sustainability
Article
Design and Performance Analysis of Hybrid Battery and
Ultracapacitor Energy Storage System for Electrical Vehicle
Active Power Management
Aditya Kachhwaha 1 , Ghamgeen Izat Rashed 2, *, Akhil Ranjan Garg 1 , Om Prakash Mahela 3 , Baseem Khan 4 ,
Muhammed Badeaa Shafik 5 and Mohamed G. Hussien 6, *






Citation: Kachhwaha, A.;
Rashed, G.I.; Garg, A.R.; Mahela, O.P.;
Khan, B.; Shafik, M.B.; Hussien, M.G.
Design and Performance Analysis of
Hybrid Battery and Ultracapacitor
Energy Storage System for Electrical
Vehicle Active Power Management.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020776
Academic Editors: Sanchari Deb and
Nallapaneni Manoj Kumar
Received: 13 September 2021
Accepted: 27 October 2021
Published: 11 January 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020776
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Jai Narain Vyas University,
Jodhpur 342011, India; adi.kachhwaha@gmail.com (A.K.); agarg@jnvu.edu.in (A.R.G.)
2 School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
3 Assistant Engineer, Power System Planning Division, Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Prasaran Nigam Ltd.,
Jaipur 302005, India; opmahela@gmail.com
4 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Hawassa University, Hawassa P.O. Box 5, Ethiopia;
baseem.khan04@ieee.org
5 Electric Power System and Machines Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafrelsheikh University,
Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt; mohamed.shafeeq@eng.kfs.edu.eg
6 Department of Electrical Power and Machines Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University,
Tanta 31527, Egypt
* Correspondence: ghamgeen@whu.edu.cn (G.I.R.); mohamed.hussien3@f-eng.tanta.edu.eg (M.G.H.)
Abstract: The electrical energy storage system faces numerous obstacles as green energy usage rises.
The demand for electric vehicles (EVs) is growing in tandem with the technological advance of
EV range on a single charge. To tackle the low-range EV problem, an effective electrical energy
storage device is necessary. Traditionally, electric vehicles have been powered by a single source
of power, which is insufficient to handle the EV’s dynamic demand. As a result, a unique storage
medium is necessary to meet the EV load characteristics of high-energy density and high-power
density. This EV storage system is made up of two complementing sources: chemical batteries and
ultracapacitors/supercapacitors. The benefits of using ultracapacitors in a hybrid energy storage
system (HESS) to meet the low-power electric car dynamic load are explored in this study. In this
paper, a HESS technique for regulating the active power of low-powered EV simulations was tested
in a MATLAB/Simulink environment with various dynamic loading situations. The feature of this
design, as noted from the simulation results, is that it efficiently regulates the DC link voltage of an
EV with a hybrid source while putting minimal load stress on the battery, resulting in longer battery
life, lower costs, and increased vehicle range.
Keywords: electric vehicles; battery; ultracapacitors; energy storage system
1. Introduction
Electric cars (EVs) are becoming more popular as a result of environmental concerns
and rising gasoline prices. When compared to gasoline-based internal combustion engine
(ICE) vehicles, EVs have superior fuel economy and adhere to modern world pollution
requirements. Standard EVs are available on the market as a power source. It is worth
noting that EVs are subjected to a variety of time-varying power needs, such as abrupt
acceleration and deceleration (regeneration period). This acceleration and regeneration
period is analogous to pulse load changes, and the battery must absorb a huge transient
charging current at this time, negatively impacting the battery’s performance. A supple-
mentary energy storage technology (ultracapacitor) is occasionally used to mitigate this
negative effect on the battery [1].
By incorporating diverse topologies of ultracapacitor connection, the influence of the
battery’s performance on abrupt charging and draining can be mitigated. An ultracapacitor
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 2 of 14

