General Psychology Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Nancy C.

Castro
Handout

SENSATION - the process by which we receive, transform, and process stimuli from the outside world to create sensory experiences
of vision, touch, hearing, taste, smell, and so on.

SENSORY RECEPTORS - specialized cells that detect sensory stimuli and convert them into neural impulses.

Characteristics of Sensory Systems:

A. THRESHOLD:
1. ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD - smallest amount of a given stimulus a person can sense.
2. DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD - minimal difference in the magnitude of energy needed for people to detect a difference
between two stimuli.

B. SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY - the belief that the ability to detect a signal varies with the characteristics of the
perceiver, the background, and the stimulus itself.

C. SENSORY ADAPTATION – the process by which sensory systems adapt to constant stimuli by becoming less sensitive to
them.

SENSES:
VISION - The process by which light energy is converted into neural impulses that the brain interprets to produce the experience of
sight.

HEARING - SOUND VIBRATIONS - are the stimuli transformed by the receptors in the ears into signals the brain uses to let you
experience the sounds of the world around you.

OLFACTION - OLFACTORY NERVE - the nerves that carries impulses from olfactory receptors in the nose to the brain.

TASTE – taste buds: sweet, bitter, sour, salty

SKIN SENSES - GATE CONTROL THEORY OF PAIN - the belief that a neural gate in the spinal cord opens to allow pain messages to
reach the brain and closes to shut them out.

PERCEPTION - The process by which the brain interprets sensory information, turning it into meaningful representations of the
external world.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION - the process by which we attend to meaningful stimuli and filter out irrelevant or extraneous stimuli.

PERCEPTUAL SET - The tendency for perceptions to be influenced by one's expectations or preconceptions.

MODES OF VISUAL PROCESSING:

A. BOTTOM UP PROCESSING - A mode of perceptual processing by which the brain recognizes meaningful patterns by piecing
together bits and pieces of sensory information.
B. TOP DOWN PROCESSING - A mode of perceptual processing by which the brain identifies patterns as meaningful wholes
rather than as piecemeal constructions.
ORGANIZATION IN PERCEPTION:

A. FIGURE AND GROUND - The tendency to perceive the visual environment in terms of figures (objects) that stand out from
the surrounding background.
B. PROXIMITY - the tendency to perceive objects as belonging together when they are close to one another.

C. SIMILARITY - the tendency to group objects that have similar characteristics.

D. CONTINUITY - the tendency to perceive a series of stimuli as a unified form when they appear to
represent a continuous pattern.

E. CLOSURE - the tendency to group disconnected pieces of information into a meaningful whole.

F. CONNECTEDNESS - the tendency to perceive objects as belonging together when they are positioned
together or are moving together.

DEPTH PERCEPTION:

A. BINOCULAR CUES - Cues for depth that involve both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.
B. MONOCULAR CUES - Cues for depth that can be perceived by each eye alone.

1. RELATIVE SIZE - an object that appears larger than another object believed to be of the same size is
judged to be closer.

2. INTERPOSITION - objects that are obscured by other objects are perceived as being farther away.

3. RELATIVE CLARITY - nearby objects are clearer than more distant objects.

4. TEXTURE GRADIENT - the details of nearby objects appear to have a coarser texture than those of
distant objects.

5. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE - objects and the spaces between them look smaller as they become more
distant.

6. SHADOWING - produces three-dimensions or curving surfaces.

REFERENCES:
1. Bernstein, D., Penner, L., Clarke-Stewart, A., & Roy, E. (2006). Psychology (Seventh edition). Houghton Mifflin
Company.
2. Nevid, J. (2007). Psychology: Concepts and applications (Second edition). Houghton Mifflin Company.
3. Passer, M., & Smith, R. (2007). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior (Third edition). McGraw Hill.
4. Sanchez, C., Abad, P., & Jao, L. (2002). General Psychology (Fourth edition). Rex Book Store.
General Psychology Prepared by: Ms. Nancy C. Castro, M.A.
Handout

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

I. PRENATAL STAGE

a. Germinal Stage – the first stage of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception.
b. Embryonic Stage - the stage of prenatal development from implantation through about the eighth week of
pregnancy during which the major organ systems begin to form.
c. Fetal Stage - the stage of prenatal development in which the fetus develops, beginning around the ninth week
of pregnancy and lasting until the birth of the child.

II. INFANCY STAGE

Reflexes
a. Rooting reflex - The reflexive turning of the newborn’s head in the direction of a touch on its cheek.
b. Eyeblink reflex - The reflexive blinking of the eyes that protects the newborn from bright light and foreign
objects.
c. Sucking reflex - Rhythmic sucking in response to stimulation of the tongue or mouth.
d. Moro reflex - An inborn reflex, elicited by a sudden noise or loss of support, in which infants extends its arms,
arches its back, and brings its arm toward each other as though attempting to grab hold of someone.
e. Palmar grasp reflex - A reflexive curling of the infant’s fingers around an object that touches its palm.
f. Babinski reflex - The reflexive fanning out and curling of an infant’s toes and inward twisting of its foot when
the sole of the foot is stroked.

III. CHILDHOOD STAGE

ERIK ERICKSON – PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

 The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is
the most fundamental stage in life.2
 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child’s caregivers.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt


The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. 2

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was
quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of
control and a sense of independence.

Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a
sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt


During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play
and other social interaction.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills
are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative. 3

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
  Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
ability to be successful.

JEAN PIAGET - STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

A. Sensori-motor - (Birth-2 yrs)

- Differentiates self from objects.
- Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobile in motion or
shakes a rattle to make a noise.
- Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense
(pace Bishop Berkeley)
 
B. Pre-operational - (2-7 years)
- Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words.
- Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.
- Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the
square blocks regardless of colour

C. Concrete operational - (7-11 years)

- Can think logically about objects and events.
- Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).
- Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as
size. 

D. Formal operational - (11 years and up)

- Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically.
- Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems.
   

IV. ADOLESCENCE STAGE

PUBERTY - the stage of development at which individuals become physiologically capable of reproducing.

ERIK ERIKSON - Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

 During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs
and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

V. EARLY ADULTHOOD STAGE

ERIK ERIKSON - Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are
successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.
 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.

VI. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD STAGE

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their
home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
 VII. OLD AGE STAGE
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase
means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even
when confronting death.

REFERENCES:
1. Bernstein, D., Penner, L., Clarke-Stewart, A., & Roy, E. (2006). Psychology (Seventh edition). Houghton Mifflin
Company.
2. Nevid, J. (2007). Psychology: Concepts and applications (Second edition). Houghton Mifflin Company.
3. Passer, M., & Smith, R. (2007). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior (Third edition). McGraw Hill.