat
pump can operate without a net work input.
 Kelvin-Planck’ Statement: No heat engine
can operate in a cycle while transferring heat
with a single heat reservoir.

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Second Law of
Thermodynamics
 It is impossible for any system to operate in a
way that entropy is destroyed.
 Any heat engine operating between two heat
reservoirs (TH and TC) can not have an
thermal efficiency exceeding the Carnot
efficiency.
 The maximum thermal efficiency between two
heat reservoir is given by the Carnot cycle.

Reversible or Irreversible
 A process is called irreversible if the system
and/or its surroundings cannot be exactly
restored to their initial states after the process
has occurred.
 A process is reversible if both the system
and its surroundings can be returned to their
initial states.

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Reversible or Irreversible
 Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.
 Unrestrained expansion of a gas o liquid to a lower
pressure.
 Spontaneous chemical reactions.
 Spontaneous mixing of matter at different
compositions or states.
 Friction – sliding friction as well as friction in the flow
of fluids.
 Electric current flow through a resistance.
 Inelastic deformation, etc.

Entropy Balance
 For a closed systems:
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑸𝒊
∆𝑺 𝑺𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝑻𝒃𝒊
 Sgen> 0, then there are irreversibilities
 Sgen= 0, then there are no irreversibilities
 Sgen< 0, then impossible process

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Entropy Balance
 For open systems (control volume approach):
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝒅𝑺𝒄𝒗 𝑸𝒋
𝒎𝒊 𝒔𝒊 𝒎 𝒆 𝒔𝒆 𝑺𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝒅𝒕 𝑻𝒋

 For steady-state condition, = 0

Entropy Change for Solids

& Liquids
 For a reversible heat transfer:
𝜹𝑸 𝒄𝒅𝑻 𝑻𝟐
∆𝑺 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒄 · 𝒍𝒏
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻𝟏

 Where ‘c’ is the heat capacity for the solid or

liquid

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Sample Questions
Question #22
An apple with an average mass of 0.12 kg, and average
specific heat of 3.65 kJ/kgꞏoC, is cooled from 25oC to
10oC. The entropy change of the apple is:
a) 3.65 b) 0.115 c) -0.105 d) -0.1875
·℃ ·℃ ·℃ ·℃

Solution:
 The entropy change for the apple (solid) can be written as:
𝑇 283
𝑠 𝑠 𝑐 · 𝑙𝑛 → 𝑠 𝑠 3.65 𝑙𝑛
𝑇 298
𝑘𝐽
𝑠 𝑠 0.1885
𝑘𝑔 · ℃

Sample Questions
Question #23
A Carnot engine produces 63 kJ of work and reject 37 kJ
of heat when working between a hot reservoir at 3700C
and a cold reservoir. The temperature of the cold
reservoir is closest to:
a) -35oC b) 100oC c) 130oC d) 230oC

Solution:
The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is
𝑊 𝑊 63 𝑘𝐽
 0.63 𝑜𝑟 63%
𝑄 𝑊 𝑄 63 𝑘𝐽 37 𝑘𝐽

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Sample Questions
- The thermal efficiency also can be written as,
𝑇 𝑇
 → 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑇 1  𝑇
𝑇
- Then,
𝑇 1 0.63 370 273 237.9 𝐾
𝑜𝑟 𝑇 35.1 𝐶
Answer: “a”

Sample Questions
Question #24
Consider a Carnot refrigerator and a Carnot heat pump
operating between the same two thermal energy
reservoirs. If COP of the refrigerator is 3.4, the COP of
the heat pump is:
a) 1.7 b) 2.3 c) 3.3 d) 4.4

Solution:
Thot
Refrigerator Heat Pump

Tcold

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Sample Questions
- By definition,
𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
- And,
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑇 𝑇 𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑃 1 → 𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑃 1
𝐶𝑂𝑃 3.4 1 4.4
Answer: “D”

Sample Questions
Question #25
A Rankine cycle operates between the pressure limits of
600 kPa and 10 kPa. For saturated liquid water leaving
the condenser and a turbine inlet temperature of 300oC,
determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
a) 13% b) 25% c) 37% d) 52%

Solution:
- Inlet turbine at 600 kPa &
300oC, this is a superheated
steam.
- Turbine expands at s=const.