can handle an instantaneous impulse EV load since it is a high-power density device, which
decreases the stress on the battery and raises the high-rate current demand. The combina-
tion of a battery and an ultracapacitor allows us to meet peak power demand for a short
period of time with the ultracapacitor and average power demand for a long period of
time with the battery [2,3]. Ultracapacitors have the advantage of being able to deliver
and even absorb huge transient pulse power, ensuring that the load’s requirements are
met during the drive’s abrupt acceleration and deceleration/regenerative periods. Because
the battery and ultracapacitor have different basic characteristics (for example, voltage
levels or charging/discharging), an adequate interface between both sources is essential.
Multiple types of energy storage, such as batteries and ultracapacitors, can improve the
overall performance of EVs by providing higher-power density, energy density, and life
cycle. In addition, the improved Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS) between these
devices will reduce energy utilization and extend battery life [4]. To meet the dynamic
EV demand, our active HESS allows ultracapacitors and batteries to use their maximum
capacity [4,5]. An active HESS arrangement makes the most of the available ultracapaci-
tors energy, resulting in enhanced fuel economy and energy security due to the usage of
various sources.
Charging, discharging, voltage level, and other basic features of the hybrid source
(ultracapacitor and battery) are not equal, and a suitable interface is necessary. Because a
bidirectional DC-DC converter can meet the requirements for high utilization efficiencies,
a real-time EV energy storage management strategy (known as HESS) is required for a
better and more effective allocation of power demand for the vehicular system between
energy storage devices [1,6]. Active power management always uses a single control
variable and a single control state (source state-of-charge, source power level). As a result,
adding an ultracapacitor to the system introduces another control variable with a state
of a degree of freedom. The design and optimization of active power management are
complicated by this additional state [7].
This hybridization of battery and ultracapacitor protects the battery and also optimizes
the size of both energy storage systems using the different HESS management schemes,
which further reduces the overall cost [8]. Many HESS management schemes, such as the
fuzzy-logic control scheme [9], the rule-based control scheme [10], the model-predictive
control scheme [11], and the filtration-based scheme [12] etc., are introduced over time.
Hung et al. [13] proposed an optimization scheme that involved the sizing of a hybrid
source with an energy storage management strategy to achieve high performance of an EV
with minimum operating costs. Both the constraints of sizing and the power management
of an EV must be controlled simultaneously, as the individual system contains different
components, which can be incorporated using a rule-based HESS technique [7,14].
The combined use of several energy storage systems in an EV allows the system to
harness diverse sources at different times to efficiently drive the system [7,15]. On the
basis of diverse load profiles, such as constant frequency, variable frequency pulsing load,
and the typical WLTC Class 1 (a small, low-powered EV) drive cycle, this research examines
the performance of rule-based HESS active power-sharing amongst hybrid sources [16–26].
The proposed HESS system is tested using this standard real drive, in conjunction with
the EV dynamic model, to generate a small-scale EV load profile. The system is then
subjected to the obtained load profile, and the simulation results are evaluated in the
MATLAB/Simulink environment. Numerous variants of a rule-based active HESS scheme
were used in this study, successfully reducing the constraint of a single power source
(limited energy density and power density).

2. Proposed Electrical Vehicle Model

The key parameter of analysis is a rule-based active HESS, which subjects the system
to the real drive equivalent of instantaneous power demand. This can be obtained by
implementing the dynamic modeling approach, which is based on the power-torque
equation shown in Figure 1. The EV system dynamic input parameters are shown in Table 1.
 is applied to the EV drive wheels that vary instantaneously, according to the drive cycle
[7,15] (here, WLTC Class 1 is used [16]).

Table 1. Low-power small EV system dynamics.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 EV Parameters Unit Value 3 of 14

Total EV Weight 500–600 Kg

Average Speed 25 Km/h
Max Speed 70 Km/h
Acceleration force, aerodynamic drag force, rolling resistance force and gravitational force
Aerodynamic
are the main components.DragTheir
Coefficient 0.34traction force (FT ),
summation is known as the total
which is appliedRolling
to theCoefficients 0.01–0.02
EV drive wheels that vary instantaneously, according to the drive
cycle [7,15] (here, WLTC Class 1
Electric Drive Poweris used [16]). 48 Volt, 3–4 Kw

Figure 1.
Figure 1. EV
EV dynamic
dynamic model
model block
block diagram.
diagram.

