Examination Oriented: Name: Surname: School: Royal College

2020
EXAMINATION ORIENTED
www.thundermoviz.com, 23 Goldman Florida
www.royalcollege.co.za , 12 Goldman Florida
NAME: …………………….
SURNAME:..
SCHOOL : ROYAL COLLEGE
Complied by Dr M. Saidi 2020 1
A PERFECT GUIDE YOU CAN USE FOR A DISTINCTION
The examination will consist of 2 examination papers of 2½ hours and 150 marks each.
The weighting and assessment of topics in Paper 1 and Paper 2 will be as follows:
PAPER ONE
TOPICS WEIGHTING
TERM % MARKS
T1 Meiosis 07 11
Reproduction in Vertebrates 04 06
Human Reproduction 21 31
T2 Responding to be environment (humans) 27 40
T3 Human endocrine system 10 15

Homeostasis in humans 07 11
Responding to the Environment (plants) 07 11
T4 Human impact (Grade 11) 17 25
TOTALS 100% 150
PAPER TWO
WEIGHTING
TOPICS
TERM % MARKS
T1 DNA: Code of Life 19 27
Meiosis 07 12
T2 Genetics and Inheritance 30 45

T3 Evolution by Natural 15 23
Selection
T3/T4 Human Evolution 29 43
TOTALS 100% 150

A.
TOPIC WEIGHTING ASPECT SKILLS POSSIBLE
(%) MARKS
NUCLEIC 19%  DNA structure and  Terminology  1 to 2 marks
ACIDS function  Interpretation of
 DNA replication diagrams  4 marks
 Uses of DNA  Tabulation
 Protein Synthesis:  Description  5-6 marks
Transcription  Calculation  2 marks
Translation
 Essay writing  20 marks
 Effect of mutation
on protein  3 marks
synthesis
How new copies of DNA are made? How the protein molecules are made in the
(DNA replication) cells?
(Protein synthesis)
Original
DNA
Molecule
New DNA
identical
copies
1. A portion of a double helix DNA strand unwinds
to form a flat chain.
2. A portion of double stranded DNA unzips when
hydrogen bond break.
3. One strand is used as a template.
1. Double helix DNA molecule. 4. Free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm form
2. Double helix DNA strand unwinds.. a complementary strand called mRNA. This
3. Weak hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous process is called Transcription and is controlled
bases break to make two separate strands. by an enzyme.
4. Both strands serve as templates. 5. The mRNA strand leaves the nucleus though the
5. Free DNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm nuclear pore and is attached to the ribosome in
attach to templates to form complementary the cytoplasm.
strands. 6. The tRNA in the cytoplasm picks the specific
6. Each DNA molecule consists of 1 original & 1 amino acid and brings it to the ribosome. The
new strand resulting to two identical tRNA matches its anticodon with the codon of
molecules, then both strands wounds. the mRNA so as to align the amino acids. This
This process is controlled by enzymes. process is called Translation.
7. The amino acids in correct sequence are then
linked by the peptide bonds to form a protein
molecule.
1.1 Give the correct term for each of the following descriptions.
DESCRIPTION TERM
1.1.1 The triplet of bases on tRNA Anticodon
1.1.2 Tangled network of chromosomes located within the nucleus Chromatin network
1.1.3 The triplet of bases on mRNA Codon
1.1.4 The base that pairs off with guanine Cytosine
1.1.5 Nucleic acid that is a constituent of chromosomes DNA
1.1.6 Production of identical copies of DNA DNA Replication
1.1.7 Natural shape of a DNA molecule Double helix
1.1.8 Segment of a chromosome that codes for a particular protein Gene
1.1.9 Bonds by which base pairs are linked in DNA Hydrogen bonds
1.1.10 Phase of the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs Interphase
1.1.11 Molecule containing information for protein synthesis in its codons Messenger RNA
1.1.12 Building blocks consisting of sugar, phosphate and nitrogen base Nucleotide
1.1.13 Site of DNA replication & transcription Nucleus
1.1.14 Bond formed between two amino acids Peptide Bond
1.1.15 Site of synthesis of proteins by the combination of amino acids Ribosome
1.1.16 Single stranded nucleic acid RNA
1.1.17 Strand of DNA used to form either another strand of DNA or mRNA Template
1.1.18 The base that pairs off with adenine in DNA Thymine
1.1.19 Transfer of the coded message for protein synthesis from DNA Transcription
onto mRNA
1.1.20 Molecule containing information for protein synthesis in its anti- Transfer RNA
codons
1.1.21 Part of protein synthesis from the time amino acids are assembled Translation
in a particular sequence

TOPIC: 1: DNA: THE CODE OF LIFE
How is the nucleus constructed?

1. Location and shape in animal cells: rounded and in the centre of the cell
2. Location and shape in plant cells: lens shaped and pushed to the side of the cell by the
vacuole.
3. Nuclear membrane or envelope – surrounds the nuclear contents and is a double membrane.
4. Nuclear pores – many and control the passage of molecules and
Structures into and out of the nucleus.
5. Nucleoplasm – the „cytoplasm‟ of the nucleus.
6. Nucleolus – this is an extra dense area of DNA and protein where the
Ribosomes (rRNA is synthesized) are produced.
1. Chromatin – is made up of DNA (a nucleic acid) and proteins called histones. When the cell
is about to divide the chromatin condenses into separate chromosomes.

Draw and label the nucleus in the cell
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:

DNA is a nucleic acid made up of two strands, wound around one another to form a double
helix. Each DNA strand is made up of nucleotides.
1. Each DNA nucleotide consists of:

 deoxyribose sugar
 phosphate
 nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, guanine or cytosine)
2. Nucleotides join to each other by sugar-phosphate bonds between the phosphate of one
nucleotide and the deoxyribose sugar of the next nucleotide. Many nucleotides join to form a
single DNA strand.
3. The two strands are connected by weak hydrogen bonds between complementary
nitrogenous bases.
Adenine always bonds with thymine (A-T)
Guanine always bonds with cytosine (G-C)
RNA STRUCTURE:
Ribose sugar
Single strand
It is linear/straight
Strand is short
Contains the nitrogenous bases adenine,

guanine, cytosine and uracil

Adenine
Purines
Combination is ALWAYS:
Guanine
Nitrogenous
bases Guanine Cytosine
(Purine) (Pyrimidine)
Pyrimidine
Cytosine
Adenine Thymine
(Purine) (Pyrimidine)
Thymine (on
DNA) or
Uracil (on RNA)

Phosphate group Phosphate group
A T A Nitrogenous base
G C Deoxyribose G
Ribose
A
Nitrogenous base
Weak hydrogen bonds

U
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID) RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)
Differences between DNA and RNA:

RNA DNA
Ribose sugar Deoxyribose sugar
Single strand Double strands
It is linear/straight Strands form a helix (twisted)
Strand is short Strands are long
Contains the nitrogenous bases adenine, Contains the nitrogenous bases

guanine, cytosine and uracil adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine

TYPES OF DNA
Nuclear DNA: found in the nucleus
Mitochondrial DNA: found in the mitochondria
Chloroplastic DNA: found in the chloroplast
TYPES OF RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA): responsible for carrying the genetic code that is transcribed
from DNA, to specialized sites of the ribosomes where the information is translated
for protein synthesis
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): form the ribosomes and produce the proteins, based on
the information received from the tRNA.
o Transfer RNA (tRNA): has anticodons which codes for a specific amino acid. The
anticodons are complementary to the mRNA codon, during the production of
proteins.
CALCULATIONS OF DNA
A) If A is 30% what is the percentage of C
B) If c is 20% what is the ratio T:G
C) If
D) If
Complied by Dr M. Saidi 2020

Discovery of DNA
James Watson, an American biochemist and Francis Crick an English physicist
began their collaborative work to try to solve the puzzle of the molecular structure
of DNA. Using data (X-ray diffraction pictures ) provided by Maurice Wilkins
and Rosalind Franklin, they made an accurate model of the molecular structure
of DNA that its it‟s a double helix with complementary base pair . This
discovery they called „the secret of life‟. In 1962 Crick, Watson and Wilkins
received the Nobel Prize for determining the molecular structure of DNA – a
double-stranded, helical, complementary, anti-parallel model for deoxyribonucleic
acid.
DNA REPLICATION:
Is the process that process involving the formation of two new identical DNA
molecules from an original DNA.
DNA replication takes place at interphase before mitosis or meiosis begins. DNA
replication is the process during which a DNA molecule makes an exact copy
(replica) of itself.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS PROCESS:
Transcription:
Double stranded DNA unwind
When the weak hydrogen bonds break
Then it unzips
One strand is used as a template
To form mRNA
Using free mRNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
mRNA is complementary to the DNA
mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and attaches to the ribosome
Translation:
Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid
When the anticodon on the tRNA
Matches the codon on the mRNA
Then tRNA brings required amino acid the ribosome
Amino acids become attached by peptide bonds
To form the required protein
Each protein is formed specifically to the genetic code stored on the DNA in the nucleus
of every cell in the organism. Any change during this coding process will result in a
mutation.

Example of base triplet, codon and anticodon combinations:
Amino Acid CODE of Codon of mRNA Anticodon of tRNA
DNA
* Each Codon is * Each Anticodon is
* Contains complementary complementary
Thymine not Uracil (opposite) to the (opposite) to the
DNA base triplet Codon and similar to
but contains Uracil – the DNA base triplet
not Thymine but contains Uracil –
not Thymine
Alanine CGA GCU CGA
Histidine GTC CAG GUC
Valine CAT GUA CAU
Serine AGA UCU AGA
DNA FINGERPRINTING:
This is a technique of identifying someone‟s DNA profiling using a known DNA profile
All living organisms have DNA with the same basic chemical structure. The
difference between us all is the order of the nitrogenous base sequences.
ADVANTAGES OF DNA PROFILING
 Personal Identification
 Paternity and Maternity
 Diagnosis and Cures for Inherited Diseases
 Criminal Identification and Forensics
 dentifying suitable organ donors

DISADVANTAGES OF DNA PROFILING

 Expensive
 Human error
 Not all hospitals have the necessary requirements to carry out DNA profiling
Q.2 The diagram below represents DNA replication.
2.1 Identify the following:

(a) Molecules W and U (2)
(b) Parts of molecule W labelled X and Y (2)
(c) Bond Z (1)
(d) Nitrogenous base V (1)
2.2 Where in the cell does this process take place? (1)
2.3 Name the phase of the cell cycle where replication takes place. (1)
(8)
(DBE, March 2016, Paper 2)
Q.3 The diagram below represents two stages of protein synthesis.

3.1 Provide labels for:
(a) Molecule 1 (1)
(DNA – the molecule is found in the nucleus, it is forming mRNA and it is double
stranded)
(b) Organelle 6 (1)
(Ribosome – it is the organelle which is the site of protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm)
3.2 Give only the NUMBER of the part which represents a:
(a) DNA template strand (1)
(2 – this is the strand on which a mRNA strand is formed)
(b) Monomer of proteins (1)
(5 – Proteins are made up of amino acids e.g. Proline, Valine etc.)
(c) Codon (1)
(7 – a triplet of bases found on the mRNA strand)
3.3 Describe translation as it occurs at organelle 6. (4)
- The mRNA attaches to the ribosome
- When each codon of the mRNA
- matches with the anticodon on the tRNA
- the tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome
- When the different amino acids are brought in sequence
- adjacent amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
- to form the required protein/polypeptide
(Translation is process where the tRNA molecules read the code on the mRNA and
bring amino acids together in a particular sequence to form a required protein)
3.4 Provide the:

(a) DNA sequence that codes for glycine (2)
(CCT – The mRNA codon for glycine is GGA. When working backwards from
this you will get to the DNA triplet which is CCT)
(b) Codon for proline (2)
(CCU – This can be read directly from the mRNA strand as the triplets on mRNA
are called codons. Remember the triplets on tRNA are called anticodons)
3.5 State TWO differences between a DNA nucleotide and an RNA nucleotide. (4)
(DNA has deoxyribose sugar and RNA has ribose sugar. DNA has nitrogenous base
thymine and RNA has nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine)
(17)
(DBE, November 2014, Paper 2)
Q.4 Study the diagram below which shows a part of the process of protein synthesis.
4.1 Identify the stage of protein synthesis that is shown in the diagram above. (1)
4.2 Identify molecules X and Y. (2)
4.3 State the term for the group of three nitrogenous bases indicated by V. (1)
4.4 Give the nitrogenous bases on the DNA strand that codes for the bases UAU on
molecule Y. (1)
4.5 Use the table below to identify amino acid W.
tRNA Amino acid

GUC glutamine
UAA isoleucine
AUA tyrosine
CCC glycine
GGG proline
CAG valine (2)
4.6 Name and describe the process that occurs in the nucleus to produce molecule Y. (5)
(12)
4. What is the collective name for the parts numbered 2, 3 and 4?

5.Tabulate THREE structural differences between DNA and RNA
Nitrogenous base composition (%)

Adenine Cytosine Guanine Thymine
Test tube 1 22.1 27.9 27.9 22.1 1.2 Analysis of
Test tube 2 31.1 31.3 18.7 18.9 DNA samples from
a patient with an
illness showed that therewere two different types of DNA present. One was double-
stranded human DNA and the other was single-stranded virus DNA. The two types
of DNA were isolated and put into separate test tubes. The analyses of the
nitrogenous base composition of each test tube is shown in the table below.
1.2.1 Which test tube (1 or 2) contains virus DNA?

1.2.2 Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.2.1
1.3 A woman was found stabbed to death in a hotel.The police found a few
strands of hair in one of her hands. There was also skin tissue under her
long nails.
Forensic scientists took blood samples from three suspects to compile
DNA fingerprints. DNA fingerprints were also compiled from the
victim's blood and the hair and skin tissue found in the victim's hands.
The following diagram shows the DNA fingerprints of the hair sample, the
skin tissue sample and blood from the victim and the three suspects.
Blood samples
Skin Hai Victi Suspect 2
r m Suspect1

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1.4 The diagram below shows part of a mRNA (messenger RNA) molecule
U A C C G A U A A
1 2 3
1.4.1How many codons are shown in the

diagram of this section of
mRNA?
1.4.2 Write down the complementary base sequence of the DNA strand that formed
codon 1 of the mRNA strand in the above diagram.
1.4.3 Explain the purpose of a specific sequence of codons in a mRNA
molecule.
1.4.4 A tRNA (transfer RNA) molecule carries complementary bases for
a particular codon.
(a) Write down the complementary base sequence of a tRNA for
codon 1 in the mRNA sequence shown in the above diagram.
(b) Briefly describe the role of tRNA molecules in the translation process of
protein synthesis
1.4.5 Describe the effect/impact that gene mutations might have on the formation of
proteins.
Q.1 The diagram below shows the process of protein synthesis.
W
Z
X
Process B
Process A
1.1 Identify the following molecules:
(a) W
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
(1)
(b) Y
(1)
1.2 Name the part of protein synthesis indicated by process A.
(1)
1.3 Describe how a mutation on molecule W will affect the structure of the protein
formed by process B.
(4)
1.4 The following sequence represents a part of the nitrogenous base sequence
on molecule X.
AGA AUG GGA

triplet 1 triplet 2 triplet 3
(a) Write down the base sequence of the anticodon of triplet 1 shown above. (1)
(b) The table below shows the amino acids that correspond with different
DNA codes.
AMINO ACID DNA CODE
Arginine TCT
Glycine CCT
Methionine TAC
Write down the correct sequence of amino acids for triplets 1 to 3.

(3)
Q.2 The table below shows a partial DNA sequence from a human, as well as a
codon table that can be used to determine which amino acids are required to
make a protein.
Base triplet number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Human DNA sequence ATG TGT CCA TTA ACG TGC ACA

CODON TABLE
Valine GUU, GUG, GUA
Cysteine UGU, UGC
Proline CCA, CCU
Leucine UUG, CUC, CUG, UUA
Threonine ACG, ACA
Tyrosine UAC, UAU
2.1 State ONE way in which the DNA molecule is biologically important. (1)
2.2 Name the codon that is formed from base triplet number 2 on the DNA
sequence. (1)
2.3 Write down the names of the amino acids coded for by base triplets 6 and 7.
(2)
2.4 If a mutation changes base triplet 1 from ATG to ATA, why will this not change
the protein formed? (2)
2.5 Describe the process of translation in protein synthesis.
(5)
(11)
Q.3 The diagram below shows the DNA profiles of six members of a family. The
greater the similarity in the position of the bands in the DNA profiles of
different individuals, the more closely they are related.
The parents, Zinhle and Ayanda, have four children. Two of the children are
their biological offspring while the other two children are adopted.