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Sample Questions
- The thermal efficiency can be written as,
𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ

𝑞 𝑞 ℎ ℎ
- Also it is known, ℎ ℎ 𝑣 𝑃 𝑃
- Then, 

- At 𝑃 0.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑃 𝑃 & 𝑇 300 𝐶 ,

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ 3061.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 7.3724
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 · 𝐾
- At 𝑃 10 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑃 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 𝑠 0.6483 , 𝑠 7.5019
𝑘𝑔 · 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 · 𝐾

Sample Questions
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ ℎ 191.5 , ℎ 2393 , 𝑣 0.00101
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
- Therefore,
𝑠 𝑠 7.3724 0.6483
𝑥 0.8964
𝑠 7.5019
𝑘𝐽
ℎ ℎ 𝑥ℎ 191.5 0.8964 · 2393 2336.6
𝑘𝑔
- And the efficiency is:
3061.6 2336.6 0.00101 600 10

3061.6 191.5 0.00101 600 10
.
 0.252 ≡ 25.2% answer “b”
. .

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Sample Questions
Question #26
A Rankine cycle operates with a thermal efficiency of
40%. If the net power from the cycle is 50 MW, the heat
rejection rate in the boiler (MW) is closest to:
a) 125 b) 100 c) 75 d) 50
Solution:
- Rankine cycle operate a heat engine, then
𝑊
 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 𝑄 𝑄
𝑄
Then,  →𝑄 𝑊 50
 .
𝑄 75 𝑀𝑊 The answer: “c”

Sample Questions
Question #27
An Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8:1 has an
intake temperature of 80oF. The specific work (BTU/lbm)
of compression is closest to:
a) 20 b) 60 c) 120 d) 170

Solution:

80oF

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Sample Questions
- The compression process is given by the process 1-2,
which is a isentropic process of air (n=k=1.4).
- Energy balance in the process 1-2
𝑞 𝑤 ∆𝑢 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑞 0 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑤 𝑐 𝑇 𝑇
- Then, for the isentropic process
𝑇 𝑉 𝑉 .
→ 𝑇 𝑇 460 80 8
𝑇 𝑉 𝑉
1240 𝑅 ≡ 780.6 𝐹
- Therefore, 𝑤 0.171 780.6 80
𝑤 119.8 The answer is “c”

Sample Questions
Question #28
A 10m3 of uninsulated tank contains nitrogen at 2 MPa
and 250oC. The temperature of the environment
surrounding the tank is 35oC. Disregard the mass of the
tank. What entropy change (kJ/k) do the surroundings
experience after a long period of time?
a) -600 b) -76 c) 67 d) 120

Solution:
- The nitrogen will have cooled to the surrounding
temperature after a long period of time.
- From table for nitrogen, 𝑅 0.297 ,𝑐 0.743
· ·

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Sample Questions
- The mass of nitrogen gas is:
𝑃𝑉 2000 10
𝑚 128.8 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑇 0.297 250 273
- The nitrogen is being cooled at constant volume, then from
energy balance for a closed system is
𝑄 ∆𝑈 𝑚𝑐 𝑇 𝑇 128.8 · 0.743 · 35 250
Q 20,575 𝑘𝐽
- Observing now the surrounding as a system Q enter the
surrounding ,
,
𝑆 𝑆 66.8 , The answer is “c”

Section 4:
Mixtures of Gases,
Vapors, and Liquids

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Ideal Gas Mixtures

 A mixtures of ideal gases: m1, m2, … mi.
 Total masa of the mixture: 𝑚 𝑚
 Mass fraction x is defined as:
𝒎𝒊
𝒙𝒊 𝑥 1
𝒎
 Similarly the mole fraction y is defined as:
𝒏𝒊 𝒎𝒊
𝒚𝒊 𝑦 1 𝒏𝒊
𝒏 𝑴𝑾𝒊