1. Low-power
TableThe small EV system
force corresponding dynamics.
to rolling friction resistance, which is caused by the action
between EV wheels and a road surface, is represented by the following Equation (1). The
EV Parameters Unit Value
rolling resistance force is directly proportional to the vehicle weight and, from Equation
(1), C = rollingTotal EV Weightthat presents the roughness factor
coefficient 500–600 a surface. 𝑊 =
of Kg
Weight of EV. Average Speed 25 Km/h
Max Speed 𝐹 = 𝑊 × 𝐶 70 Km/h (1)
TheAerodynamic Drag Coefficient
grade resistance 0.34
force is a type of gravitational force that acts in the opposite
Rolling
direction to the Coefficients
EV motion when running on an inclined surface. 0.01–0.02
The grading resistance
force of an EVElectric
duringDrive
the drive
Powercycle inclined motion can be obtained by Kw
48 Volt, 3–4 Equation (2). The
surface angle Ɵ has a high inclination here [27].
The force corresponding to rolling𝐹 friction
= 𝑊 resistance,
× sin Ɵ which is caused by the action(2) be-
tween EV wheels and a road surface, is represented by the following Equation (1). The rolling
The force related to the EV drive torque is directly related to the acceleration of the
resistance force is directly proportional to the vehicle weight and, from Equation (1),
vehicle. The acceleration force forces the vehicle to reach its nominal speed within the time
CR = rolling coefficient that presents the roughness factor of a surface. WEV = Weight
limit specified. The acceleration force is given by Equation (3). Here, a denotes acceleration
of EV.
and m denotes the EV’s mass [7].
FRolling = WEV × CR (1)
The grade resistance force is a type of gravitational force that acts in the opposite
direction to the EV motion when running on an inclined surface. The grading resistance
force of an EV during the drive cycle inclined motion can be obtained by Equation (2).
The surface angle θ has a high inclination here [27].

FGRF = WEV × sin θ (2)

The force related to the EV drive torque is directly related to the acceleration of the
vehicle. The acceleration force forces the vehicle to reach its nominal speed within the time
limit specified. The acceleration force is given by Equation (3). Here, a denotes acceleration
and m denotes the EV’s mass [7].
Fa = m × a (3)
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 4 of 14

𝐹 = 𝑚× 𝑎 (3)
The
The aerodynamic
aerodynamicdrag
dragphenomenon
phenomenonincreases
increasesresistance
resistanceduring a higher
during speed
a higher speedof an
of
EV, represented
an EV, as as
represented vehicle speed
vehicle function
speed functioninin
Equation
Equation (4). Here𝑣v==EV
(4).Here speed, 𝑝p =
EVspeed, = air
density, C𝐶D =
density, coefficient and
= drag coefficient 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎F ==vehicle
and Area vehiclefrontal
frontalarea.
area.
1
𝐹 ==1 ××p𝑝××v𝑣2 ××C𝐶 × × Area
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (4)
22
FADR D F (4)
The total EV tractive force can be obtained by Equations (1)–(4), as shown in Equation
The total EV tractive force can be obtained by Equations (1)–(4), as shown in Equa-
(5). It is the summation of all kinds of forces acting on the EV during the drive cycle run
tion (5). It is the summation of all kinds of forces acting on the EV during the drive cycle
[27].
run [27].
=Rolling
FT 𝐹= F 𝐹 𝐹 + F𝐹
+ FGRF a + F𝐹ADR (5)
The
The standard
standard WLTC
WLTC Class 1 city drive cycle for for low-power
low-power EVs
EVs is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2.
2.
This drive cycle with the vehicle dynamic model is used to obtain the total instantaneous
power required for the EV wheels. The all-corresponding
power all-corresponding vehicle
vehicle dynamic
dynamic model
model wave-
wave-
forms are shown in Figure 2. The total EV dynamic load is calculated by the EV dynamic
forms
model, as
model, as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 3;
3; it is scaled-down
scaled-down toto test
test the
the load
load current
current profile
profile of a WLTC
Class
Class 1 with an active power HESS scheme [7,27].

Figure2.
Figure EVdynamic
2.EV dynamicmodeling
modelingunder
underaaWLTC
WLTC Class
Class 11 drive
drive cycle.
cycle.
 Sustainability 2021,
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2022, 13, FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5of
of 14
14

Figure
Figure 3. Scaled-down
3. Scaled-down WLTC
WLTC Class
Class 1 testing
1 testing EVEV load
load profile.
profile.