Parents Children
Zinhle Ayanda Lindiwe Gugu Bandile Litzwe
DNA profiles of different individuals

3.1 Which TWO children are the biological offspring of Zinhle and Ayanda?
(2)
3.2 Give an explanation for your answer to QUESTION 3.1 using evidence from
the DNA profiles.
(2)
3.3 Apart from paternity testing, state TWO ways in which DNA profiling is of use
to humans. (2)
(6)
1.5.1 The diagram below shows the sequence of nitrogenous bases of a

strand of DNA which codes for part of a protein molecule.
GTT ATG TGG

Write down the mRNA codon sequence that reads from left to right
from the DNA sequence above.
1.5.2 The following diagram shows the anticodons of nine different tRNA
(transfer RNA) molecules each carrying a particular amino acid.

VALINE
CAA
METHIONINE
UAC
PHENYLALANINE
AAA
Anticodons of nine different tRNA molecules each

carrying
a particular amino acid
1.2 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
A
A – Adenine
G – Guanine
T T – Thymine
C –Cytosine
C
2 1
T T
1.2.1 Name the process represented in the diagram. (1)

1.2.2 Describe the process named occurring in the above diagram (6)
1.2.3 When exactly will this process take place in a cell? (1)
1.2.4 Give labels for 1 and 2. (2)

1.2.5 State THREE ways in which the structure of RNA differs from the DNA structure
shown in the diagram. (6)
1.2.6 Why does this process above represent the process named in Q1.1 and not
transcription? (4)
[20]
1.3 Study each of the following tables indicating the code that
corresponds with each amino acid required for the synthesis of a
protein.
TABLE 1 TABLE 2 TABLE 3
Answer each of the following questions based on the tables above.

1.3.1 If part of a DNA code is CTC, use table 1 to identify the amino acid coded for.
1.3.2 If an mRNA codon is CAU, use table 2 to identify the amino acid coded for.
1.3.3 If a tRNA anticodon is CGA , use table 3 to identify the amino acid coded for.
(3)
1.3 Study the diagram below which shows a part of the process of protein
synthesis.
amino acids
X
W Z ribosome
V
U A U G U C C A G
Protein synthesis at the ribosome
1.3.1 Identify the stage of protein synthesis that is shown in the diagram above.
1.3.2 Identify molecules X and Y (2)
1.3.3 State the term for the group of three nitrogenous bases indicated by V.
1.3.4 Give the nitrogenous bases on the DNA strand that codes for the bases UAU
on molecule Y. (1)
3.5 Name and describe the process that occurs in the nucleus to produce molecule
Y. (5)
(12)
1.6 The diagram below represents a part of the process of protein synthesis.
X
X
U A A C A G
U A A
V
Y U A A
C A U G U C A U U G C
U
Z
Representation of a part of the process of protein

1.6.1 Name the part/stage of protein synthesis that is illustrated in the
synthesis
diagram above.
1.6.2 Name the organelle labelled W.

1.6.3 The table below shows the base triplets of mRNA that correspond
to the different amino acids.
mRNA AMINO ACID

CAU histidine
AUU isoleucine
GUC valine
CUU leucine
GCU alanine
CCU proline
CGA arginine
With reference to the diagram in QUESTION 1.6 and the table
above:
(a) Name the amino acid labelled X.

(b) State the base sequence of the molecule labelled Y.
(c) What collective name is given to the triplet of mRNA bases
that correspond to each amino acid?
(d) How would the composition of the protein molecule change
if the base sequence at Z was CGA instead of GCU? 1.6.4
Use the information in the table to write the DNA base
sequence that would correspond with the amino acid
histidine.
2.2 The table below shows the triplets of bases on a template of DNA for some
amino acids.
AMINO ACIDS DNA TRIPLETS

Glutamic acid (glu) CTT CTC
Histidine (his) GTA GTC
Leucine (leu) GAA GAG GAT GAC
Proline (pro) GGA GGG GGT GGC
Threonine (thr) TGA TGG TGT TGC
Valine (val) CAA CAG CAT CAC
The diagram below shows the base sequence in DNA and mRNA for
the first seven amino acids in a polypeptide of haemoglobin.
DNA
CAC A GAC TGA GGA CTC E
mRNA
GUG CAG CUG B CCU GAG GAG
Polypeptide chain of haemoglobin
val his C thr pro glu D
2.2.1 Use the table to determine:
(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)

(c) C (1)
(d) D
(1)
2.2.2 Explain how a change in a single base of the sixth DNA triplet may
lead to the production of a different protein.
(2)
(6)
2.3 Mrs Gill had baked a birthday cake for her sister Annamarie and kept it in a tin
on the kitchen table. When she returned from shopping, all that was
left in the cake tin was a few crumbs and a smudge of blood where the thief had
snagged his/her finger on the sharp edge of the tin.
Study the DNA profile of her four children given below.
blood Bob Sue John Lisa

stain
2.3.1 Define the scientific term DNA profile. (2)
2.3.2 Which ONE of Mrs Gill‟s children is most probably the

suspect from the description given above? Give a reason
for your answer. (2)
2.3.3 Describe how DNA profiling can be used for paternity

tests. (2)

2.3.4 Do you think that saliva could also be used as sample
material in
this type of investigation? Motivate your answer. (2)
(8)
MEIOSIS
(%) MARKS
MEIOSIS 07%  Crossing over  Terminology  2 marks
 Diagram  6 Marks
 Random interpretation  5 marks
arrangement  Descriptive of
of crossing over
chromosomes  Tabulation of
differences
 Importance of between meiosis 1
Meiosis and
 Differences
 Comparison between meiosis
of mitosis and and mitosis
meiosis
Purpose & Importance of Meiosis
Increase the number of reproductive cells. (More gametes formation)
To reduce the number of chromosomes by half. (Diploid cells become haploid)
Introduces genetic variation to living organisms (Genetically different
organisms)

INTERPHASE
Before cell division the reproductive cell prepares itself in the following
ways.
The chromatin network thickens and shortens to
become chromosomes DNA molecules make
identical copies of themselves during DNA
replication.
THE PROCESS OF MEIOSIS

For sexual reproduction to take place, a haploid male gamete will fuse with a
haploid female gamete during fertilisation. The result is a diploid zygote.
haploid + haploid = diploid
half + half = whole
 Each gamete contains half of the chromosomal number of the body cells.
This means that each gamete must contain one set of the double set of
 chromosomes in the original cell nucleus. 
 The process of meiosis takes place so that each gamete contains one set
 of chromosomes. 
 The zygote will contain two sets of chromosomes – one from the
 male gamete and one from the female gamete. 
 The growth and development of the zygote will then occur by the process
of mitosis. 
In humans, each body cell contains 46 chromosomes (diploid). One set of 23

chromosomes will come from the mother in the egg cell (haploid female gamete).
The second set of 23 chromosomes will come from the father in the sperm cell
(haploid male gamete). When there are two sets of chromosomes, the nucleus is
diploid (2n) and complete. When we refer to one set of chromosomes in the
gamete, it is called haploid (n). Haploid represents 23 chromosomes and diploid
represents 46 chromosomes in humans.
The 23 pairs of chromosomes that result in a zygote are divided as follows:
 22 pairs of autosomes 
 1 pair of sex chromosomes / gonosomes represented by: 
XX in females
XY in males
Meiosis process:
The two steps of the meiosis process:

 Meiosis I (first meiotic division): this is called reduction division where
the chromosome number in the nucleus is halved. The resulting gametes
 are haploid. 
 Meiosis II (second meiotic division):this process is similar to mitosis. The
haploid gametes duplicate so that in males, four sperm cells result. In
females, one gamete forms the egg cell and the three remaining gametes
provide nutrition for the egg cell. 
PHASES OF MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS 1
PROPHASE 1:
• Chromatin network condense to forms

chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes are formed.
• Spindle threads are formed.
• Nuclear membrane disappears.
• Crossing over takes place *
METAPHASE 1:
• Homologous chromosomes randomly

line up along the equator of the cell in
two rows.
• Each chromosomes is attached to the
spindle thread from each pole.
ANAPHASE 1:
• The spindle threads shorten and pull

the homologous chromosomes to the
opposite poles.
• Chromosomes of the homologous pair
separate and they move to opposite
poles.
TELOPHASE 1:
• New nuclear membrane forms around

• chromosomes at the poles of the cell.
• Cytoplasm and cell membrane divide
(cytokinesis) and two haploid cells are
formed.
• Nucleolus reforms
MEIOSIS 2
PROPHASE 2:
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane

disappears.
• New spindle fibres are formed.
• Chromosomes become visible.
METAPHASE 2:
• Chromosomes line in the equator of

the cell in single row.
• Spindle fibres from both poles
attached to each chromosome.
ANAPHASE 2:
• Spindle threads shorten to pull each

chromosome to the opposite poles.
• Chromosomes separate at the
centromere and then chromatids
move to opposite poles.
TELOPHASE 2:
• New nuclear membrane forms around

chromosomes at the poles of the
cells.
• Cytoplasm and cell membrane divide
and four genetically different cells are
formed.
• Nucleolus reforms.
*CROSSING OVER

• Homologous • One chromatid of each chromosome • The chromosomes
chromosomes line overlaps with a chromatid of its separate in such in
close together homologous partner. such that the
genetic material
• The points of crossing-over are called from both
chiasma chromosome is
shared.

Differences between Meiosis I and II
Significance of Meiosis
The process of meiosis takes place to:
 Produce haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction 
 the formation of haploid sperm cells during meiosis is called spermatogenesis 
 the formation of haploid ovum during meiosis is called oogenesis 
 Ensure that the chromosome number remains the same in the offspring as in
the adult (n + n = 2n) 
 Ensure genetic variation when crossing over takes place during Prophase I 
In animals:
-male gametes/spermatozoids are produced in the testes -
male gametes/egg cells are produced in the ovaries
In plants:
- pollen sacs divide by meiosis to produce the pollen grains containing the male
gametes
- the ovule divides by meiosis to produce the embryo sac containing the ovum

Differences between Meiosis and mitosis
Mitosis Meiosis
Where process  In every living organism, in  Specialised cells in the
occurs the somatic (body) cells testes and ovaries of
animals
 Specialised cells in the
anthers and ovules in
plants
Why process  Production of genetically  Reduction division resulting
occurs identical cells, which in haploid gametes for
specialise and differentiate sexual reproduction so that
for growth, repair and the chromosome number
replacement of cells will remain the same in the
 Mitosis will take place as offspring as in the adult (n +
binary fission in unicellular n = 2n) once fertilisation
organisms during asexual takes place
reproduction
Similarities  The transformation of the  The transformation of the
chromatin network to chromatin network to
chromosomes chromosomes
 Karyokinesis takes place  Karyokinesis takes place
 Cytokinesis takes place  Cytokinesis takes place
Differences  One nuclear division  Two nuclear divisions
 No crossing-over  Crossing-over takes place
to ensure a different
combination of genes when
genetic information is
 Daughter chromosome is exchanged
pulled to opposite poles  Daughter chromatids do not
separate, one entire
chromosome of each
homologous pair is pulled
 Two identical cells are to the pole – each
produced with identical chromosome pair separates
chromosomes to the independently
original cell  Four cells are produced,
each containing half the
original number of
chromosomes in the
gametes
Down’s syndromes
Sometimes changes take place in the chromosome number during meiosis. Each
nucleus should contain 23 chromosomes after meiosis but if one nucleus contains
22 while the other has 24, it creates problems due to non-disjunction of the
centromere.. When either of these resulting gametes joins with a normal gamete, the
result could be: 23 + 22 = 45 or 23 + 24 = 47 chromosomes. If this happens,
abnormalities like
Down‟s syndrome result. The Down‟s syndrome baby has 47 chromosomes. The
mother‟s egg cell has 24 chromosomes + the father‟s sperm cell that has 23
chromosomes. The child will have 45 autosomes, with three number 21 chromosomes
instead of the normal pair and one pair of sex chromosomes. Women over the age of
40 have a greater chance of having a child with Down;s Syndrome.
CHARACTERISTIC OF DOWN’S SYNDROMES.

Physical Symptoms
 Eyes shaped like almonds (may be shaped in a way that‟s not typical for their
ethnic group)
 Flatter faces, especially the nose
 Small ears, which may fold over a bit at the top
 Tiny white spots in the colored part of their eyes
 A tongue that sticks out of the mouth
They may have small hands and feet with:
 A crease that runs across the palm of the hand

 Short fingers
 Small pinkies that curve toward the thumbs
 Low muscle tone

 Loose joints, making them very flexible
 Short height, both as children and adults
 Short neck
 Small head
 Mental retardation
Explain, polypoid, monosomy, polysomic
DESCRIPTION TERM
2.1.1 The presence of an extra chromosome or
absence of one chromosome in gametes due
to nondisjunction
2.1.2 A pair of homologous chromosomes involved in
crossing over
2.1.3 Structures that for spindle threads during
meiosis
2.1.4 Structure that splits to form two centrioles in
animals cells during meiosis
2.1.5 Points of overlap of chromatids during crossing
over
2.1.6 The two strands that make up a chromosome
2.1.7 The exchange of genetic material between the
chromatids of homologous chromosomes
2.1.8 Chromosome condition describing the presence
of two sets of chromosomes in each cell
2.1.9 Process by which a single stranded
chromosome becomes double stranded
2.1.10 Genetic disorder caused by the presence of
an extra copy of chromosome 21
2.1.11 Chromosome condition describing the
presence of a single set of chromosomes in each cell
2.1.12 Chromosomes that are identical in shape and
appearance that code for the same set of
characteristics
2.1.13 Phase during which DNA replication takes
place
2.1.14 The number and type of chromosomes
possessed by an individual
2.1.15 The type of cell division that results in halving
of the chromosome number.
2.1.16 Cell division producing daughter cells that are
dissimilar
2.1.17 Cell division producing identical cells
2.1.18 Non separation of chromosomes or
chromatids during meiosis
2.1.19 The presence of an extra set of chromosomes
or the absence of chromosomes in gametes
due to non-disjunction
2.1.20 Structures to which chromosomes are
attached during Metaphase I and Metaphase II
2.2 Study the following diagrams representing different phases of meiosis.

2.2.1 Provide labels for structures A, B and C. (3)
2.2.2 Which phase is represented by…

(a) Diagram 1?
(1)
(b) Diagram 2?
(1)
2.2.3 Write down numbers of the diagram to show the correct sequence in which the
phases occur. (2)
2.2.4 Tabulate THREE differences between the first and second stages of meiosis.
2.2.5 Name and explain TWO processes/mechanisms that ensure that the gametes
produced at the end of
meiosis is genetically different from each other. (4)
(18)
2.3 The diagrams below show chromosome pair 21 in the nucleus of
a cell of the ovary of a woman. The chromosomes are involved
in a process that takes place in a phase of meiosis.
Diagram X Diagram Y Diagram Z
2.3.1 Give labels for

A andB. (2)

2.3.2 Rearrange the letters X, Y and Z to show the correct sequence in which
the events take place in
this phase. (1)
2.3.3 Explain why the chromosomes in Diagram X and Diagram Y are

different in appearance. (3)
(
6) 2.4 The diagram below shows the nuclei of the four cells that resulted
from meiosis of chromosome pair 21 in a woman.
M N O P
c c c c
Diagrams above that show the nuclei of four cells resulted from meiosis
2.4.1 Explain why nucleus N does NOT have a chromosome pair 21.
(2)
2.4.2 Name and explain the disorder that will result if diagram M
represents an egg cell that fuses with a normal
sperm cell. (3)
[05]
2.5 The diagrams below show cells dividing during meiosis. 2.5 Read the following extract an
Brittany is a five-year-old student with severe disabilities affecting all areas of

development. She has very few words and those are not intelligible. She
recognizes large coloured photos of familiar objects and people. Her
speech/language pathologist states she has two to two and ½ year old receptive
language skills. Brittany has Down Syndrome and was born at five months’
gestation. Her physician has explained that complications from her prematurity
have resulted in her functioning at a lower level than most children with Down
Syndrome. Her mother wants the best for Brittany but is overwhelmed with the
demands of taking care of her children, especially Brittany, with very limited
financial resources or emotional support. Brittany’s overall health is good and she
is not on medication. Her vision and hearing are adequate.