Ideal Gas Mixtures

 Molecular weight of the mixture:
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 ··· 𝒎𝒊
𝑴𝑾𝒎𝒊𝒙 𝒚𝒊 𝑴𝑾𝒊
𝒏

 Partial pressure (Pi) of the mixture (Dalton’s

model):
𝑷𝒊 𝒏𝒊
𝒚𝒊 𝑃 𝑃
𝑷 𝒏

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Ideal Gas Mixtures

 Internal energy (u) of the mixture:
𝒖 𝒙𝒊 𝒖𝒊 𝒖 𝒚𝒊 𝒖𝒊

 Enthalpy (hi) of the mixture:

𝒉 𝒙𝒊 𝒉𝒊 𝒉 𝒚𝒊 𝒉𝒊

 Entropy (si) of the mixture:

𝒔 𝒙𝒊 𝒔𝒊 𝒔 𝒚𝒊 𝒔𝒊

Psychometric Principles
 Moist air refers to a mixture of dry air and
water vapor.
 Dry air and water vapor behave as ideal gases
a normal pressure (patm) and temperature.

 The 2-component mixture

needs 3 variables to define
its state: pressure,
temperature, and water
concentration.

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Psychometric Principles
 Water vapor concentration can be expressed
by the humidity ratio, .
 The humidity ratio (o specific humidity) is
expressed as:
𝑚 𝑝 𝑝
𝜔 0.622 0.622
𝑚 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
 Relative humidity can be defined as:
𝑦 𝑝
∅
𝑦, ,
𝑝, ,

Psychometric Principles
 Enthalpy of moist air (relative to mass of dry air)
𝐻 𝑚
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝜔ℎ
𝑚 𝑚 oC

ℎ ≅ℎ 𝑇 ℎ ≅𝐶 , 𝑇

 Dew point temperature (Tdp) is the saturation

temperature corresponding to pv.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑝 𝑝

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Psychometric Principles
 Wet-bulb temperature (Twb) is not adiabatic
saturation temperature (Tad).
 Tad is that temperature at which water, by
evaporating into air, can bring air to saturation
at the same temperature adiabatically.

Psychometric Chart

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Psychometric Processes

Psychometric Processes

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Psychometric Processes

Sample Questions
Question #29
A gas mixture with volumetric proportions of 30% CO2
(cp=0.867 kJ/kgK) and 70%N2 (cp=1.043 kJ/kgK) is
cooled at constant pressure from 150oC to 50oC. The
closest heat released in kJ/kg is:
a) -210 b) -160 c) -97 d) -46

Solution:
- The mixture undergoes a constant pressure process, then
from energy balance

𝑞 𝑝𝑑𝑣 𝑢 𝑢 →𝑞 𝑢 𝑝𝑣 𝑢 𝑝𝑣

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Sample Questions
- Then,
𝑞 ℎ ℎ 𝑐 𝑇 𝑇
Where cp is the specific heat of the mixture.
- On the other hand,
𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 , 𝑥 𝑐 ,

- Then calculating the mass fractions, xi, with known volume

fractions, yi:
𝑚 𝑛 𝑀𝑊
𝑥
𝑚 𝑚 𝑛 𝑀𝑊 𝑛 𝑀𝑊
𝑦 𝑀𝑊 0.3 · 44
𝑥
𝑦 𝑀𝑊 𝑦 𝑀𝑊 0.3 · 44 0.7 · 28

Sample Questions
𝑥 0.402
- And, 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 0.402 0.598
- Therefore,
𝑐 0.402 0.867 0.598 1.043
𝑘𝐽
𝑐 0.972
𝑘𝑔 · 𝐾
- And,
𝑞 𝑐 𝑇 𝑇 0.972 50 150
𝑞 97.2 The answer is “c”

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Sample Questions
Question #30
Atmospheric air at 21oC has a relative humidity of 50%.
What is the dew-point temperature?
a) 7oC b) 10oC c) 17oC d) 24oC

Solution:
- Dew-point temperature is the temperature at which
water vapor start to condensate.
- Using the psychometric chart, the current state is define
by the dry-bulb temperature, 21oC, and =50%.
- Then, “air is cooled with no change in humidity ratio
until saturation temperature”