3.
3. HESS
HESS System
System Configurations
Configurations
HESS
HESS cancanbe bedefined
definedon onthe
thebasis of of
basis thethe
connection
connection of the storage
of the storageunitunit
to the
to DC
the link
DC
of theofEV.
link the HESS
EV. HESSsystem configurations
system are passive,
configurations semi-active
are passive, and active.
semi-active There There
and active. is no
connected converter
is no connected between
converter the energy
between storage
the energy unit and
storage unitthe DCthe
and link
DC inlink
a passive HESS
in a passive
HESS configuration.
configuration. In a semi-active
In a semi-active HESS HESS configuration,
configuration, only oneonlyenergy
one energy
storagestorage
unit isunit
con-is
connected
nected to the
to the DCDC linklink
viavia a DC-DC
a DC-DC converter;
converter; thethe other
other storage
storage unitisisconnected
unit connecteddirectly.
directly.
In most
In mostcases,
cases,thethebattery
batteryisisconnected
connecteddirectly
directlytotothis
this configuration.
configuration. The The configuration
configuration in
in which the energy storage is connected to the DC link, having
which the energy storage is connected to the DC link, having a bidirectional DC-DC a bidirectional DC-DCcon-
converter
verter
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW between
between them,them, is known
is known as an as an active
active HESS configuration
HESS configuration [7,28–30].[7,28–30].
Figure 4Figure
of 14 4
6 depicts
adepicts
block adiagram
block diagram
of HESS ofwith
HESSDC-DC
with DC-DC converters
converters linkedlinked
to a DCto abus
DC modulated
bus modulated by
by the
the HESS
HESS controller.
controller.

Active HESS Configurations

Both sources are depicted as DC-DC bidirectional converters between DCs in the EV
system block diagram in Figure 4. The storage system comprises the converter working in
the current control mode, whereas the ultracapacitor DC-DC converter is controlled by a
sliding mode control (SMC) algorithm [31–33]. The power splitting of the hybrid source
is implemented by the rule-based, active power HESS system. The proposed system con-
tains the Li-ion battery bank and ultracapacitor hybrid source for low-power EV testing
under the WLTC Class 1 drive load, governed by the active HESS scheme [7].
Hybrid sources have the capability to meet instantaneous load fluctuations effec-
tively. Table 2 shows the parameters of a small, low-power EV HESS system. The system
is loaded with the WLTC Class 1 current load profile, calculated by the vehicle dynamic
Figure 4. HESS EV complete block diagram.
model.
Figure Alongside
4. HESS this, the
EV complete EV
block HESS system is subjected to a constant and varying fre-
diagram.
quency pulseConfigurations
Active HESS load. The active HESS controller scheme is represented in Figure 5.
Both sources are depicted as DC-DC bidirectional converters between DCs in the EV
system block diagram in Figure 4. The storage system comprises the converter working in
the current control mode, whereas the ultracapacitor DC-DC converter is controlled by a
sliding mode control (SMC) algorithm [31–33]. The power splitting of the hybrid source is
implemented by the rule-based, active power HESS system. The proposed system contains
the Li-ion battery bank and ultracapacitor hybrid source for low-power EV testing under
the WLTC Class 1 drive load, governed by the active HESS scheme [7].
Hybrid sources have the capability to meet instantaneous load fluctuations effectively.
Table 2 shows the parameters of a small, low-power EV HESS system. The system is loaded
 Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 6 of 14
stainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

with the WLTC Class 1 current load profile, calculated by the vehicle dynamic model.
Alongside this, the EV HESS system is subjected to a constant and varying frequency pulse
load. The active HESS controller scheme is represented in Figure 5.

Table 2. Active HESS EV model system parameters.

Parameter Unit Values

Battery Nominal Voltage 36 Volt
Battery Rating 60 Ah
Ultracapacitor Module Voltage 16 Volt
Ultracapacitor Module Faradic rating 500 F
EV HESS Model DC Link 48 Volt
Figure 4. HESS EV complete block diagram.

Figure
Figure 5. HESS 5. HESS
control control
scheme scheme algorithm.
algorithm.