3.1 Name THREE other symptoms of Down syndrome other than the ones
mentioned in the text above. (3)
(DBE, March 2015, Paper 1)

Q2 Study the diagram below, which shows a process occurring in a human male.
1st meiotic division
2nd meiotic division
2.1 Name the process by which male gametes in humans are formed through
meiosis. (1)
2.2 Name the organ in males where the process mentioned in QUESTION 2.1
takes place. (1)
2.3 How many chromosomes will be found in each cell at:
(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
2.4 Name TWO processes occurring during the 1st meiotic division that contribute
to the genetic variation of cells A.
(2)
2.5 How many cells at B will carry the Y-chromosome?
(1)
2.6 What are the mature cells at B called? (1)
(8)

Q4 The diagram below shows cells of an organism in one of the phases of meiosis.
4.1 Which phase of meiosis is represented in the diagram?

(1)
4.2 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:
(a) Is responsible for the formation of the spindle fibres (2)
(b) Carries the genetic information (2)
(c) Holds the chromatids together (2)
4.3 State the number of chromosomes that would be present in each of the cells
of this organism:
(a) At the beginning of meiosis
(1)
(b) In a gamete of this organism
(1)
(9)

B. INTERPRETING QUESTIONS BASED ON DIAGRAMS:
Q.7 The diagrams below show two phases of meiosis in an animal cell.
DIAGRAM A DIAGRAM B
7.1 Identify the phase represented by DIAGRAM B.
(1)
7.2 Explain why the homologous chromosomes in DIAGRAM B have a mixture
of genetic material from each chromosome. (2)
7.3 Name the phase that will follow the one represented by DIAGRAM A.
(1)
7.4 Describe the events that take place in the phase mentioned in QUESTION
7.3. (3)
7.5 Name ONE place in a human male where meiosis takes place.
(1)
(8)

1.4 Study the diagram below.
[Adapted from http://www.guam.net]
1.4.1 State is the scientific term used to name the above diagram. (1)
1.4.2 Does the above diagram belong to a male or a female?

(1)
1.4.3 Give ONE reason for your answer in QUESTION 1.4.2. (1)
1.4.4 Give ONE reason why the diagram above represents the
chromosomes of a human.
(1)
1.4.5 Name the phase of meiosis during which the above chromosomes
were possibly photographed.
(1)
(5)
2.4 Study the following representation of phases during cell division.

A B C
D E
2.4.1. Identify the type of cell division represented above. Give ONE
reason for your answer. (2)
2.4.2 Identify phase E. (1)
2.4.3 Use only the LETTERS (A to E) to place the phases

shown above in the correct sequence. (2)
2.4.4 Describe how a chromosome mutation may lead to

Trisomy 21. (4)
2.5 Tabulate TWO differences between natural selection and artificial selection.
(5)
(14)
[40]

REPRODUCTION:
(%) MARKS
REPRODUCTIVE 04%  Diversity of  Explanation of
STRATEGIES  Reproductive terminology
6 marks
strategies  Matching
items
Diversity of reproductive strategies in some animals
External versus internal fertilization:
 External fertilization: egg cell and the sperm cell fuse outside of the female‟s
body. Egg cells are generally inside the egg structures. The female lays her
eggs and the male deposits his sperm cells over the eggs. Examples are frogs
 and many species of fish. 
 Internal fertilization: egg cell fuses with the sperm cell inside the female‟s body. 
In some fish, most reptiles and all bird species, reproduction is internal but
fertilization is cloacal because eggs are produced. In mammals, copulation takes 
place when the male inserts the penis (copulatory organ) into the vaginal cavity
of the female. Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes.
Embryo Development: Once fertilization has taken place, the diploid zygote develops
into an embryo. This development takes place in an egg or in the uterus.
 Viviparous: the embryo develops inside the uterus. A placenta nourishes
the embryo. The female gives birth to live young when the gestation period
 is complete. 
 Oviparous: Eggs with shells are laid outside the female‟s body into a nest and
 continue to develop, hatching when development is complete. 
 Ovoviviparous: The fertilized eggs remain in the oviduct of the female. The
eggs have no shell and embryo feeds off the yolk (no placenta). When
 development is complete, the female gives birth to live young. 
AMNIOTIC EGG:
the amniotic egg has a porous leathery or hard eggshell to prevent the egg
from drying out. There are three membranes: the amnion (protects embryo
during development), chorion (transfers nutrients from the albumen to the
 embryo) and allantois (respiration and for waste disposal from embryo). 
Examples: Insects – eggs are not amniotic; Fish and amphibians: eggs are jelly-
like without a shell for external fertilization; Reptiles – amniotic eggs when
oviparous: Birds: amniotic eggs

Amniotic Egg Diagram
• Precocial and Altricial Development:
o Precocial: young are mature and able to move directly after birth or hatching.
They are able to fend for themselves and feed without parental care.
The young have feathers and are able to fly. Eyes are open. Eg.
Ducks ,peacocks.
o Altricial: young are born helpless, cannot protect, feed themselves or fend
for themselves. Young have downy feathers. Eyes are closed Eg. finches and
swallows.
PARENTAL CARE:
 Parents look after offspring to provide comfort, warmth, to feed and protect
them. Eg: Insects, fish, amphibians and Reptiles – no parental care. 

 Precocial and altricial birds – parental care and mammals – long periods of
protective nurturing where social behaviour and survival techniques are taught. 
EXAM QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1: 10 minutes
1.1. Discuss how the reproductive strategies of birds are essential to their
survival. (5)
1.2. Differentiate between precocial and altricial development. (6)
2.1. Tabulate the differences between oviparous, viviparous and ovoviviparous

organisms. Provide two examples of each type of organism. (15)

2.2. Differentiate between external and internal fertilization. (4)
2.3. Discuss the difference between parental care in birds and parental care
in mammals. (4)
3.1 The diagrams below represent chicks that are three hours old.
3.1.1 Both sets of parents of the chicks in the above diagram lay eggs.
Give the correct term for this type of reproductive strategy. (1)
3.1.2 Which chick (B or C) redevelopment presents precocial
development? (1)
3.1.3 State TWO ways in which the chick identified in QUESTION 4.1.2
will be different from
the chick that has Altricial development. (2)
3.1.4 “Precoecial development requires fertilization to be internal.”

List TWO advantages of internal fertilization for organisms living on land. (2)
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
The male reproductive system is closely related to the urinary system. Together, the
two systems are called the urogenital system.
Diagram of the male reproductive system
FUNCTION OF EACH OF THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES
Structure Function
Two glandular Responsible for the production of the sperm and the male sex
testes hormone called testosterone
Testosterone is responsible for:
 the secondary sexual characteristics when the males
mature like a deeper voice, pubic hair and facial hair.
 rapid physical growth at puberty
 the maturation of reproductive organs and production of
sperm
Scrotal Sac (bag Holds the testis and hangs outside of the abdominal cavity to
of skin) regulate the temperature of the testes at 35 C. The scrotal
sac can contract into the body when it is cold or relax and hang
away from the body if the temperature is high.
Seminiferous Each testis consists of about a thousand coiled seminiferous
tubules tubules lined with germinal epithelium. Contains the Leydig
cells, the spermatogonia and cells of Sertoli

Diploid Undergoes Spermatogenesis - produces haploid
spermatogonia spermatozoa/sperm cells
3
Epididymis (6m Tube stores about 5000 million sperm per cm until the sperm
long coiled tube) mature and are able to swim
Vas deferens Tube that connects each testis from the epididymis to the
urethra, just after the urethra leaves the bladder
Seminal vesicle (a Gland that secretes fructose which is an energy source for the
short glandular sperm during ejaculation
tube)
Prostate gland Secretes mucus mixed with a slightly alkaline fluid during
ejaculation to increase motility of the sperm cells and
neutralizes the possible acidity of the vagina
Cowper’s gland Secretes mucus to stimulate motility of sperm cells
Penis (consists of During sexual stimulation, blood flows into the erectile tissue
masses of erectile causing the penis to become erect for insertion into the vagina
tissue that during sexual intercourse. Semen (sperm and fluid) is
surrounds the ejaculated directly into the vagina (internal fertilization)
urethra)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Unlike the male urogenital system, the female has separate external openings
for excretion and reproduction.
Diagram of the female reproductive system

FUNCTION OF EACH OF THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES
Structure Function
Ovaries (two almond- The germinal epithelium produces the egg cells.
shaped ovaries are Produce the sex hormones oestrogen and
located inside the progesterone. Once female matures sexually, an egg
abdominal cavity) cell is produced each month and released during
ovulation.
Fallopian tubes (a tube Egg cell moves along the fallopian tube to the uterus.
that connects the ovaries Fertilization and the first stages of mitosis take place in
to the uterus) the fallopian tube.
Uterus (a hollow,
muscular, pear-shaped
structure about 7,5 cm Endometrium: inner layer consists of glands and a
long and 5 cm wide, very good blood supply to provide nutrition and
located inside the pelvic protection for developing foetus in pregnancy. Layer
cavity behind the bladder) breaks away during menstruation.
Cervix Opening between the Vagina and uterus. A mucus
plug develops in the cervix during pregnancy.
Vagina (a muscular tube Links from the outside to the uterus. Able to stretch
8 to 10 cm long, with when penis is inserted during copulation and childbirth
elastic tissue and a process because it forms the birth canal.
folded lining, connecting
the external area with the
uterus and has an
external opening called
the vulva.
Jelly like
Layer
Cell
Membrane

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
8.3 Study the diagram below showing the sequence of events of the
development of an ovum in a 28-day cycle.
8.3.1 Identify the following:

(a) Follicle labelled A (1)
(b) Structure labelled C (1)
(c) Process shown at B (1)
(d) Hormone responsible for the formation of part A (1)
(e) Hormone responsible for the formation of part C (1)
8.3.2 What type of cell division resulted in the formation of part D?
(1)
8.3.3 If the events shown above took place in a 28-day cycle, state whether
fertilisation took place during this period.
(1)
8.3.4 Explain your answer to QUESTION 8.3.3.
(3)
QUESTION 1: 5 Minutes
1.1. In mammals, fertilization takes place in the

A Fallopian tubes
B vagina
C uterus
D ovary
1.2. The fusion of the nucleus of the ovum and the nucleus of the sperm cell is known
as
150
A copulation
B cleavage
C fertilization
D ovulation
1.3. Which one of the following processes is responsible for the reproduction of male
gametes?
A Spermatogenesis.
B Oogenesis.
C Ejaculation.
D Ovulation.
1.4. Which of the following pairs indicates a reproductive structure and its function
accurately?
A Fallopian tube – production of sperm
B Vagina – fertilization
C Uterus – development of the embryo

D Testes – production of the ovum
1.5. Which ONE of the following represents the correct order of the parts
through which spermatozoa pass?
A Testis → vas deferens → epididymis → ureter
B Vas deferens → seminal vesicles → ureter → urethra
C Testis → epididymis → vas deferens → urethra
D Vas deferens → prostate gland → urethra → ureter
SECTION A: TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS
Study the diagram of the male reproductive system below.
1.1. Write down the LETTER (A to G) and the NAME of the following:
151
a) The part where meiosis takes place (2)
b) The part that transports semen and urine to the outside of the body (2)
c) The part where immature sperm cells are stored (2)
1.2. Name the male hormone that is responsible for the development of
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. (1)
1.3. Write down the LETTER (A to G) of the following:

a) The part where the hormone mentioned in QUESTION 1.2 is
Produced (1)
b) The part which is cut surgically during male sterilization (1)
The diagram below represents the female reproductive system.
2.1. Label structures A, B and C. (3)
2.2. State THREE functions of D. (3)
2.3. Fertilization usually takes place at Y. Why will a blockage at X:

a) Prevent fertilization at Y (1)
b) Not necessarily lead to infertility (2)
(5 x 2) = (10)
QUESTION 3: 10 Minutes
The diagram below shows the structure of the female reproductive system.
152
Give the LETTER and NAME of:
3.1. The part that breaks down when the levels of progesterone and oestrogen
drop (2)
3.2. The part that plays a role during copulation (2)
3.3. The part where the zygote will be formed (2)
3.4. The part where the Graafian follicles develop (2)
HUMAN REPRODUCTION PART TWO

Terminology & definitions:
Gametogenesis is the process to produce haploid gametes by meiosis. When sperm are
produced, the process is called spermatogenesis and when female gametes are
produced, it is called oogenesis. Both processes occur in the germinal epithelium of the
gonads.
Spermatogenesis: is the process to produce sperm. It takes place at a rate of

approximately 120 million sperm per day. The process starts at the onset of puberty due to
hormone testosterone. The first division takes place in the germinal epithelium and
produces spermatogonia that undergo the first meiotic division to form haploid secondary
spermatocytes. After the second meiotic division, the spermatids are produced.
Sperm are very small cells of about 2,5 µm in diameter and 50 µm long. Each sperm cell
consists of a head with a nucleus, a short neck and a long tail. The tail assists with
swimming and orientating the sperm when they cluster around an egg.
Oogenesis: diploid cells in the ovary undergo meiosis to form a primary follicle consisting of
haploid cells. One cell develops into an ovum, which is contained in the Graafian follicle and
released each month once the female undergoes puberty.
The developing follicle moves to the surface of the ovary as it increases in size. This process
is called ovulation. The ovum enters the fallopian tube via the infundibulum, When the
ovum has been released, the graafian follicle changes into the corpus luteum. If the egg
cell is fertilised in the fallopian tube, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone. If the egg
cell is not fertilised, then the corpus luteum degenerates.
HORMONAL CONTROL OF OOGENESIS:

 Hormones are released to control the menstruation cycle, which lasts about 28 days
in females. Usually only one egg is released per cycle. The menstruation cycle affects
 both the ovaries and the uterus at the same time. 
 FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland and transported via the bloodstream to the
 ovaries where it stimulates the development of the follicle. 
The developing follicle produces oestrogen, which has two target organs namely the
153
uterus and the anterior pituitary gland. Oestrogen will increase the thickness of the
endometrium in the uterus. In the uterus, the development of the endometrium. This is
to prepare the uterus for pregnancy because the embryo will implant into the
endometrium.
 Oestrogen inhibits the secretion of FSH by the anterior pituitary gland so that no further
follicles are produced. This is why only one ovum is produced at a time. High oestrogen
 levels will trigger the secretion of luteinising hormone (LH). 
 LH is released into the blood and is transported to the target organ, the Graafian follicle
in the ovary and causes ovulation. Ovulation is the release of the secondary oocyte
from the Graafian follicle. Each month one egg is released from one ovary at a time. LH
 stimulates the „empty‟ Graafian follicle to develop into the corpus luteum. 
 The corpus luteum continues to secrete oestrogen and progesterone. Progesterone
has two target organs, namely the uterus and the anterior pituitary gland. In the uterus,
thickening of the endometrium is maintained and glandular activity is stimulated.
Progesterone inhibits the release of LH and oestrogen. The release of progesterone
 causes the slight rise in temperature just after a female has ovulated. 
 Should fertilisation not take place, the corpus luteum degenerates, causing the levels
of oestrogen and progesterone to decrease. The endometrium starts to break down and
tear away from the walls of the uterus, causing the bleeding associated with
menstruation. This phase lasts for about five days. 
COPULATION
Terrestrial organisms generally reproduce by internal fertilisation. The process of
inserting the sperm cells into the vagina of the female is called copulation.
FERTILIZATION
 After ovulation, a haploid sperm cell  After fertilization, zygote start to divide by mitosis
produces the enzymes from the acrosome form morula in the fallopian tube.
which digests the cell membrane of the ovum  Mitosis continues to form a ball of cells called
and then sperm cell then penetrates the blastocyst which gradually moves towards the
haploid ovum. uterine cavity.
 The nuclei of the ovum and sperm fuse to form  The blastocyst now contains undifferentiated cells
a diploid zygote. called stem cells in its hollowed part.
 The ball of cells attaches itself onto the
endometrium, that stage is called implantation.
 The placenta develops which attaches the
developing foetus to the uterine wall
154
(%) MARKS
Process of zygote development
Secondary sexual characteristics
155
MENSTRUAL  Define menstrual  Define  2 marks
CYCLE cycle menstrual
 Describe events cycle  5 marks
in ovarian cycle  Describe
 List hormones events in  17 marks
 State function of ovarian cycle
hormones  State function
and influence
 6-8 marks
of hormones
 Interpret
graphs on
menstrual
/ovarian cycle
How the hormones in females control menstruation cycle? (Menstruation)
 During menstrual
cycle,
the pituitary gland
secretes FSH.
 On day 1, FSH
stimulates the
germinal epithelium
in the ovary to
produce primary
follicle.
 On day 1 to 5, the
follicle grows and
matures, it secretes
the hormone
oestrogen.
 On day 6 to 13,
oestrogen stimulates
the endometrium to
thicken in preparation
for the implantation
of a fertilised ovum
 The follicle grows
and matures to form
the structure called a
Graafian follicle.
 As the amount of
oestrogen
decreases, it
stimulates the
pituitary gland to
secrete the hormone
LH
156
 On day 14, the LH causes
the
matured follicle to release
ovu by the process ofovulation
the
m stimulates the
and of the
formation
corpus , which is the
luteum follicle (or the
ruptured
empty
Graafian
follicle)
 After day 14, the corpus
luteum
secretes the hormone
progesteron which further
e
increases the thickness of
endometrium;prepares
the
endometrium for the
implantation
o the fertilized egg and
f maintains
pregnancy.
 Progesterone alsoinhibit the
production of LH &sFSH by
the
pituitary gland to prevent
further
formation of new
 If
follicles.
fertilization does not
occur,
corpus luteum
degenerates
(decreases in)
 As
sizethe
corpus luteum becomes
smaller and smaller, the
secretion
of progesterone
decreases.
 When there is very little
progesterone, the endometriu ,
m
which is richly supplied with
blood,
tears and is accompanied
off
bleeding by
(menstruation
 That
begins) s the pituitary to
stimulate
secrete FSH once again and
a
new cycle
begins
157
DESCRIPTION TERM
4.1.1 Structure in the sperm cell that contains enzymes
used to penetrate the ovum
4.1.2 The liquid that surrounds the human embryo
4.1.3 A hollow ball of cells into which the fertilised ovum
develops
4.1.4 Specialised cells found between the seminiferous tubules that produce the hormone testosterone
4.1.5 The membrane that forms finger-like projections
which grow into the uterine wall
4.1.6 The lining of the uterus which is richly supplied with
blood vessels
4.1.7 Coiled tubular structure outside the testis that
stores sperms.
4.1.8 The part of the female reproductive system in which
fertilisation takes place
4.1.9 The name given to the embryo after it reaches 12
weeks
4.1.10 The hormone produced by the pituitary which
controls growth of the Graafian follicle
4.1.11 The formation of gametes by meiosis.
4.1.12 Layer within the ovary that is responsible for
formation of ova through meiosis
4.1.13 Another name for the period of pregnancy
4.1.14 The process by which the embryo becomes
attached to the uterine wall
4.1.15 The hormone which converts the ruptured follicle
into a corpus luteum
4.1.16 Type of cell division by which sperms are
produced
4.1.17 The 28-day reproductive cycle in females involving
changes in the ovary and uterus
4.1.18 Tearing away of the endometrium lining of the
uterine wall, accompanied by the loss of blood
4.1.19 The cell division by which the zygote becomes
multicellular
4.1.20 Production of ova by meiosis
4.1.21 The hormone which starts the preparation of the
lining of the uterus for attachment of the fertilised
ovum
4.1.22 Process by which an ovum is released from the
ovary in humans
158
4.1.23 Gland in the brain that produces FSH and LH
4.1.24 Combination of foetal and maternal tissue
responsible for gas exchange, nutrition and excretion
4.1.25 Hormone that maintains pregnancy
4.1.26 The stage when sexual maturity is reached in
males and females
4.1.27 Specialised cells inside the seminiferous tubules
which play a role in nutrition
4.1.28 Production of spermatozoa by meiosis
4.1.29 Hormone responsible for secondary sexual
characteristics in males
4.1.30 A hollow, rope-like tube which attaches the
embryo to the placenta
4.1.31 The blood vessel that carries nitrogenous waste
from the foetus to the placenta
4.1.32 The blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood
from the placenta to the foetus
4.2 Study the diagrams of the human reproductive organs and answer the questions
bladder F head
G
middle
piece
A
B
C
tail
D
Human male reproductive system Human sperm cell
159
that follow.
4.2.1 Provide labels for A, B, E and G. (4)

4.2.2 State ONE function each of C and F, respectively. (2)
4.2.3 State the LETTER and NAME of the part where sperm are produced.
(2) 4.2.4 Explain why it is necessary for part D to 'hang outside'
the body of the male. (2)
4.2.5 Name the following:
(a) The cells that secrete a male sex hormone (1)
(b) The hormone that stimulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics in
males (1)
4.2.6 During a vasectomy, part B is surgically cut.

(a) Explain how this procedure will act as a method of contraception.
(2)
(b) Will it be possible for a man who is HIV positive to pass the HI virus to another
person after he
undergoes a vasectomy? (1)
4.2.7 Explain your answer to QUESTION 4.2.6 (b). (
(17)
4.3 Study the diagram which shows the level of hormone production and changes
in the uterus of healthy female.
160
4.3.1 Describe the relationship between the oestrogen level and endometrium. (2)
4.3.2 Was the egg in this female fertilized?
(1)
4.3.3 Give TWO evidence from the diagram to support your answer above.
(2)
4.3.4 Name and describe the interaction between the production of FSH and
progesterone after ovulation. (2)
4.3.5 Describe the trend of LH production throughout the menstruation cycle.
(3)
4.3.6 Why the size of the follicles increases as FSH production increase?
(2)
4.3.7 Which process occurs in the follicles between days 5 to 12 of the
menstruation cycle? (1)
4.3.8 Why is it important for the female average body temperature to rise
immediately after ovulation? (2)
[15]
161
4.4 The diagram below represents a part of the human female reproductive
system after copulation. Study the diagram and answer the questions that
follow.
F E
D
H G B
F E
Structure of part of the human female reproductive system to

show certain processes taking place
4.4.1 Write down the Give labels for parts A, E and G respectively.
(3)
4.4.2 Name the process that takes place at B.

(1)
4.4.3 When, during the menstrual cycle, does the process mentioned in
QUESTION 1.4.2 take place? (1)
4.4.4 Describe the process represented by D.

(3)
4.4.5 Write down the number of chromosomes that would be present in the
nucleus of the following:
(a) Cell; (b) One cell of F and (c) Cell H

(3)
[11]
4.5 Arrange the following stages of childbirth in the correct order

in which they occur. Write down only the LETTERS of the stages
in the correct order.
A. The cervix dilates

B. Gentle contractions of the uterus begin
C. 'Breaking of the waters'
D. The umbilical cord is clamped and cut
162
E. The baby moves its position and faces backwards with its head near the
cervix
F. The baby's head emerges from the vagina
[06]
Q2 The diagram below represents a sperm cell.

A B C D
2.1 Identify part:

(a) B (1)
(b) D (1)
2.2 Explain ONE way in which the sperm cell is adapted to ensure effective
movement towards the Fallopian tubes. (2)
2.3 Explain the consequences for reproduction if a sperm cell did not have part A. (3)
(7)
Q3 The schematic diagram below shows a human ovum that is about to be fertilised. The
diagram is not drawn to scale.
B
F
163
3.1 Identify part:
(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
(c) C (1)
(d) F (1)
3.2 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:
(a) Contains the mitochondria (2)
(b) Contains enzymes required to penetrate the ovum (2)
(c) Will enter the ovum during fertilisation (2)
(10)
8.2.1 Name the hormone produced by the cells of Leydig.

(1)
8.2.2 Name TWO functions of the hormone named in QUESTION 8.2.1
(2)
8.2.3 Identify part labelled A. (1)
8.2.4 Make a neat, labeled diagram of part A.
(4)
8.3 Study the diagram below showing the sequence of events of the
development of an ovum in a 28-day cycle.
C 164
8.3.1 Identify the following:
(a) Follicle labelled A (1)
(b) Structure labelled C (1)
(c) Process shown at B (1)
(d) Hormone responsible for the formation of part A (1)
(e) Hormone responsible for the formation of part C (1)
8.3.2 What type of cell division resulted in the formation of part D?
(1)
8.3.3 If the events shown above took place in a 28-day cycle, state whether
fertilisation took place during this period.
(1)
(3)
8.3.5 Explain HOW and WHY the production of FSH is inhibited when fertilisation
takes place. (4)
The human foetus
8.4.1 Provide labels for A and B (2)

8.4.2 Explain ONE way in which the part labelled B is structurally adapted for its
function. (2)
8.4.3 Name TWO functions of the fluid found at C. (2)
165
GENETICS
(%) MARKS
GENETICS 30%  Terminology  Explain  2 marks
 Monohybrid terminology  6 marks
Crosses  Solve monohybrid
 Types of crosses  3 marks
Dominance  Explain 3 types of
 Mutation dominance  2 marks
 Sex  Definition of
Determination and mutation  2 marks
sex- linked genetic
disorders  List causes and  6 marks
effects of mutation
 Pedigree  Use genetic
diagrams crosses to show
determination  4 marks
of sex linked
disorders
 Use pedigree
diagrams
166
erm xplanation iagram/Additional notes
Gene por on o DN
cod n or p r cu r
Nuc eu
Gene
ch r c er c
Cell Chromosome NA
Alleles D eren or o ominant allele ( ) – tall plant

ene h ch occur he Recessive allele (t) – short plant
e ocu (po on) on
ho o o ou chro o o e
ee
Genotype Gene c co po on ( e
up) o n or n • Ho oz ou do n n (bo h
e e re do n n )
Phenotype The ph c ppe r nce o
• Geno pe TT
n or n de er ned b
he eno pe e hor • heno pe –
ominant n ee h e pre ed
allele ( ho n) n he pheno pe
hen ound n he
he eroz ou (T ) nd
ho oz ou (TT) cond on t t • Ho oz ou rece ve (bo h
e e re rece ve)
Recessive n ee h ed (no
allele ho n) n he pheno pe • Geno pe
hen ound n he • heno pe – hor
he eroz ou (T ) cond on
on e pre ed n he
ho oz ou ( ) cond on
Heterozygous T o d eren e e or
p r cu r ch r c er c t • He eroz ou (one do n n
e T nd one rece ve e e)
Homozygous T o den c e e or • Geno pe T
p r cu r ch r c er c • heno pe –
e TT or
167
168
1. MENDEL’S FIRST LAW: THE LAW OF DOMINANCE AND SEGREGATION
(Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was an Austrian Augustinian monk)
The Law of Dominance “In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one
form of the trait will appear in the next generation. Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will
have only the dominant trait in the phenotype.”
The Law of Segregation states that every individual organism contains two alleles for
each trait, and that these alleles segregate (separate) during meiosis such that each
gamete contains only one of the alleles
2. MENDEL’S SECOND LAW: INDIPENDENT ASSORTMENT.

During gamete formation the segregation of the alleles of one pair is independent of the
segregation of the alleles of another pair. (dihybrid).
5.2.1 Complete dominance

This refers to a genetic cross where the dominant allele masks (blocks) the expression of a
recessive allele in the heterozygous condition.
The following problem represents a genetic cross which shows complete dominance:
e.g. Genetic problem 1

In humans the ability to roll the tongue is due to a dominant allele. A man who is heterozygous for tongue-rolling
and a woman who cannot roll her tongue have children. Use the symbols T and t for the alleles of the tongue-
rolling characteristic and represent a genetic cross to determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the
children. (6)
Th re er o ene c cro be een o pheno p c d eren p ren produc n n

o pr n d eren ro bo h p ren bu h n intermediate phenotype The o o n
169
prob e repre en ene c cro h ho incomplete dominance
Question
Co-dominance
This refers to a genetic cross in which both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype.
The following problem represents a genetic cross which shows co- dominance.
A plant with white flowers was cross-pollinated with a plant with red flowers. All the plants that grew from the cross
had flowers with equal distribution of red and white colour. Represent a genetic cross to show the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation of plants.
170
Inheritance of sex
Sex Determination In humans, the somatic cells are diploid and contain 23 pairs of chromosomes in
each nucleus of which:
 22 pairs of autosomes
 1 pair of sex chromosomes: females - XX sex chromosomes and males - XY sex
chromosomes Gametes are formed by gametogenesis in the ovaries and testes. The egg cell
(female gamete) can only ever contain one X chromosome, but half the sperm cells will have
X and half will have Y chromosomes. When fertilisation occurs, there is a 50 % chance that
the zygote is male and a 50 % chance that the zygote is female:
e.g Genetic problem 4
A couple has three sons and the woman is pregnant again. Show diagrammatically
by means of a genetic cross what the percentage chance is of the couple having a baby girl.
Solution to genetic problem 4

P1 Phenotype Male × Female3......................Step 1
Genotype XY × XX3..........................Step 2
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes X and × X3...........................Step 3
Y
Fertilisation .............................Step 4
F1 Genotype XX, XY3..........................Step 4
Phenotyp Female Male3........................Step 5
e ,
5.2.5
Sex-linked characteristics re ch r c er c (r ) h re c rr ed on he e
chro o o e
The o o n prob e repre en ene c cro h ch ho he nher nce o
e n ed ch r c er c
- -
171
/
Solution to genetic problem 5
P1 Phenotype normal father x heterozygous/carrier .........
Step 1 normal mother3
Genotype X HY x X HX h 3 ........... Step 2
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes XH and Y x XH and ........... Step 3
Xh3
........... Step 4
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype XH XH, XH XH Y, Xh Y3 ...... Step 4
Xh,
Phenotyp 1 1 son with
e 2 normal normal haemophilia3Step
daughter son 5
s
Activity 2
Question 1
Try solving this problem on your own before you look at the solution.
Fur colour in mice is controlled by a gene with two alleles. A homozygous mouse with black fur was cro
homozygous mouse with brown fur. All offspring had black fur. Using the symbols B and b to repres
alleles for fur colour, show diagrammatically a genetic cross between a mouse that is heterozygous f
and a mouse with brown fur.
Show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. (6)
64
PATERNITY TESTING:
An analysis, usually of the DNA or blood type of a mother, child, and putative
father, to estimate the probability that the man is the biological father of the child.
Blood grouping
2.1. Genotypes of the mother and the suspected man's blood
groups are compared with those of the child
2.2. If the genotypes for the blood groups of the man and the mother
could not lead to the blood group of the child the man is not the father of
the child
2.3. If the genotypes for the blood groups of the man and the mother
could lead to the blood group of the child it cannot be said with certainty
that the man is the father of the child because other males have the same
blood group.
PHENOTYPE (blood group) GENOTYPE (alleles)
DIHYBRID CROSSES
3.4. A dihybrid cross involves the inheritance of two characteristics.
3.5. According to the Law of Independent Assortment, alleles of a
gene for one characteristic segregate independently of the alleles of a
gene for another characteristic. The alleles for the two genes will
therefore come together randomly during gamete formation.
3.6. This means that the two characteristics are transmitted to
the offspring independently of one another.
3.7. The above law only applies if the genes for the two characteristics
are not on the same chromosome.
Steps you should follow in working out a dihybrid cross:
Example: In hamsters, the allele for black coat colour (B) is dominant over the
allele for white coat colour (b). The allele for rough coat (R) is dominant over
the allele for smooth coat (r). If you cross a hamster that is heterozygous black
and homozygous rough, with one that is heterozygous black and
65
heterozygous rough, what will be the phenotypes and genotypes of the
offspring?
STEP What to do generally What to do in this problem
Step Identify the phenotypes of the According to the statement of the problem,
1 two hamsters for each of the both parents are black and have rough
two characteristics. coats.
Step Choose letters to represent the Use the letters, e.g. B for black, b for white,
2 alleles for the gene responsible R for rough, and r for smooth as provided in
for each characteristic. the question.
Step Write the genotypes of each According to the statement of the problem,
3 parent. both parents are heterozygous black, while
the one is homozygous rough and the other
one heterozygous rough for coat texture.
Their genotype will therefore be BbRR and
BbRr
Step  Determine the possible  The genotype of the parents are: BbRR
4 gametes that each parent and BbRr
can produce.
 Remember that each  If we represent the alleles for each gene
parent will have two alleles in the following format, then we can see
for each gene. how these alleles could come together
 The gametes of each randomly (principle of independent
parent will have only one assortment) to form the different types of
allele for each gene gametes:
because of segregation
66
during meiosis. BbRR: BbRr
 Remember that because of Alleles B b Alleles B b
the principle of independent R BR bR R BR bR
assortment an allele for one R BR bR r Br br
gene could appear in the
same gamete with any of
the alleles for the other
gene.
Step Enter the possible gametes at Please refer to the solution that follows.
5 the top and side of a Punnett
square.
Step  Because of random Please refer to the solution that follows.
6 fertilisation, gametes from
both parents could fuse in
different combinations to
form the offspring.
 In the punnet square, write
down the genotypes of the
offspring that will result
from each possible
combination of gametes
Step Determine the phenotypes of Please refer to the solution that follows.
7 the offspring from the
genotypes obtained in the
punnet square.
Solution to the problem:
Black,Rough x Black,
P1 Phenotype Rough…………………………Step 1
BbR BbRr ……………………………….Step
Genotype R x 2,3
Meiosis and Fertilisation
Gametes BR BR bR bR
BR BBRR BBRR BbRR BbRR
Br BBRr BBRr BbRr BbRr Steps 4-6
bR BbRR BbRR bbRR bbRR
br BbRr BbRr bbRr bbRr
F1 Genotype 6 different genotypes, as in the table above