Sample Questions

10oC

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Sample Questions
Air at 27oC and 50% relative humidity is cooled in a
sensible cooling process to 18oC. The air is then heated to
45oC in a sensible heating process. Finally, the air
experience an adiabatic saturation process that increases
the relative humidity back to 50%.
Question #31
Find the specific energy that is removed when the air is
cooled to 18oC.
a) 6 kJ/kg b) 10 kJ/kg c) 19 kJ/kg d) 34 kJ/kg

Sample Questions
Solution:
Use the psychometric
chart.
Cooling from 1 to 2.
Read enthalpies, 2 1
h1=56 kJ/kg
h2=46.5 kJ/kg
Then,
h=h1-h2=56-46.5
h=9.5 kJ/kg

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Sample Questions
Question #32
Find the relative humidity of the air after it has been
heated.
a) 11% b) 18% c) 25% d) 33%

Solution:
- The sensible heating is represented by the process 2-3.
- During this process there is no change in humidity ratio,
then the process is a horizontal line in the chart.
- Reading from chart relative humidity at point 3,
=18.5%

Sample Questions
2 3

18%‐19%

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Sample Questions
Question #33
What is the moisture content after the adiabatic process?.
a) 11 g/kg b) 17 g/kg c) 20 g/kg d) 23 g/kg

Solution:
- Using the psychometric chart, starting at 3 draw a line
of constant enthalpy until reach 50% of relative
humidity.
- Then, draw a horizontal line to the left and read
humidity ratio

Sample Questions
16 gr/kg

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Sample Questions
Question #34
A room sensible heat space load is 72.5 kW. The latent
load from occupants and filtration, but excluding intentional
ventilation is 3.2 kW. A total of 600 L/s of outside air is
required. What is most nearly the room sensible heat
ratio?
a) 0.12 b) 0.39 c) 0.96 d) 1.1

Solution:
- The room sensible heat ratio is
𝑄 72.5
𝑆𝐻𝑅 0.96
𝑄 𝑄 72.5 3.2

Section 5:
Combustion

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Introduction
 Reactant mixture:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡1 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡2 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

 Combustion:
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝐶𝑂 𝐻 𝑂 ⋯
Complete Combustion:
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂 𝑦𝐻 𝑂 𝑧𝑁
Incomplete Combustion:
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂 𝑦𝐻 𝑂 𝑧𝑁 𝑤 𝐶𝑂 𝑤 𝑁𝑂 ⋯

Fuels & Oxidizers

 Fuel is a combustible substance.
 Methane: 𝐶𝐻
 Gasoline (octane): 𝐶 𝐻
 Diesel (dodecane): 𝐶 𝐻
 Kerosene, propane, etc.
 Molecular oxygen is the most common oxidizer
and it is present in the air. In combustion, air
is considered as dry air, where by volume 79%
is nitrogen and 21% is oxygen.
𝑂 3.76𝑁

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Combustion Process
 First balance the combustion equation for a
stoichiometric combustion (@methane).
𝐶𝐻 𝑎 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 𝑏𝐶𝑂 𝑐𝐻 𝑂 𝑑𝑁

Equating by the number of atoms and solving, a=2, b=1,

c=2, and d=7.52
𝐶𝐻 2 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 𝐶𝑂 2𝐻 𝑂 7.52𝑁
 Second, combustion could be performed
with excess of air (using a>2) or with lack of
air (a<2).