The active rule-based HESS algorithm is implemented for the efficient distribution of
Table 2. Active HESS EV model system parameters.
active power between the battery and ultracapacitor while keeping the base load across
Parameter
the battery. The base load is calculated and fed backUnit to theValues
current-mode control (CMC)
converter of the battery
Battery Nominal as a battery reference current (IB_Ref).
Voltage 36 Volt This is compared again to
the battery CMC
Battery control block, where the control action is60carried
Rating Ah out by the battery source
current control, with
Ultracapacitor Module Voltagethe help of an optimal-tuning PID controller
16 Volt [31,34,35]. The load
across the battery changes according to the load fluctuations from one level to another in
Ultracapacitor Module Faradic rating 500 F
this rule-based HESS scheme. If it goes to another level, the reference battery current is
EV HESS Model DC Link 48 Volt
changed to some extent, and other rapid fluctuations are handled by the eliminator with its
control
The active signal. Active
rule-based HESS power
algorithmsplitting changes during
is implemented for thethe drive cycle
efficient and depends
distribution of on the
state
active power of charge
between the(SOC) battery,
battery SOC ultracapacitor,
and ultracapacitor whilehybrid
keeping sources, output
the base loadcurrents,
across and load
the battery.current.
The base The scheme
load works effectively
is calculated and fed back with to hybrid sources by control
the current-mode reducing and increasing
(CMC)
converter of the battery as a battery reference current (IB_Ref). This is compared again to level and
the battery reference current when the drive cycle load demand goes to a lower
the batterywhen
CMC the drive
control is running
block, whereattheitscontrol
maximum actionspeed, respectively.
is carried out by theThe connection
battery sourceof different
sources in hybrid sources to the DC link is also subject to their
current control, with the help of an optimal-tuning PID controller [31,34,35]. The load SOC level.
across the battery changes according to the load fluctuations from one level to another in
this rule-based HESS scheme. If it goes to another level, the reference battery current is
 its control signal. Active power splitting changes during the drive cycle and depends on
The hybrid ultracapacitor-battery source can alleviate the rate of change
the state of charge (SOC) battery, SOC ultracapacitor, hybrid sources, output currents, and
pulsed EV loads.
load current. The works
The scheme wholeeffectively
EV system,
with with
hybridthe HESS
sources bycontroller and
reducing and hybrid sou
increas-
nected with a bidirectional DC-DC converter, is shown in Figure 6.
ing the battery reference current when the drive cycle load demand goes to a lower level
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 and when the drive is running at its maximum speed, respectively. The connection of7 of 14
dif-
ferent sources in hybrid sources to the DC link is also subject to their SOC level.

4. Performance of Ultracapacitor-Battery Hybrid Source

4. Performance of Ultracapacitor-Battery Hybrid Source
The hybrid ultracapacitor-battery source can alleviate the rate of change of high
The hybrid ultracapacitor-battery source can alleviate the rate of change of high pulsed
pulsed EV loads. The whole EV system, with the HESS controller and hybrid source con-
EV loads. The whole EV system, with the HESS controller and hybrid source connected
nected with a bidirectional
with a bidirectional DC-DCDC-DC converter,
converter, is in
is shown shown in 6.
Figure Figure 6.

Figure 6. EV system MATLAB simulation diagram.

FigureThe
6. EVbattery DC-DCsimulation
system MATLAB converter current control scheme and ultracapacitor SMC
diagram.
have anEVouter
Figure 6. systemloop
MATLABfor simulation
load voltage control and an inner loop for limiting the i
diagram.
The battery DC-DC converter current control scheme and ultracapacitor SMC control
current
haveThe deviation,
an outer foras shown incontrol
Figureand7a,b, inner
respectively. The 4-quadrant choppe
batteryloop
DC-DC load voltage
converter current control an
scheme andloop for limiting
ultracapacitor the
SMCinductor
control
topology is selected
current deviation, for effective
as shown bidirectional
in Figure 7a,b, ultracapacitor
respectively. The 4-quadrant output
chopper voltage
(4QC) regula
have an outer loop for load voltage control and an inner loop for limiting the inductor
shown
topologyin is Figure
selected 8.
forThe 2-quadrant
effective (2QC)
bidirectional chopper
ultracapacitor topology
output is
voltage
current deviation, as shown in Figure 7a,b, respectively. The 4-quadrant chopper (4QC) selected for batte
regulation,
as shown
verter in Figure 8. The 2-quadrant (2QC) chopper topology is selected for battery
topologyaction, as for
is selected theeffective
battery has to supply
bidirectional poweroutput
ultracapacitor in different constantascurrent
voltage regulation,
converter action, as the battery has to supply power in different constant current modes
throughout
shown in Figure the8.WLTC Class 1 (2QC)
The 2-quadrant drive chopper
load profile
throughout the WLTC Class 1 drive load profile [7,36–38].
[7,36–38].
topology is selected for battery con-
verter action, as the battery has to supply power in different constant current modes
throughout the WLTC Class 1 drive load profile [7,36–38].