Phenotype 12 Black, rough; 4 White, rough………………. ……Step 7
67
QUESTION 2. Dihybrid
Gametes
1.5 The coat colour in guinea pigs is controlled by two alleles. The allele
for black hair (B) is dominant over white (b) and rough hair (R)
is dominant over smooth (r).
The Punnet square below shows a part of the cross between two
heterozygous guinea pigs. Genotypes marked with X has been left
out.
Gametes BR Br bR br
BR BBRR BBRr BbRR BbRr
Br BBRr X BbRr Bbrr
bR BbRR BbRr bbRR bbRr
br BbRr Bbrr bbRr bbrr
Give the:
1.5.1 Genotype of the parents (2)
68
1.5.2 Phenotypes of:
(a) bbRr (1)
(b) bbrr (1)

1.5.3 Genotype of the offspring marked as X (2)
(6)
1.6 The pedigree diagram below shows how the sex linked disorder haemophilia
is inherited in a family. Study the diagram below. Use the symbols H for
normal and h for the recessive allele.
KEY:
Normal male
Haemophiliac male
Normal female
1.6.1 Give the possible genotypes of individuals:

(a) 1 (1)
(b) 2 (1)
1.6.2 Give the phenotypes of individuals:
(a) 2 (1)
(b) 4
(1)
1.6.3 The person labelled 11 marries a carrier female. Give

the percentage chance of their sons being haemophiliacs.
(2)
1.6.4 Name ONE example of a sex-linked disorder other than

haemophilia. (1)
69
GENETIC VARIATIONS AND MUTATIONS
A gene mutation is a change in the genetic material of the cell. This will occur when:
• a codon is substituted
• one or more nitrogenous bases are deleted from
the codon additional nitrogenous bases are
included into the DNA.
When an allele gene is mutated into a new allele, it may be recessive. This mutated
trait will, therefore, only be expressed in the phenotype when it is homozygous.
Gene mutations allow for individuals within a species to be different. When these
differences assist the organism to adapt to their environment, then it is a favourable
mutation. This favourable mutation will be passed on to the next generation and
ensures natural selection and survival of the species by increasing the gene pool.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
In Genetic Engineering, the genes on a DNA are altered so that a different organism
results. When genes are transferred from the donor to the recipient, the DNA in the
recipient cell is called recombinant DNA – meaning the DNA has been recombined.
The recipient cell is then called a transgenic organism. Bacteria are often used
because the plasmids can be restricted easily and the bacteria become the
transgenic organism. Bacterial plasmids are used as vectors as well because the
plasmids are used to transfer the donor DNA into a recipient organism, which
becomes the new transgenic organism.
An example is Insulin. Humans produce the hormone insulin naturally in the
pancreas. Insulin controls the blood sugar. Then the pancreas stops producing
insulin, people develop a disease called diabetes, so insulin must be produced
outside the body and injected intramuscularly. Biotechnology is used to produce the
insulin by using the bacterium Escherischia coli (E. coli) using recombinant DNA.
The process causes E. coli to produce the same insulin as in humans for use in
people suffering from diabetes. Vaccines for syphilis, TB and hepatitis are produced
in a similar manner.
70
IMPORTANCES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING:
• crop plants are resistant to disease, frost and drought, produce more grains
and grow faster
• sheep are modified to produce more meat and yield more and better quality
wool
• cattle are modified to produce more meat and milk
• chickens are modified to produce more eggs at a faster rate
Genetic engineering is used in the medical and forensic professions like:

• Bacterial cultures are used to manufacture insulin for diabetics and other
hormones used in replacement therapy.
• DNA fingerprinting.
• Manufacture of vaccines for syphilis, TB, hepatitis and many more diseases
Genetic engineering may be used in a negative manner when scientists create
organisms that will harm people, animals and crops biologically. This is called
biochemical warfare, e.g.: anthrax and the Ebola virus were created in a laboratory
to be used on the “enemy” instead of weapons.
71
5.1 Complete the following information
regarding cells in the human being. A:
Somatic cells
B: Sex cells
Chromosome Chromosome Cell division by

Cell type Synonym
condition number which it was formed
Somatic cells
Sex cells
(8)
5.1.1 How many pairs of chromosomes are present in a human somatic
cell? (1)
5.1.2 What name is given to these pairs of chromosomes?

(1)
5.1.3 How did this cell come to have this number of chromosomes?
(1)
5.1.4 Now consider a pair of homologous chromosomes.

a. Name the segment of a chromosome that is responsible for a particular
characteristic. (1)
b. How many such units are there for each characteristic in each somatic
cell? (1)
c. Name the above units that are found on corresponding positions on
homologous chromosomes. (1)
5.1.5 What term denotes the outward appearance of an individual?
5.1.6 What term denotes the genetic constitution of an individual?
5.1.7 What term denotes a gene that always expresses itself in the phenotype of an
individual? (1)
5.1.8 What term denotes a gene that does not expresses itself in the phenotype of
an individual, because its
influence is masked off by the dominant gene?
5.1.9 What do we call an individual that has two genes that influence a characteristic
in the same way?
Would the genes both be dominant or recessive?
5.1.10 What do we call an individual that has two genes that influence a
characteristic in different ways?
Would the genes both be dominant or recessive? Explain.
72
5.1.11 Consider the following two genes “Rr‟‟ which represents the shape of seeds
(R=round and r= wrinkled).
(a) Is Rr the individuals genotype or phenotype? Explain (3)

(b) Is the individual homozygous or heterozygous? Explain (3)
(c) Which gene is dominant and what shape does this represent? (1)
(d) Which gene is recessive and what shape does this represent? (1)
(e) Although there are two genes in the genotype, what would the phenotype be? Explain. (3)
(f) When the individual forms gametes by meiosis, what would the genotype of the (1)
gametes be?
(34)
5.2
5.2.1 For each genotype, indicate whether it is heterozygous (HE) or
homozygous (HO)
AA ____ Ee ____ Ii ____ Mm ____
Bb ____ ff ____ Jj ____ nn ____
Cc ____ GG ____ kk ____ OO ____ Dd ____ HH ____ Ll ____ Pp
5.2.3 For each of the genotypes below, determine the phenotype.

Purple flowers are dominant to white flowers Brown eyes are dominant to
blue eyes
PP ___________________________ BB
___________________________ Pp ___________________________
Bb ___________________________ pp
___________________________ bb
___________________________
Round seeds are dominant to wrinkled Bobtails are recessive (long tails dominant)
RR ___________________________ TT
___________________________ Rr ___________________________
Tt ___________________________ rr
___________________________ tt
___________________________
5.2.4 For each phenotype, list the genotypes. (Remember to use the letter of
the dominant trait)
Pointed heads are dominant to round heads.
Straight hair is dominant to curly.
____________ pointed
____________ straight
____________ pointed
73
____________ straight
____________ round
____________ curly
Q1 In dogs rough hair (H) is dominant to smooth hair (h). A heterozygous rough-
haired dog is mated with a smooth-haired dog. Represent a genetic cross to
show the phenotypic ratio of the puppies.
Remember the following when solving the above genetic problem:
 Please note that the problem above is an example of a COMPLETE DOMINANCE
genetic cross.
 The allele for rough hair is dominant (H)
 The allele for smooth hair is recessive (h)
 The heterozygous rough- haired dog has to be Hh
 The smooth-haired dog can only be smooth-haired if it is homozygous recessive i.e.
hh
 The general rule is that any recessive characteristic can only show up in the
phenotype if it is homozygous recessive.
 You can now solve the problem as shown below.
74
Q.2 You have two rose plants, both with pink flowers. You cross them and find
that, while most of the offspring are pink, some are red and some are white.
Use a genetic cross to show how breeding two pink flowering plants can result
in pink, red and white flowering plants. Use the letter R for the red allele and
W for the white allele.
(6)

Q.3 Fur colour in mice is controlled by a gene with two alleles. Black fur
colour (B) is dominant over brown fur colour (b).
75
Use a genetic cross to show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the
offspring.if a mouse that is heterozygous for fur colour is crossed with a mouse
with brown fur. (6)

Q.4 Human blood groups are controlled by multiple alleles.
4.1 Name ALL the alleles that control human blood groups.
(3)
4.2 How many of the alleles named in QUESTION 4.1 can any individual inherit?
(1)
4.3 Give a reason for your answer to QUESTION 4.2.
(2)
4.4 A man has blood group A and his wife has blood group B. Their first child has
blood group AB and the second child has blood group O. What can one
conclude about the blood groups of their future children?
(3)
(9)
Q.4 In rabbits, black fur is produced by the allele (B) and white fur by the
allele (b).
The table below shows the genotypes of some rabbits.

RABBIT GENOTYPE
1 BB
2 Bb
3 bb
4.1 What is the phenotype:

(a) Produced by the recessive allele
(1)
(b) Of rabbit 2
(1)
4.2 Give the NUMBER only (1, 2 or 3) of the rabbit(s) that is/are:
(a) Homozygous
(b) Homozygous dominant
76
4.3 Use a genetic cross to show the percentage chance of rabbits 1 and 3 having
offspring with white fur. (6)
(11)
Q.5 A grey (G) male rabbit was mated with a white (g) female rabbit. The entire F1
generation was grey. Use a genetic cross to show the phenotypic ratio of their
offspring if one of the males of the F1 generation was mated with a white
female.
(7)
Q.6
6.1 The pedigree diagram below shows the inheritance of colour-blindness in a
family. Colour-blindness is sex-linked and is caused by a recessive allele (d).
The ability to see colour normally is caused by a dominant allele (D).
1 2
3 4
5
Key:
Normal female
Normal male
Colour-blind male Colour-blind female
Inheritance of colour-blindness
6.1 How many of the male offspring of parents 1 and 2 were normal?
(1)
6.2 State the genotype of:
(a) Individual 2 (2)
(b) Individual 5 (2)
(5)
Q.7 Albinism is an inherited condition caused by a recessive gene mutation.

This mutation results in the absence of the protein melanin in the skin.
77
The pedigree diagram below shows the inheritance of albinism in a family.
The genotype of James is shown in the diagram.
7.1 How many grandsons do James and Tebogo have? (1)

7.2 What is:
(a) Grace's phenotype (1)
(b) John's genotype (2)
7.3 John and Joanna wish to have another child. What is the percentage chance
that the child will:
(a) Be a girl (1)
(b) Have albinism (
(6)
5.3 Pure breeding red flowering plants were crossed with white flowering
plants. The F1 produced red flowers.
5.3.1 Name each of the following characteristics: -
(i) Dominant
(1)
78
(ii) Recessive
(1)
5.3.2 What is the genotype of the following parents in the F1 generation using the
letter „r‟:-
(i) red?
(1)
(ii) white?
(1)
5.3.3 Name the type of dominance shown in this problem? Give a reason for your
answer. (2)
5.3.4 Show diagrammatically the cross in the F1 generation
5.3.5 Show diagrammatically the crosses obtained from each of the following
crosses:-
(a) Two heterozygous parents

(6)
(b) one heterozygous parent and the other a recessive one

(6)
5.3.6 A true-breeding normal-winged insect was crossed with a hybrid normal-

winged insect. (6)
5.3.7 In plants the gene for shortness (G) is dominant over the gene for tallness (g).
A homozygous tall plant is crossed with a homozygous dwarf plant.
The F1 generation were self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation.
Show the results of theF1 and F2 generations diagrammatically.
(6)
5.3.8 In fowls the characteristic for a branched comb is dominant

over a single comb. A farmer suspects that his chickens with
branched combs carries the characteristic for single-combs. Write a
short paragraph and use diagrams to explain how he could find out
which of his fowls are
heterozygous. (5)
5.3.9 In humans, the allele for blue (b) eyes is recessive to the allele for brown (B)
eyes.
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A man, heterozygous for brown eyes, marries a woman with blue eyes.
Show how the possible genotypes, phenotypes and ratio of individuals
with brown and blue eyes in the F1-generation, may be obtained. (6)
PEDIGREE DIAGRAMS
Steps to follow when completing a pedigree
diagram
a. Fill in the phenotype of all the individuals as given in the problem
b. Then, fill in the genotype of the recessive condition – it has to have two
letters of the alphabet and it has to be small letters e.g. bb
c. For every individual in the diagram that has the recessive condition, it
means that each gene was obtained from each of the two parents
d. So, work backwards and fill in the recessive gene in each of the parents
e. If the parents were of the dominant characteristic, then fill in the second
letter and it has to be a capital letter
f. Any other individual will be of the dominant characteristic will then
be two capital letters (e.g.BB – or homozygous) or One capital and
one small letter (e.g. Bb – or heterozygous)
5.4 The diagram below shows the pedigree of two rabbit families. The
allele for white fur (b) is recessive. Study the diagram and answer the
questions that follow:
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5.4.1 State the genotype of each rabbit numbered A to H.
5.4.2 If rabbit F and G were crossed, what percentage of the offspring would have:-
(a) Black fur?
(2)
(b) White fur?
(2)
5.5 The pedigree diagram below traces the inheritance of vestigial (short
wings) and normal wings in fruit flies. Study the diagram and answer the
questions that follow.
5.5.1 State the dominant wing characteristic of the flies used in these
crossed. (1)
5.5.2 Use the letters G and g and write down the genotype of …
(a) A
(1)
(b) J
(1)
5.5.3 If fruit fly C was crossed with a male having vestigial wings, what would the
possible genotype(s) of the
offspring be? (1)
5.6 The blood bank wants to carry out an investigation to

determine the distribution of blood groups of 1
200 learners in a high school. They decide to use a
sample to do their investigation in order to save
costs and time. They also want to get a reliable
result.
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5.6.1 State any FOUR planning steps that the blood bank should put in place
to do this investigation, before they draw blood from the learners,
using a syringe. (4)
5.6.2 State THREE precautions that the blood bank
should take when drawing blood from (3) the learners.
(7)
5.7 The pedigree diagram below shows the inheritance of

haemophilia in a family. The allele causing haemophilia is
represented by Xh and the normal allele is represented by XH.
1 2
3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Key:
Normal male Normal female
Haemophiliac male Haemophiliac female
Inheritance of haemophilia
5.7.1 Determine the:
(a) Phenotype of individual 4 (1)

(b) Genotype of individual 2 (2)
5.7.2 Explain why females havea smaller chance of suffering from

haemophilia. (3)
Represent a genetic cross to show the percentage chance of individuals 13 and 14

having a (7)
5.7.3 haemophiliac son.
(13)
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5.8 Wolves with black coats and blue eyes occur in nature although they
are less common than those with grey coats and brown
eyes.
A grey male with brown eyes mates with a black female
with blue eyes. All the F1 are grey with brown eyes.
Use the letters G and g for coat colour and B and b for eye
colour and answer the following questions.
5.8.1 Give the genotypes of …
(a) the male parent. (1) (b) the F1 generation.