Air-to-Fuel Ratio
 It is the ratio of the amount of air in a reaction
to the amount of fuel.
𝑚 𝑛
𝐴𝐹 𝑘𝑔 ⁄𝑘𝑔 𝐴𝐹 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚 𝑛
𝑛 𝑀𝑊
𝐴𝐹 𝐴𝐹 𝑀𝑊 28.97 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 𝑀𝑊
𝐴𝐹
%𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑥100%
𝐴𝐹
𝐴𝐹 𝐴𝐹
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑥100%
𝐴𝐹

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Air-to-Fuel Ratio
 It is the ratio of the amount of air in a reaction
to the amount of fuel.
𝑚 𝑛
𝐴𝐹 𝑘𝑔 ⁄𝑘𝑔 𝐴𝐹 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚 𝑛
𝑛 𝑀𝑊
𝐴𝐹 𝐴𝐹 𝑀𝑊 28.97 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 𝑀𝑊
𝐴𝐹
%𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑥100%
𝐴𝐹
𝐴𝐹 𝐴𝐹
%𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑥100%
𝐴𝐹

Sample Questions
Question #35
The chemical equation for ethane combustion is
7𝑂 2𝐶 𝐻 → 6𝐻 𝑂 4𝐶𝑂
The gas behave ideally. Most nearly, what volume of O2 at
298 K and 1 atm is required to complete combustion of 10
L of C2H6 (gas) at 500 K and 1 atm?
a) 16 L b) 19 L c) 21 L d) 22 L
Solution:
- The number of moles of ethane required is
𝑃𝑉 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 10 𝐿
𝑁 · 0.24 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑅𝑇 0.0821 ·
500 𝐾

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Sample Questions
- In the chemical equation, its coefficients represent
molecules, volumes, and moles. Then, 3.5
- An the number of moles of oxygen is, 𝑁 3.5𝑁
𝑁 3.5 · 0.24 0.85 𝑚𝑜𝑙
- From ideal gas law, the volumes are directly related to the
absolute temperature:
𝑉 𝑇 298
1.09
𝑉 𝑇 273
- 1 mol ideal gas occupies 22.4L at STP,
𝑉 ,
1.09 → 𝑉 , 1.09𝑉 ,
𝑉 ,
𝑉 , 1.09 0.85 · 22.4 20.8 𝐿

Sample Questions
Question #36
Complete combustion of 13.02g of 𝐶 𝐻 produces 40.94g
of CO2 and 16.72g of H2O. What is the empirical formula
of the compound?
a) CH b) CH2 c) CH4 d) CH2O

Solution:
- Balancing the complete combustion equation
𝐶 𝐻 𝑥 𝑂 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂 𝐻 𝑂
- Then, number of moles produced:
𝑁 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁

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Sample Questions
- Then,
.
𝑥 𝑁 0.93 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑦 𝑚 16.72 𝑔
𝑁 𝑔 0.93 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2 𝑀𝑊 18
𝑚𝑜𝑙
y 1.86 mol
- The ratio is:
𝑥 0.93 1
𝑦 1.86 2
- Therefore, the empirical equation is: 𝐶𝐻

The answer is “b”

Sample Questions
Question #37
Theoretically, how many kilograms of air are needed to
completely burn 5 kg of ethane 𝐶 𝐻 gas?
a) 0.8 kg b) 19 kg c) 81 kg d) 330 kg

Solution:
- The complete combustion equation is
2𝐶 𝐻 7 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 4𝐶𝑂 6𝐻 𝑂 26.32𝑁
kmol: 2 (7)(4.76) 4 6 26.32
2 30 7 4.76 29 4 44 6 18 26.32 28
· . ·
- Then, 16.1 → 𝑚 80.5 𝑘𝑔
·

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Sample Questions
Question #38
Octane 𝐶 𝐻 is burned with 150% theoretical air in a
steady combustion process. Combustion is complete. The
total pressure is 1 atm. What is most nearly the air-fuel
ratio?
a) 10 kg air/kg fuel
b) 15 kg air/kg fuel
c) 23 kg air/kg fuel
d) 31 kg air/kg fuel

Sample Questions
Solution:
- The stoichiometric combustion equation is
𝐶 𝐻 12.5 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 8𝐶𝑂 9𝐻 𝑂 47𝑁
- With 150% theoretical air:
𝐶 𝐻 1.5 12.5 𝑂 3.76𝑁
→ 8𝐶𝑂 9𝐻 𝑂 1.5 47𝑁 0.5 12.5 𝑂
- Therefore:
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 1.5 · 12.5 · 4.76 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 29 𝑘𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐴𝐹 22.7
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 114
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
The answer is “c”

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