Figure 7. Cont.
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Sustainability 14, 776
2022,2021,
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Figure 7. (a) Ultracapacitor controller; (b) CMC battery controller.

Figure 7. (a)
Figure 7. Ultracapacitor controller;
(a) Ultracapacitor (b) CMC
controller; battery
(b) CMC controller.
battery controller.

Figure 8. 4-QC DC-DC converter.

Figure 8. 4-QC DC-DC converter.
Figure 8. 4-QC DC-DC converter.
5. Simulation Results and Analysis
5. Simulation Results ofand Analysis
5.The operation
Simulation an EV
Results andduring a drive cycle has different modes, such as a constant
Analysis
speed mode, a decelerating mode, and
The operation of an EV during a drive an accelerating mode. The
cycle has different basic
modes, understanding
such as a constantof
The operation of an EV during a drive cycle has different modes, such as a constant
the hybrid
speed mode,source is that the
a decelerating battery
mode, andmust supply themode.
an accelerating maximum power
The basic during constant
understanding of
speed mode, a decelerating mode, and an accelerating mode. The basic understanding of
speed
the mode,
hybrid whereas
source is thatthe ultracapacitor
the battery mustconverter
supply theaction supplies
maximum the related
power duringpulse load
constant
the hybrid
during source is that the battery periods
otherwhereas
acceleration/deceleration must supply the maximum power duringout
constant
speed mode, the ultracapacitor converter[7,31,39]. The study
action supplies was carried
the related pulse loadby
speed
testing themode,
EV whereas
system withthe ultracapacitor
different loading converter
modes, as action supplies
discussed below.the related pulse load
during other acceleration/deceleration periods [7,31,39]. The study was carried out by test-
during other acceleration/deceleration periods [7,31,39]. The study was carried out by test-
ing the EV system with different loading modes, as discussed below.
5.1.ing the1EV system with different loading modes, as discussed below.
Mode
In this
5.1. Mode 1 mode, the EV HESS system is subjected to a constant frequency pulsating load,
5.1. Mode
having a lower 1 level of 20 A and a higher level of 45 A, as shown in the load waveform in
In this mode, the EV HESS system is subjected to a constant frequency pulsating load,
Figure 9.In this mode, the EV HESS system is subjected to a constant frequency pulsating load,
having a lower level of 20 A and a higher level of 45 A, as shown in the load waveform in
having
A majora lower level
finding of this
from 20 Amode
and aishigher levelHESS
the active of 45 A, as shown
scheme in the load
effectiveness waveform
with hybrid in
Figure 9.
Figure
source 9.
performance [7,40]. The battery reference current is set as the lower limit of the
pulse load; the fluctuations from this level are handled by the ultracapacitor converter
action, as represented by an ultracapacitor current waveform in Figure 9. In the normal
operation of this drive, the average load is set to be supplied by the battery as it is a
high-energy density device, shown in Figure 9. Deviations from this set value are from
other high-power density devices, which will eventually enhance the life and reduce the
battery rating, compared to the same energy storage system (ESS) EV rating [31,41].
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 9 of 14

Figure
Figure 9. 9. Constant
Constant frequency
frequency pulse
pulse load load condition.
condition.