(1)
5.8.2 Give the possible genotypes of the F2 if one of the F1 offspring
breeds with another animal with a black coat and blue eyes. (4)
(6)
5.9 About 70% of people get a bitter taste when a substance called PTC is
placed on their tongue. They are referred to as 'tasters‟. All other people
are unable to taste PTC and are referred to as 'taste-blind‟. The 'taster'
allele is dominant and the 'taste-blind' allele is recessive.
Also in humans, normal skin pigmentation is dominant to the albino

condition (no pigmentation).
The letters in the key below must be used to represent the alleles for the
different characteristics above.
Key:
T – taster
t– taste-
blind
N – normal skin
pigmentation n – no skin
pigmentation (albino)
A man who is heterozygous for both tasting PTC and skin pigmentation
marries a woman who is taste-blind for PTC and is an albino.
5.9.1 State why the example above represents a dihybrid cross. (1)
5.9.2 Write down:
(a) The genotype of the woman (1)

(b) ALL the possible gametes of the man (2)
5.9.3 The man and woman havea child whose genotype is ttNn. What is
the child's
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phenotype? (2)
5.10 A man and a woman are only able to produce children with the genotype
TtNn.
The woman's genotype is ttnn. State the only possible genotype of the man. (2)
Study the diagram below that shows the cloning of a sheep named Dolly.
4.1. Why was it necessary to remove the nucleus from the egg cell of the second
donor before the sheep could be cloned? (2)
1.2. Would Dolly have any characteristics of the second donor sheep? (1)
1.3. Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.2. (2)
b) Number 5 on the diagram states that 'the embryo is cultured'. Through which
process of cell division does the embryo develop? (1)
4.2. Describe TWO reasons why people could be against genetic engineering. (4)
[10]
The size and colour of unripe fruit in a plant species is genetically controlled.
The allele for small fruit (b) is recessive to the allele for big fruit (B). The
allele for yellow fruit colour (g) is recessive to the allele for green fruit (G).
2.1 State:
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(a) The phenotype of the plant with the genotype BbGg (2)
(b) ALL possible genotypes of the gametes produced by the plant
mentioned in QUESTION 2.1(a) (2)
4.3. In a cross between two plants with genotypes BBGG and bbgg
what percentage of the offspring will be homozygous for both
char acteristics ? (2)
[6]
In guinea pigs the allele for a black coat colour (B) is dominant over the allele
for a white coat colour (b). The allele for a rough coat texture (R) is dominant
over the allele for a smooth coat texture (r).
A male guinea pig which is homozygous dominant for coat colour and
heterozygous for coat texture was mated with a white female guinea pig that
is heterozygous for coat texture.
5.3. How many characteristics of the guinea pigs are being investigated?
(1)
4.2 Give the possible gametes of the female guinea pig. (2)
6.2. Two of the offspring of the F1-generation were crossed. The

genotypes of their offspring are represented in the Punnett square
below, except at (i) and (ii).
Give the:
(a) Genotype of the offspring at (i) (1)
(b) Phenotype of the offspring at (ii) (1)
(c) Phenotypic ratio of all the offspring (2)
7.2. The parents in QUESTION 4.3 produced 64 offspring during their

lifetime. How many of them would have had black, rough coats? Show
ALL working.
7.4. The owner of a pet shop would like to breed white guinea pigs with a
smooth coat texture. In order to do this, he wants to breed a female that
has a white, smooth coat with a male that has a black, rough coat. State
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what the genotype of the male should be for him to breed white guinea
pigs with smooth coats.

(%) MARKS
NERVOUS 27%  Peripheral and  Interpret the flow  2 marks
COORDINATION Autonomic diagram
 Nervous System  Label the  4 marks
 Central nervous diagrams
System  2 marks
 Nervous tissue  Give the function
 Reflex Arc of each nervous  2 marks
 Disorders and tissue
injuries of the  Describe the  4 marks
CNS sequence
 6 marks
 Effects of drugs  Interpret tables
on central  Answer
nervous investigative
system questions
THE EYE Structure and Label parts 2 marks

Functions
 Accommodation  Interpret  4 marks
 Pupillary diagrams  20 marks
Mechanism  Essay
 Eye defects and
their treatment  2 marks
 Describe causes
THE EAR  Structure and  Label parts  2 marks
functions
 Hearing and  Essay  20 marks
Balance  Describe causes  2 marks
 Ear defects
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Controls the functioning of all the systems in the body.

  It allows humans to react to internal and external stimuli. 
 It controls and co-ordinates every movement and all organs, glands and
blood vessels in response to information received. 
The nervous system works together with the endocrine system (involving
hormones) in a co-ordinated manner.
The nervous system can be divided into three systems, which together
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coordinate the functioning of the body:
 Central nervous system – brain and spinal cord 
 Peripheral nervous system – sensory, motor and mixed nerves 
 Autonomic nervous system – sympathetic and parasympathetic 
Nervous tissue: Animals have a complex system of nervous tissue called

neurons or nerve cells to send information to the central nervous system.
Nervous tissue is adapted to carry and react to all stimuli. A nerve is
composed of nerve fibres that are held together by connective tissue.
One nerve consists of millions of neurons. Receptors receive the stimulus
and convert it to an impulse. The impulse travels along the neurons in
milliseconds.
Three types of neurons:
Sensory Neurons Motor Neurons Inter neurons /
connector neurons
Unipolar (one pole) Multipolar with

Structure: or many Multipolar with many
bipolar (two poles). dendrites dendrites
Function: Always conducts Always conducts Links (connects) the

sensory neurons to
impulses impulses the
from the CNS motor neurons
from the receptor (spinal
(sense organ) cord and brain) in the brain and spinal
to the CNS (spinal cord.
cord to the effectors
(muscles and
and brain). glands)
to bring about a
response.
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Make sure you can identify and state the function of each of the
following sensory and motor neuron structures – see diagram on
next page:
Neuron Structure Function
Nucleus controls all the cell‟s functions

Cell body consists of cytoplasm with a nucleus
Cytoplasm  contains fine neurofibrils that extend into the axon and
Dendrites
 contains Nissl bodies that contain rRNA responsible for
protein synthesis
Myelin sheath  covers and protects the axon (provides electrical
insulation)
 may also be responsible for repairing damage to the axon
Axon conducts impulses away from the cell body
Dendrites receive impulses and conduct them to the cell body
Motor Neurons and Connector

Neurons (multipolar)
Motor neuron
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TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSES:
THE SYNAPSE is the point where an impulse passes from the terminal branch of
one neuron to the dendrite of the next neuron. The neurons do not touch each
other. The gap between the two neurons is called the synaptic gap.
Neurotransmitters carry the impulse across the synaptic gap. Once they reach the
opposite side, enzymes destroy the neurotransmitters to prevent the impulse from
being carried backwards.
Significance of the synapse: The impulse can only ever travel in ONE direction.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

BRAIN PROTECTION IS BY:
 bones of the cranium

 three layers of membranes called meninges ie Dura matter, pie matter and
arachnoid 
 cerebrospinal fluid 

PINAL CORD IS PROTECTED by
 the vertebrae Colom 
 cerebrospinal fluid 
 
 The cortex consists of cell bodies and is called the grey matter. The medulla
consists of the nerve fibre axons and is called the white matter. The brain is
divided into two hemispheres (left and right). The corpus callosum connects the
left and right side of brain allowing the two hemispheres to communicate and
coordinate activities. 
Make sure that you know the location and function of the following
(see diagram below – functions are included):
 cerebrum 
 cerebellum 
 corpus callosum 
 medulla oblongata 
 hypotalamus 
spinal cord
89
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN
Figure below shows the different parts of the brain and their functions.
A. Cerebrum . Corpus callosum

• Con ro vo un r c on Connec he e nd r h
he phere o
he br n – o n
• ece ve nd n erpretes all
en on ro or n co un c on be een bo h
he phere
• H her hou h processes

. Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland Con ro cen re or hun er h r
eep bod e per ure nd
e o on
C. Meullaoblongata
• Tr n nerve B.Cerebellum
impulse be een
he p n nd he • Coord n e vo un r
br n ove en
• Con ro • Con ro u c e en on
nvo un ry o n n b nce
c on uch
the nd bre h n
  to and from the brain 

POINT OF REFLEX ARC
The Spinal Cord: protected by the vertebrae, the 3 meninges with the cerebrospinal
fluid. The spinal cord is the pathway for all the impulses that are conducted to and
from the brain and also processes reflex actions. Sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerve impulses are conducted along the spinal cord to all organs.
The reflex arc:

is the path travelled by the nerve impulses from the sensory neuron, through the
connector neuron, to the motor neuron and then to the effector.
Path: receptor  sensory neuron  connector neuron  motor neuron  effector
The reflex action: is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus that is received by

a sensory organ, to ensure a quick response.
Significance of the reflex action: It allows the body to respond very quickly, to
protect itself against possible injury, e.g.: pricking finger, knee jerk reaction,
removing hand from a candle flame/hot stove plate etc.
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A Receptor: ruc ure h ch rece ve C interneuron:
uu nd conver n o n pu e Carries the
( he he en or o he in er ee burn) impulse from
sensory
neuron to the
B Sensory motor neuron
neuron: Carries in the
the impulse from spinalcord
the receptor to
the spinal cord
ffector:
ruc ure h ch
produce he re c on p
(the muscles in the
nger contract and the
nger is pulled away)
FUNCTIONING OF A SIMPLE REFLEX ARC using the finger prick as an

example:
 The finger is pricked by a pin. 
 Sensory receptors in the skin of the finger receive the stimulus. 
 The physical stimulus is transformed into a nerve impulse by receptors. 
 The sensory neuron conducts the impulse to the spinal cord 
 Through the dorsal root of the spinal cord 
 over the synaptic connection to the dendrite of the connector neuron. 
 The impulse is transmitted from the connector neuron 
 over the synaptic connection to the dendrites of the motor neuron cell body. 
 It is carried away from the spinal cord by the axon of the motor neuron 
  and exits the cord through the ventral root. 
 The terminal end branch of the motor neuron ends in the muscles of the
 forearm (the effector) 
 causing the muscles to contract and pull the hand away from the painful
stimulus of the pin prick. 

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
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
 Functions involuntarily and automatically and is NOT controlled by the will. 
 It maintains homeostasis by controlling vital activities. 
 It consists of nerves that are connected to the hypothalamus of the
 central nervous system. 
 The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into the sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous systems that function
 antagonistically. 
o The sympathetic nerves stimulate organs to prepare the body
 for action. 
o The parasympathetic nerves slow the systems down and bring
 the body back to a state of rest. 
 Each organ in the body is supplied with nerves from both systems and is
termed double innervation. The organs are stimulated (sympathetic) or
inhibited (parasympathetic) by the autonomic nervous system. 

 Functions regulated automatically by the autonomic nervous system include: 
o the heartbeat and breathing rate (through the medulla oblongata)

o digestion and peristalsis
o pupil size (to restrict the amount of light entering the pupil)
o bladder size
o sweat glands
o liver function
o amount of blood in the arteries (vaso constriction and vaso dilation)
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:


 Consists of sensory cells called receptors that respond to stimuli. 
 When the receptors are stimulated, they convert the stimulus into a
 nerve impulse. 
 This nerve impulse is transmitted along sensory neurons to the central
 nervous system. 
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves that enter
from the body and form part of the peripheral nervous system. 
Examples of receptors:
  Photoreceptors are sensitive to light stimuli, for example the eye. 
 Chemoreceptors are sensitive to chemicals as a solution or gas, for
 example the tongue and nose. 
 Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to changes in pressure such as
touch, sound and gravitational stimuli, for example the ear, skin,
 muscles and tendons. 
Diseases and disorders of the nervous system:

Alzheimer’s disease:
92
In this disease, the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex are affected so
the conscious part of the brain that produces memory is slowly destroyed. It has
been found that Alzheimer‟s is passed on genetically and therefore runs in
families.
Symptoms are that during the primary stages of this disease, patients become
very forgetful, as the short-term memory is affected. In advanced stages, the
patient may not even recognise close family members. Patients lose the ability to
speak, read, walk and control their bladder and bowel movement. This is a very
stressful disease as patients feel their minds slipping away and become very
confused.
Multiple sclerosis
Multiple (many) sclerosis (scarring) is a degenerative disease resulting when the
myelin sheath surrounding the neuron axons in the white matter of the brain and
spinal cord are attacked and damaged by the body‟s own immune system. caused by
a combination of a number of factors like genetics, environment and infectious
diseases.
Genetic variations of specific genes ,Environmental factors like high stress levels,
lack of vitamin D (reduced sunlight), various toxins and solvents, smoking and poor
diet may contribute to the risk of developing multiple sclerosis. Infectious
diseases that affect the brain and cerebrospinal fluid
.
Symptoms would include sensations like tingling, numbness in limbs, loss of co-
ordination, weakness and chronic pain in muscles and various cognitive problems
like depression. There is no known cure for multiple sclerosis. Various treatments
and medication is used to treat the symptoms to improve quality of life.
(DBE, June 2015, Paper 1)
C
C
93
D
Portion of the central nervous system of a human

2.3.1 Identify the parts labeled A, B, C and D.
(4)
2.3.2 State TWO functions of D. (2)
2.3.3 If someone accidentally steps on a sharp pin with a bare foot, the foot is immediately
lifted without thinking of the action.
Name the structure which brings about the rapid unconscious action.
(1)
2.3.4 Describe the path followed by the impulse to bring about the action named in
QUESTION 2.3.3. (5)
2.3.5 Describe ONE advantage of the action named in QUESTION 2.3.3 (2)
2.4 The following diagram shows the pathway through which impulses are
transmitted in bringing about the knee-jerk in humans. Study the diagram
and answer the questions that follow.
2.4.1 Identify the neurons marked A and B.

(2)
2.4.2 Write the letter and name of the structure that is stimulated by the hammer.
(2)
2.4.3 Explain what would happen if part C is severed.
(2)
2.4.4 Give TWO examples of reflex actions other than the knee-jerk in humans. (2)
2.4.5 Why are reflex actions important to the human body? (1)
2.4.6 Differentiate between a reflex arc and a reflex action. (2)
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2.5 Study the diagram below which shows the human brain (longitudinal section), spinal chord
(transverse section) and the right leg.
2.5.1 Identify the parts labeled A, B, C, D and F (5)
2.5.2 What will be the effect on the body if part B is damaged? (2)
2.5.3 Give the LETTER of the part that secretes the hormone TSH (1)
2.5.4 Give the letter of the part that coordinates the movement of the legs under normal
circumstances.
(1)
2.5.5 Draw and label the type of neuron as indicated by E. (7)
2.5.6 Explain the reflex action shown in the diagram. (5)
2.7 Answer the following questions based on the autonomic nervous system:
2.7.1 Name the TWO subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system.
(2)
2.7.2 Tabulate the responses of the autonomic system in terms of
(a) heart rate
(b) blood vessels in the skin
(c) peristalsis
(d) pupil size
Q5 The diagram below represents a neuron in a human.
B C
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5.1 Identify the type of neuron represented in the diagram.
(1)
5.2 State ONE function of part B.
(1)
r 2015, Paper 1)
Q2 The diagram below represents the central nervous system in a human.
B
C
A
E
2.1 Identify part:

(a) A (1)
(b) C (1)
(c) D (1)
2.2 State THREE functions of part B. (3)
(6)
Study the diagram of a reflex arc below.
96
3.1 What is a reflex action? (2)
3.2 Label the following:
a) The functional connection at D (1)
b) Neuron B (1)
3.3 State the significance of the functional connection at D. (1)
3.4 Write down, in the correct order, the LETTERS ONLY of the neurons
involved from the time a stimulus is received until a response takes place. (2)
3.5 Explain the consequences for a reflex action if neuron C is damaged. (2)
3.6 Draw a labelled diagram to represent the structure of neuron A. (5)
QUESTIO
N 2: 8 Minutes (Taken from DoE June/July 2015 Paper 1)
tudy the following diagram of a section through a human spinal cord and the
neurons involved in a reflex arc.
2.1 Define a reflex action. (2)

2.2 Identify neurons A, B and C. (3)
2.3 Write down only the LETTER of the neuron (A or C) which is
probably damaged if a person:
(a) Can feel the stimulus but cannot respond (1)

(b) Is able to walk but cannot detect any stimulus (1)
2.4 State the significance of the reflex action in humans. (1)
[8]
97
THE HUMAN EYE
The eyes are organs that make it possible for us to see.
Functioning of the eye – path of light:

 Light rays pass from an object to the eye, through the transparent convex
 cornea, aqueous humour, the biconvex lens and vitreous humour. 
 As the light rays pass through the curved surfaces of the cornea and the lens,
 light is refracted (bent). 
 The lens refracts the light rays and forms an inverted (upside-down) image
 on the retina, bringing the image into focus by making fine adjustments. 
 The rod and cone cells (photoreceptors) are stimulated by the light rays
 and convert the stimulus into impulses. 
 These impulses are transmitted along the optic nerve across the optic chiasma
(cross-over) so that impulses enter the lower visual centres on opposite sides
 of the mid-brain at the occipital lobes. 
 The upright images are interpreted for size, shape and colour of the object
that was seen. 
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How the eye enables How the eye enables the person to see
the person to see objects at different distances? (Eye
objects at different accommodation)
light intensities?
(Pupillary mechanism)
Near vision
Distant vision
Seeing in dim light Seeing near objects:

 Radial muscles of iris contract  Ciliary muscle contracts
 Circular muscles of iris relax  Suspensory ligaments become slack
 Pupils dilate to allow more light  Lens becomes more convex (more curved)
to enter into the eye  The sclera is pulled forward
 The refractive power of the lens & cornea increase
Seeing in bright light
 Radial muscles of iris relax Seeing far objects:
 Circular muscles of iris contract  Ciliary muscle relaxes
 Pupils constrict to allow less  Suspensory ligaments become taut
light to enter into the eye
 Lens becomes less convex (less curved)
 The sclera is pulled backwards
 The refractive power of the lens & cornea
decrease
How the ear enables the person to maintain the constant

body position.
(Balance and equilibrium)
 When there is a change in speed and direction the endolymph within the semi-circular
canals moves causing the cristae (receptors) to be stimulated.
 When the head position changes due to gravitational pull, the maculae (receptors)
within the sacculus and utriculus become stimulated.
 Cristae and maculae convert the stimuli into a nerve impulse. The impulse is
transmitted to the cerebellum by the auditory nerve branch.
 The cerebellum in response sends the impulse to the relevant muscles to restore the
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position
Visual defects:
Short-sightedness
This is also called myopia or near-sightedness. It is a refractive defect where the
image focuses in front of the retina because the cornea is too rounded. Distant
objects are seen as blurred. Myopia may be genetic or it may result when people
place regular strain on their eyes by working on computers or in a job where they are
required to focus closely on objects, like microscope work. Glasses and contact
lenses that are concave [)(] are prescribed to reduce refraction. Refractive
surgery may be an option, where the cornea is reshaped to flatten it and so
decrease refraction. This causes the image to be focused onto the retina.
Long-sightedness
This is also called hypermetropia or farsightedness. This is a refractive defect
where the image focuses behind the retina. The person will not be able to see
objects when they are close by, as the images are blurred. This condition is caused
by the following:
An eyeball that is too short (genetic): This is corrected with prescription
eyeglasses or contact lenses which assist to increase refraction of light by
 using convex lenses [()]. 
When the lens cannot become round enough during accommodation: This
may be genetic or it may be as a result of aging. As one ages, the ciliary
muscles are unable to contract enough to cause the lens to become rounder.
Eyeglasses or contact lenses are prescribed to assist to increase refraction of
 light by using convex lenses [()]. 
2.5. A cornea that is too flat: Refractive surgery is performed in extreme cases.
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 
Astigmatism
This is an optical defect that results in blurred vision. It is caused by an irregular
curvature of the cornea or the lens so the eye has different focal points that occur in
different planes. Glasses and hard contact lenses correct the irregular focal points.
Cataracts
This is the clouding of the lens when the lens cortex liquefies to form a milky white
fluid. Cataracts progress over time and may result from long-term exposure to
ultra-violet light, radiation, diabetes, hypertension, old age and physical trauma.
Genetically, people may have a predisposition to cataracts. Cataracts must be
removed surgically. Extra-capsular surgery (ECCE) can be used to remove the
lens, leaving the lens capsule intact. Intra-capsular surgery (ICCE) is used when
both the lens and capsule are removed. The lens is replaced with a plastic lens in
both cases.
101
THE HUMAN EAR:
The ears are the sense organs for hearing. Mechanoreceptors in the ear are
stimulated by sound waves, which are converted to impulses. The impulses are
transmitted via sensory neurons to the auditory centre in the cerebral cortex of the
brain where they are interpreted. The ears are also the organs for balance and
equilibrium. These impulses are transmitted via sensory neurons to the
cerebellum where they are interpreted to ensure balance and equilibrium.
[Please note typo on the diagram: ossicles and not ossides]
102
Functioning of the human ear - path of sound:
Sound waves move from the vibrating source (for example, a person talking or a
car driving past) in horizontal waves. Humans hear sounds with a vibration
frequency of between 16 and 20 000 Hz.
Part of ear Function during hearing process
Pinna Traps the sound waves and directs them

into the auditory canal
Tympanic membrane (ear drum) Vibrates to the frequency of the sound
waves and transmits the vibration to the
ossicles in the middle ear
Ossicles  The three ossicles (the hammer,
anvil and stirrup) amplify the
vibrations
 The stirrup passes the vibration
through the oval window, into the
inner ear
Oval window Vibrates and causes pressure wave
movements in the liquid of the
perilymph
in the inner ear to the endolymph inside
the cochlea
Cochlea These vibrations cause the sensory cells
in the Organ of Corti (the
mechanoreceptors) to brush or bend
against the membranes converting the
stimulus into an impulse
Auditory nerve Transmits the impulse to the cerebrum
where the sensation of sound is
perceived and interpreted
Round window Excess vibrations are passed out
through the round window, to prevent
pressure and echoes
Balance and equilibrium

The human ear is responsible for balance in this way:
1. The cristae in the semicircular canals are stimulated by changes in the direction
and speed of movement
2. The maculae in the sacculus and utriculus are stimulated by changes in the
position of the head
When stimulated, the cristae and maculae convert the stimuli received into
nerve impulses.
The nerve impulses are transported along the auditory nerve to the
cerebellum to be interpreted.
The cerebellum then sends impulses to the muscles to restore balance.
103
Hearing defects:
Hearing defect: Causes: Treatment:
Middle ear Middle ear becomes infected  inserting grommets

infection with bacteria. Pressure builds (allows excess fluid to
(called otitis media) up (pus and excess fluid) in the drain from middle ear)
middle ear behind the ear  antibiotics
drum, causing extreme pain.
Deafness  Injury to parts of the ear,  Hearing aids (amplify
(„hearing nerves or parts of the brain. sounds)
impairment‟, „hard of  Hardened wax collected in  Cochlear implants
hearing‟ or the auditory canal (stimulates the
„deafness‟)  Hardening of ear tissue like auditory nerves with
around ossicles an electronic field,
inside the cochlea)
6.1 Give the correct biological term for each of the following description.
DESCRIPTION TERM
6.1.1 The structural unit of the nervous system.
6.1.2 Protective membranes surrounding the central nervous
system
6.1.3 The region of the brain associated with problem-solving
6.1.4 The part of the brain which co-ordinates voluntary
actions
6.1.5 Nerves linking receptor and effector organs with the
brain and spinal cord.
6.1.6 The physiological connection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another
6.1.7 A rapid, automatic (involuntary) response to an external
stimulus
6.1.8 Area of the retina with the highest concentration of
cones.
6.1.9 A pigmented layer in the eye which absorbs light and
prevents its reflection.
6.1.10 The part of the eye which is coloured black, brown,
green, grey or blue
6.1.11 Protective membrane situated over the cornea of the
eye
6.1.12 The ability of the lens of the eye to alter its shape for
clear vision
6.1.13 The tube which connects the middle ear to the pharynx
6.1.14 The structure, within the cochlea, responsible for
picking up the stimulus of sound
104
6.1.15 The part of the brain where the sensation of sound is
interpreted
6.1.16 Nervous system containing a sympathetic and
parasympathetic section
6.1.17 Nervous system made up of the brain and the spinal
cord
6.1.18 Increase in body temperature for a prolonged period of
time
6.1.19 Decrease in body temperature for a prolonged period of
time
6.1.20 Increase in diameter of the blood vessels to increase
blood flow
6.1.21 Decrease in diameter of the blood vessels to increase
blood flow
6.2 Study the diagram of the human eye and answer the questions that follow:
6.2.1 Label parts j, k, l, m, n, o, a, b, c and f

(10)
6.3 A cowboy was seated at the top of the mountain bored in the evening, he
heard the sound of an aeroplane on the sky. While looking at the
aeroplane‟s passenger carrying a torch diving using the parachutes and
landed next to the boy.
Explain how the boy heard the sound of the aeroplane and describe the
changes in the eye parts as the
aeroplane passenger was diving towards him.
105
6.4 Give any TWO functions of the brain cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata
and
hypothalamus. (08)
6.5 Explain how the following person maintain balance.
(07)
6.6 Study the structure of the human eye below and answer the questions
that follow:
6.6.1 Label parts 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 18, 15, 16 and 19.
6.6.2 Give the function of parts 18 and 9 respectively (2)
6.6.3 Select the numbers of the parts that will be involved during balance.
(15)
106
6.7 Describe how the phenomenon illustrated by the diagram below.
(08)
6.8 The diagram below illustrates the structure of the central nervous
system and part of the spinal cord of a person who has had an
accident.
Study the
diagram
and
answer
the
questions
that
follow:
6.8.1 Label numbers 1, 2, 3 and 9. (4)
107
6.8.2 Give the number(s) of the part(s) responsible for the following
responses in this person:
(i) Deep breathing

(ii) Controlling high body temperature
(iii) Increased pulse rate
(iv) Loss of memory (8)
6.8.3 In order to determine the condition of the person, a

doctor examined fluid taken from between
the parts marked 11 and 12.
(i) Identify parts 11 and 12. (2)

(ii) Name the fluid present between 12 and 13.
(1) (iii) Give TWO functions of the above-
mentioned fluid. (2)
(13)
108
C
C
Portion of the central nervous system of a human
2.3.1 Identify the parts labeled A, B, C and D.

(4)
2.3.2 State TWO functions of D. (2)
2.3.3 If someone accidentally steps on a sharp pin with a bare foot, the foot is immediately
lifted without thinking of the action.
Name the structure which brings about the rapid unconscious action.
(1)
2.3.4 Describe the path followed by the impulse to bring about the action named in
QUESTION 2.3.3. (5)
2.3.5 Describe ONE advantage of the action named in QUESTION 2.3.3

(2)
2.4 The following diagram shows the pathway through which impulses are
transmitted in bringing about the knee-jerk in humans. Study the diagram
and answer the questions that follow.
109
2.4.1 Identify the neurons marked A and B.
(2)
2.4.2 Write the letter and name of the structure that is stimulated by the hammer.
(2)
2.4.3 Explain what would happen if part C is severed.
(2)
2.4.4 Give TWO examples of reflex actions other than the knee-jerk in humans. (2)
2.4.5 Why are reflex actions important to the human body?

(1)
2.4.6 Differentiate between a reflex arc and a reflex action.

(2)
2.5 Study the diagram below which shows the human brain (longitudinal section), spinal
chord (transverse section) and the right leg.
2.5.1 Identify the parts labeled A, B, C, D and F (5)
2.5.2 What will be the effect on the body if part B is damaged? (2)
110
2.5.3 Give the LETTER of the part that secretes the hormone TSH
(1)
2.5.4 Give the letter of the part that coordinates the movement of the legs under normal
circumstances.
(1)
2.5.5 Draw and label the type of neuron as indicated by E.
(7)
2.5.6 Explain the reflex action shown in the diagram.

(5)
2.7 Answer the following questions based on the autonomic nervous system:
2.7.1 Name the TWO subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system.
(2)
2.7.2 Tabulate the responses of the autonomic system in terms of
(a) heart rate
(b) blood vessels in the skin
(c) peristalsis
(d) pupil size
Q5 The diagram below represents a neuron in a human.
B C
5.1 Identify the type of neuron represented in the diagram.

(1)
5.2 State ONE function of part B.
(1)
(2)
111
Q2 The diagram below represents the central nervous system in a human.
B
C
A
E
2.1 Identify part:

(a) A (1)
(b) C (1)
(c) D (1)
2.2 State THREE functions of part B. (3)
(6)
Q3 Study the diagram of a longitudinal section through a human eye below.
B F
E
C
3.1 Label parts A, B and E. (3)

3.2 Give the LETTER only of the part which:
(a) Protects the delicate internal structures (1)
112
(b) Transmits impulses to the cerebrum
(1)
(c) Becomes cloudy or opaque as a person gets older, leading to decreased
vision (1)
(d) Contracts or relaxes when the distance of an object from the eye changes
(1)
(7)
3.1 Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follow.
A H
B I
C J
D K
E
L
F
Section through the human eye
3.1.1 Write the letters of the parts which are responsible for the following:
(a) Protection of the eye from physical damage (3)

(b) Accommodation (3)
(c) Refraction of light rays (3)
3.1.2 Write the name of the labelled part which is responsible for the
following:
(a) Movement of the eye ball (1)

(b) Conversion of light stimuli into impulses (1)
3.1.3 Explain the role of part E in bright light conditions.
(4).4.1 Identify parts A and B.

(2)
3.4.2 Which Diagram (1 or 11) shows part of the eye
(i) where the ciliary muscles are contracted. (1)
(ii) under dim light conditions. (1)
3.4.3 Explain your answer in QUESTION 3.4.2 (i).

(2)
3.4.4 Which letter on the graph indicates each of the following:

113
(i) The eye looking at a nearby stationary object (1)
(ii) The eye looking at an object moving towards the viewer
(1)
3.4.5 Explain the significance of the elastic nature of the lens.

(2)
Study the following diagrams showing visual defects and answer the questions that
follow.
3.5.1 Which diagram (A or B) illustrates

(a) short-sightedness (1)
(b) long –sightedness (1)
3.5.2 Compare short-sightedness and long-sightedness by completing the table

below.
Short-sightedness Long –sightedness
Shape of eyeball (a) (b)
Focal point on (c) (d)

retina for nearby
objects
Corrective type of (e) (f)

lens
(8)
Corrective corneal (g) (h)
laser surgery
114
3.6 Explain the nature and treatment of the following:
(a) astigmatism and (4)
(b) cataracts (2
3.8 Jabu took part in an experiment on the eye's response to light. A lamp was
placed at seven positions from Jabu's face. The diameter of Jabu's
pupil was measured at each position.
3.9 Study the diagram below showing a longitudinal section through an eye.
1 3
4
5
A longitudinal section through a human eye
3.9.1 Label parts 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. (4)
3.9.2 Name and describe the process that causes part 1 to dilate. (6)
3.9.3 State how the following defects can be treated to improve vision:
(a) Long-sightedness
(b) Astigmatism
(c) Cataract
(d) Short-sightedness
115
(DBE, November 2015 (2), Paper 1)
Q4 The diagram below represents a human ear.
D
B C
E
F
G
4.1 Identify parts A and D. (2)

4.2 Write down the LETTER only of the part which:
(a) Conducts sound waves towards the middle ear (1)
(b) Absorbs pressure from the inner ear
(1)
(c) Ensures equal pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane
(1)
(d) Transmits vibrations to the inner ear
(1)
(e) Contains the organ of Corti (1)
(7)
116
4.1 Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow.
B C E
B
D
A
G
The human ear
4.1.1 Identify the parts labelled B, C, D and F.

(4)
4.1.2 Explain how the pinna of the ear is suited for its function. (2)
4.1.3 Write the letter of the part which:
(i) Has receptors for balance (1)

(ii) Secretes a waxy substance called cerumen
(1)
(iii) Equalizes pressure on either side of part B
(1)
(iv) Transmits impulses to the brain
(1)
(v) Part in which the organ of Corti is found
(1)
4.2 Explain the

(a) cause and (2)
(b) treatment of middle ear infections. (2)
4.4 A person walking barefoot stepped on a thorn with his left foot. He immediately
withdrew his left foot, balancing himself on his right foot. Explain how the person
managed to maintain balance and body position.
(15)
117
4.5 Study the following diagram of the human ear and answer the questions that
follow.
A B C D E
Human ear
4.5.1 Part A secretes a wax known as cerumen. Sometimes the wax

forms a solid plug against part B.
(i) State TWO functions of cerumen. (2)
(i) Explain the effect on hearing if a waxy plug is formed
against part B.
(3)
4.5.2 (i) Will sound waves reach part D if part C was removed?
(1)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer. (2)
4.5.3 Name the part of the brain to which nerve E will conduct nerve impulses and
give a reason for your answer.
(3)
4.6 Study the diagram below showing a portion of the human ear and
answer the questions that follow.
118
4.6.1 Provide labels for parts A, C and D, respectively.
(3)
4.6.2 State ONE function for parts B and D, respectively.