A major
5.2. Mode 2 finding from this mode is the active HESS scheme effectiveness with hybrid
source performance [7,40]. The battery reference current is set as the lower limit of the
As shown in Figure 10, this mode incorporates the sample drive cycle, which has
pulse load; the fluctuations from this level are handled by the ultracapacitor converter
three levels of load changes with variable frequency. Two different results are shown in
action,
Figuresas10represented
and 11, oneby foranhigher
ultracapacitor
SOC level current waveform
batteries in Figure
and another 9. In the
for lower SOC normal
level
operation of this drive, the average load is set to be supplied by the battery
batteries, respectively. When the battery is fully charged or has a sufficient amount as it is a high-
of
energy density device, shown in Figure 9. Deviations from this set value are
SOC, the battery converter’s base amount of average load is changed to save ultracapacitorfrom other
high-power
power and density
improvedevices,
overallwhich will eventually
EV performance, enhanceinthe
as shown life and
Figure 11. reduce
In the the
firstbattery
result,
rating, compared to the same energy storage system (ESS) EV rating [31,41].
Figure 10, the battery reference base load is set constant at 4 A (low SOC situation). In the

Sustainability 2022, 14, 776
As shown in Figure 10, this mode incorporates the sample drive cycle, which has
three levels of load changes with variable frequency. Two different results are shown in
Figure 11 and Figure 10, one for higher SOC level batteries and another for lower SOC
level batteries, respectively. When the battery is fully charged or has a sufficient amount
of SOC, the battery converter’s base amount of average load is changed to save ultraca- 10 of 14
pacitor power and improve overall EV performance, as shown in Figure 11. In the first
result, Figure10, the battery reference base load is set constant at 4 A (low SOC situation).
In the result
other other shown
result shown in Figure
in Figure 11, it is 11,
set it
atis4 A
setinitially;
at 4 A initially;
however,however, when
when peak loadpeak load
demand
demand
goes to a higher level of 15 A, the battery base load changes to 7 A, and the remainderre-
goes to a higher level of 15 A, the battery base load changes to 7 A, and the is
mainder
taken upisbytaken up by the ultracapacitor
the ultracapacitor converter
converter action action [40–42].
[40–42].
Figure 10. Variable frequency,
frequency, constant
constantbattery
batterysetting
settingcondition
conditionsimulation
simulationresult.
result.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 11 of 14

Figure 11. Variable frequency, variable battery setting condition simulation result.
Figure 11. Variable frequency, variable battery setting condition simulation result.
Figure 11. Variable frequency, variable battery setting condition simulation result.
Figure 12 represents
Figure the model
12 represents flowchart
the model approach
flowchart of this
approach HESS
of this rule-based
HESS scheme.
rule-based scheme.
The rules Figure 12
are basedrepresents
on certain the model flowchart
valuesvalues
of SOC% approach
of a battery of this
and an and HESS rule-based
ultracapacitor. Here,scheme.
the
The rules are based on certain of SOC% of a battery an ultracapacitor. Here,
limitThe rulesvalues
SOC% are based
are on certain
50% and values
70% for of SOC% of a battery
ultracapacitor and and anrespectively.
battery, ultracapacitor. Here, the
the limit SOC% values are 50% and 70% for ultracapacitor and battery, respectively.
limit SOC% values are 50% and 70% for ultracapacitor and battery, respectively.

Figure 12. Model

Figure flowchart
12. Model of the
flowchart ofrule-based HESS
the rule-based system.
HESS system.
Figure 12. Model flowchart of the rule-based HESS system.
 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 12 of 14

The SOC level of an ultracapacitor is generally taken as 50% due to its efficiency be-
The SOC level
ing drastically of an below
reduced ultracapacitor is of
this level generally
SOC. Intaken as 50%
the case of adue to itsSOC
battery, efficiency
rules being
can be
drastically reduced below
changed according this level
to application andofuser
SOC. In the case of a battery, SOC rules can be
needs.
changed according to application and user needs.
5.3. Mode 3
5.3. Mode 3
The EV active HESS scheme with multiple levels, as shown in Figure 5, is imple-
The EV
mented active
with HESSClass
a WLTC scheme withprofile
1 load multiple levels, as
obtained shown
from thein Figuredynamic
vehicle 5, is implemented
model, as
with a WLTC Class 1 load profile obtained from the vehicle dynamic
shown in Figure 3. Figure 12 depicts the drive load applied to an EV system model, as shown in
and load
Figure 3. Figure 12 depicts the drive load applied to an EV system and load
splitting between the hybrid sources. The comparative result in Figure 13 represents the splitting be-
tween the hybrid sources. The comparative result in Figure 13 represents the instantaneous
instantaneous base load change of the battery with the high-power switching action of the
base load change of the battery with the high-power switching action of the ultracapacitor
ultracapacitor converter action to meet the standard scaled-down EV WLTC Class 1 load
converter action to meet the standard scaled-down EV WLTC Class 1 load demand [7,16].
demand [7,16]. The battery converter governed by the CCM mode effectively changes its
The battery converter governed by the CCM mode effectively changes its reference load
reference load setting with a HESS selector logic action. This setting is selected by the
setting with a HESS selector logic action. This setting is selected by the different SOC
different SOC conditions of the hybrid source for effective and efficient utilization of the
conditions of the hybrid source for effective and efficient utilization of the combined source
combined source throughout a test drive cycle.
throughout a test drive cycle.

Figure 13. WLTC Class 1 load profile HESS load distribution simulation result.
Figure 13. WLTC Class 1 load profile HESS load distribution simulation result.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper proposes and investigates a different approach to a rule-based active
powerThisHESS for a proposes
paper low-powerand Class 1 EV. The hybrid
investigates source
a different implementation
approach methodology
to a rule-based active
ispower
applied with proper testing under the standard EV load profile. The
HESS for a low-power Class 1 EV. The hybrid source implementation methodology standard WLTC
Class 1 drivewith
is applied input dynamic
proper model
testing is developed
under the standardin aEV
MATLAB/Simulink
load profile. The environment
standard WLTC to
obtain the required effective test instantaneous pulse load profile. Various
Class 1 drive input dynamic model is developed in a MATLAB/Simulink environment to test conditions
are simulated
obtain to testeffective
the required EV HESS testmaintenance
instantaneous of pulse
specified
load voltage regulations
profile. Various test and peak
conditions
power management
are simulated under
to test the designed
EV HESS EV pulse
maintenance load profile
of specified in the regulations
voltage MATLAB/Simulinkand peak
environment. Furthermore, the DC-DC converter with different controlling
power management under the designed EV pulse load profile in the MATLAB/Simulink schemes for
the battery CMC
environment. and ultracapacitor
Furthermore, controller
the DC-DC (SMC)with
converter is interfaced
differentwith the DC link,
controlling which
schemes for
isthe
analyzed
battery CMC and ultracapacitor controller (SMC) is interfaced with the DC link,offers
at different load conditions. The proposed HESS active power scheme which
efficient and superior
is analyzed control
at different load during the drive
conditions. run of an HESS
The proposed EV byactive
reducing the scheme
power stress onoffers
the
battery. Hence, the controllability of the system is enhanced. Various mode simulation
efficient and superior control during the drive run of an EV by reducing the stress on the
results effectively demonstrate the active power splitting between the battery and ultraca-
battery. Hence, the controllability of the system is enhanced. Various mode simulation
pacitor hybrid source on the basis of energy storage device SOC, peak load requirement,
results effectively demonstrate the active power splitting between the battery and ultra-
instantaneous fluctuations in an EV load, and load voltage regulations. In future work,
capacitor hybrid source on the basis of energy storage device SOC, peak load requirement,
an EV load profile during the deceleration period can be used to study the regeneration
instantaneous fluctuations in an EV load, and load voltage regulations. In future work, an
period of ultracapacitors in order to extend the EV range of covers.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 776 13 of 14

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; methodol-
ogy, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; software, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and
M.G.H.; validation, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; formal analysis, A.K., A.R.G.,
O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; investigation, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; re-
sources, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; data curation, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K.,
M.B.S. and M.G.H.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and
M.G.H.; writing—review and editing, A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; visualization,
A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; supervision, O.P.M. and B.K.; project administration,
A.K., A.R.G., O.P.M., B.K., M.B.S. and M.G.H.; funding acquisition, M.G.H. and G.I.R. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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