(2)
4.6.3 How are parts A and C together suited for the amplification of sound?
(2)
4.6.4 Explain what would happen if part E is blocked with mucus.
119
Endocrine system consists of Homeostasis:
glands that produce different Is the process of maintaining a
hormones. constant, internal environment
Functions of the hormones within narrow limits, despite
produced by the following glands: changes that take place internally
and externally.
(i) Hypothalamus - secretes
hormone ADH
(ii) Pituitary gland (hypohysis) - Negative feedback mechanisms
Negative feedback to regulate controlling the concentration of:
secretes hormones GH, TSH, levels of hormones in the blood.
FSH, LH and prolactin (i) glucose
Example - feedback mechanism
(iii) Thyroid gland - secretes between TSH and tyroxin (ii) CO2
thyroxine (iii) water
Pancreas - secretes glucagon and (iv) salts
insulin
Testes - secretes testosterone
Thermoregulation:
Ovary - secretes oestrogen and
progesterone Role of sweating, vasodilation and
vasoconstriction in regulating body
Adrenal gland - secretes adrenalin temperature to be ± 37ºC.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is responsible for chemical coordination and regulates
activities that take place inside the body. The endocrine glands produce hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers. All endocrine glands are ductless which
means that the hormones are secreted directly into the blood.
LABEL THE GLANDS
120
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONAL SECRETIONS
Hormone Gland Location Function Effect of under-

and
oversecretion
Growth Anterior lobe Base of the For growth, repair Oversecretion:
hormone of the pituitary brain and and replacement of Children –
(somatotrophin) gland attached to the cells giantism
hypothalamus Adults –
acromegaly
Undersecretion:
Children –
pituitary dwarf
Adults –
premature senility
Follicle Anterior lobe Base of the In males: No over- or
stimulating of the pituitary brain and stimulates undersecretion
hormone (FSH) gland attached to the spermatogenesis In effects
hypothalamus females: stimulates
the development of
the follicle for
process of ovulation
Luteinising Anterior lobe Base of the In males: No over- or
hormone (LH) of the pituitary brain and stimulates the undersecretion
gland attached to the synthesis of the effects
hypothalamus hormone
testosterone by the
Leydig cells in the
testes In females:
LH stimulates the
release of the
secondary oocyte
from the Graafian
follicle and then the
development into
the corpus luteum
121
Thyroid- Anterior lobe Base of the Stimulates the Oversecretion:
stimulating of the pituitary brain and production of goitre
hormone (TSH) gland attached to the thyroxin Undersecretion:
hypothalamus by the thyroid gland lack of production
of thyroxin –
thyroid gland is
under stimulated
Antidiuretic Neurosecretory In the centre of Regulates Oversecretion:
hormone (ADH) cells of the the brain osmoregulation in water retention
hypothalamus the kidneys (in the and swelling
(ADH is stored distil convoluted (oedema)
in the posterior tubules and the Undersecretion:
lobe of the collecting tubules) dehydration
pituitary gland)
Gland Location Function Effect

H of under-
ando oversecretion
r
m
o
n
e
Thyroxi Thyroid Below the • Regulates the basal metabolic Oversecretion:

n gland larynx in the rate of the cells in the body goitre
neck region • Affects growth and functioning Undersecretion:
of the heart and the nervous Children –
system cretinism Adults
• Stimulates growth and –
differentiation of tissue in a foetus myxodema
and in children
• Regulates the body
temperature when stimulated by
the hypothalamus
Aldoster Cortex of Above the Helps the uptake of sodium ions in Oversecretion:
one the kidney the loop of Henle in the kidneys oedema (water
adrenal retention)
gland Undersecretion:
Addison‟s disease
Adrenali Medulla of Above the Prepares the body to deal with stress: There are no
n the kidney • Increase in heartbeat rate known over- or
(fight- adrenal • Increase in breathing rate undersecretion
and- gland • Increase in blood pressure effects. The
122
flight • Increase in muscle tone sympathetic and
hormon • Increase in blood sugar levels parasympathetic
e) • Decrease in blood supply to nervous system
the skin and digestive system controls the release
• Causes pupils to of adrenalin
dilate
Glucago Islets of Endocrine Controls the increase in the blood No over- or
n Langerhans cells of the sugar level by causing the conversion undersecretion
– alpha cells pancreas of glycogen to glucose effects

and oversecretion
Insulin Islets of Endocrine cells of • Controls blood Oversecretion:

Langerhans – the pancreas sugar by causing obesity
beta cells the conversion of Undersecretion:
glucose into diabetes
glycogen
• Inhibits the
functioning of
glucagon
Testosterone Gonads: Leydig cells in the • Testosterone is Oversecretion:
testes testes of males responsible for the aggression. In
located in the secondary sexual females, it results in
scrotum at the characteristics in secondary sexual
bottom of the males like a deeper characteristics
pelvis voice, pubic hair, similar to that in
hair on face males
• Necessary for Undersecretion:
the normal lack of secondary
development of sexual
sperm characteristics and
• Activates genes lack of healthy
in sperm production
the cells of Sertoli
to promote the
differentiation of
the spermatogonia
123
Oestrogen Gonads: Located in the • Oestrogen Oversecretion: may
ovaries lower abdominal promotes the cause cancer
region with each development of the Undersecretion:
ovary located secondary sexual menstruation cycle is
within the pelvic characteristics in affected, ovulation
bones (in line with females like may be prevented
the ball-andsocket breasts, the leading to infertility,
joints of the thickening of the onset of menopause
femurs) endometrium may occur
(uterus) and the
female body shape
• Necessary for
the process of
ovulation
• Oestrogen
inhibits the
secretion of FSH
by the anterior
pituitary gland so
that only one
follicle is produced
during ovulation
• High oestrogen
levels will trigger
the secretion of
luteinising
hormone (LH)
and
oversecretion
124
Progesterone Gonads: Located in the • Progesterone Undersecretion:
ovaries lower abdominal prepares the during pregnancy,
region with each endometrium of the will cause a
ovary located uterus for spontaneous
within the pelvic implantation once miscarriage
bones (in line with fertilisation of the egg
the ball-andsocket cell has occurred
joints of the • Necessary for the
femurs) production of the
mucus plug to
prevent sperm or
other substances
from entering the
uterus during
pregnancy
• Decrease in
progesterone levels
causes menstruation
• Progesterone
improves memory
and cognitive ability
Prolactin Anterior lobe Base of the brain • Stimulates the Oversecretion:
of the and attached to mammary glands can cause
pituitary the hypothalamus to produce milk impotence
gland • Counteracts the and loss of libido
effect of dopamine
which is
responsible for
sexual arousal
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
by automatic control mechanisms. Cells will function normally, regardless of the
external environment. The nervous system controls all the other systems in the
body either directly or indirectly.
Homeostasis of the endocrine system occurs through the negative feedback
mechanism. Feedback systems are important because they ensure that all the
systems are interrelated and work together. When there is an increase from normal,
a corrective mechanism will cause it to decrease and vice versa. This ensures that a
balance is maintained within the body. The negative feedback mechanisms that are
very important:
 the regulation of thyroxin
 the regulation of blood sugar levels
 salt regulation
 carbon dioxide regulation
125
 water regulation
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL – REGULATION OF THYROXIN IN THE

BLOOD
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL – BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS

When the glucose level in the blood increases above normal levels:
Step 1 Glucose levels in the blood increase above normal levels
Step 2 The pancreas is stimulated
Step 3 to secrete insulin into the blood
Step 4 insulin travels in the blood to the liver
Step 5 where it stimulates the conversion of excess glucose to glycogen which is then stored
Step 6 The glucose level in the blood now decreases
Step 7 and returns to normal
When the glucose level in the blood decreases below normal levels:
Step 1 Glucose levels in the blood decrease below normal levels
Step 2 The pancreas is stimulated
Step 3 to secrete glucagon into the blood
Step 4 Glucagon travels in the blood to the liver
Step 5 where it stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen to glucose
Step 6 The glucose level in the blood now increases
Step 7 and returns to normal 126

Differences between the endocrine system and the nervous system
Endocrine system (chemical ) Nervous system (electrical)
1. Made up of glands 1. Made up of nerves

2. Produces hormones 2. Produces nerve impulses
3. Hormones transported by 3. Impulses transmitted along the
the blood nerves
4. Effects are slower and more 4. Effects are very quick and very
general specific
5. Hormones control long-term 5. Nerve impulses control short-term
changes (e.g. growth) changes (e.g. sneezing, lifting your
arm)
Q.8 The diagram below represents one part of the negative feedback response
that occurs when a person is dehydrated.
The decrease in blood volume, as a result of the excessive loss of water, is
detected by the brain.
Hormone X Target Organ Response
8.1 Identify the:

(a) Hormone X (1)
(b) Endocrine gland that secretes hormone X (1)
(c) Target organ (1)
127
8.2 Describe the negative feedback response that occurs when a person is
dehydrated, after it has been detected by the brain.
(4)
(7)
C. ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS:
Q.9 Describe the interaction and the influence of hormones on the events
during the menstrual cycle. Content:
(17)
Synthesis: (3)
(20)
Q.10 While walking in the bush Paul hears a sound which he thinks is the roar
of a lion.
He immediately runs to safety.
Describe how he hears the sound and describe the role of adrenalin to
ensure that his muscles are able to function efficiently while he runs
away.
Content:
(17)
Synthesis:
(3)
(20)
128
Q2 Study the flow diagram below of a homeostatic mechanism used to regulate
the concentration of salts in the human body.
2.1 Define homeostasis.

(2)
2.2 Give the name of the following:
(a) Organ A (1)
(b) Gland B (1)
(c) Hormone C (1)
2.3 Describe the response by the effector at D.
(2)
(7)
(DBE, November 2015(2), Paper 1)
Q3 Describe the negative feedback mechanism that occurs when the thyroxin
level
decreases below normal. (5)
129
5.3.1 Give labels for the glands numbered 1 and 2.
(2)
5.3.2 Name hormone A. (1)
5.3.3 Describe the negative feedback mechanism that operates when the thyroxin
level in the blood
is too high, as indicated by process C.
(4)
5.4 Make a flow chart showing a feedback mechanism involving two glands that control
thyroxin production in humans. (7)
5.5 Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
5.5.1 Identify glands B and C.

(2)
5.5.2 A study of all three glands in Diagram 1 showed that they each have a
large number of
130
blood capillaries close to the cells. Give an explanation for this feature.
(2)
5.5.3 All three glands in Diagram 1 were stimulated in the person shown in
Diagram 2. Which ONE of the glands, A or B, was stimulated first?
(1)
(5)
5.5.5 What happens to each of the following in the person in Diagram II?
(a) Blood supply to the gut (1)
(b) Breathing rate (1)
(c) Hair-erector muscles of the skin (1)
5.6.1 Label the parts numbered 1 and 4.
5.6.2 Write down only the NUMBER of the gland that:
(a) Produces the hormone glucagon

(b) Produces a hormone that controls the growth of long bones
(c ) Produces an iodine-containing hormone
(d) Produces a hormone that is involved in the re-absorption of
some salts by the kidneys
5.6.3 State TWO similarities between hormones and nerves

with regard to their functions.
5.6.4 State ONE functional difference between hormones and (2)

motor nerves. (10)
131
5.7 Describe the role of the hypothalamus and the adrenal glands in
bringing about changes to the blood vessels of the human skin
and explain why these changes take place. (17)
Content (3)
(20)
Synthesis
NOTE: NO marks will be awarded for answers in the form of flow

charts or diagrams.
THERMOREGULATION
Body temperature must be kept constant in homoeothermic organisms like birds

and mammals. Optimal body temperature in humans is between 36,6 ºC and 37 ºC.
Remember that all cells, antibodies, enzymes and most hormones are made of
protein, and proteins are sensitive to temperature and pH. If the temperature is too
high, the proteins will denature and be unable to function. If the temperature is too
low, the proteins will become inactive. So, the human body must work hard to keep
the temperature constant. The hypothalamus stimulates various systems to regulate
the body temperature. When the body is hot, the hypothalamus will stimulate the
pituitary to release more ADH and less thyroxin. When the body is cold, the opposite
will take place.
132
G.
TOPIC WEIGHTING ASPECT SKILLS POSSIBL
(%) E MARKS
HOMEOSTASIS 07%  Homeostasis  Define the term  2 marks
 Thermoregulation  Interpret diagrams  2 marks
How the body temperature is regulated at varying climatic conditions
Regulation of temperature on a cold day (low Regulation of temperature on a hot day

temperature) (high temperature)
 Blood vessels constrict  Blood vessels dilate
(vasoconstriction) (vasodilation)
 Decreased blood flow to skin  Increased blood flow to skin
 Sweat glands is not stimulated  Sweat glands is more stimulated
 No sweating occurs  Sweating occurs
 No heat is lost (insulation) to the  Cooling (radiation) occurs as
environment sweat evaporates
 Shivering - Muscle friction generates heat  Body temperature decreases
 Body temperature rises
How water is regulated in the body at different climatic conditions?
 When the level of water is low in the blood due to strenuous activity or
 On a hot day, the osmoreceptors sends the impulses to the Hypothalamus.
 The hypothalamus produces ADH and transported to the kidney tubules where the make
them permeable.
 Water is then reabsorbed from the urine in the collecting duct by osmosis leaving urine
concentrated.
 When the level of water is low in the blood due to strenuous activity or
 On a cold day, the osmoreceptors sends the impulses to the Hypothalamus.
133
 The hypothalamus produces less /no ADH and kidney tubules become impermeable.
 No water reabsorbed from the urine in the collecting duct and urine become dilute.
How adrenalin prepares the body to cope How oxygen/carbon dioxide level is
with emergencies/stress? regulated in the blood?
 Adrenal gland is stimulated to secrete  During a strenuous (hard) activity such as

adrenalin which is transported by blood to the running, the level of carbon dioxide
parts of the body… Increases in the blood and the level of
oxygen decreases in the blood.
 Increase the rate of depth of breathing so that  The imbalance of gases is caused by the
more oxygen is obtained higher rate of the process of cellular
respiration in the cells.
 Cause the liver to convert more glycogen to
oxygen
 To correct this, the Sensory cells of the
 Increase the rate of heart beat and blood
pressure so that the blood carrying oxygen and Carotid artery sent the impulse to the
glucose will reach the tissues quickly medulla oblongata of the brain. The
medulla oblongata sends the impulses to
 Cause the blood vessels of the digestive system
the…
to dilate and the skin to constricts so that less
blood is sent to these parts and more blood is
available to heart, brain and skeletary muscles  Heart causing it to beat faster, thus
 Increase the metabolic rate of the cells in the flow of blood increases.
brain and skeletary muscles so that more  Breathing muscles causing them to
energy is released for muscular and clear Increase the rate of breathing.
thought.
Increase the tone of the muscles so that they can More blood with a higher concentration of
function more effectively oxygen is transported to the lungs and
more blood with a higher concentration of
carbon dioxide is transported to the cells.
This process is called Homeostasis.
How glucose level is regulated in the blood stream?
 When there is a higher glucose in the blood, Islets of Langerhans in the Pancreas…
 Secrete insulin which stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and muscles
and
 Promotes absorption of glucose into cells and stored as fats thus decreases the level of
blood sugar.
 When there is a lower glucose in the blood, Islets of Langerhans in the Pancreas…
 Secrete glucagon which stimulates the liver cells to convert stored glycogen to glucose
thus increases the level of blood sugar.
How thyroxine level is controlled in the blood and its effects in the body?
134
When the thyroxin concentration in the blood decrease below the normal level:
 The pituitary is stimulated to secrete more TSH
 TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete more thyroxin thus increasing the level of thyroxin
in the blood to normal levels.
When the thyroxin concentration in the blood increases above the normal level:
 The pituitary is not stimulated to secrete TSH
 There is less stimulation of the thyroid gland
to secrete thyroxin thus decreasing the level of
thyroxin in the blood to normal levels.
Consequences of mechanism not working

 The concentration of thyroxin will not be regulated and increases beyond normal limit, it
causes….
Hyperthyroidism
 Hyperthyroidism causes an increase in rate of metabolism resulting in:
 Weight loss, Irritable/anxiety, hyperactive, increase in heart rate, tiredness, Thyroid
gland swells/goiter,
 Eyeballs protrude
 When the thyroxin level decreases beyond normal limits, it causes… Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism causes a decrease in rate of metabolism, resulting in:
 Weight gain, decrease in heart rate and slow growth of hair and fingernails.
How kidney regulates the salt content in the body?

The Adrenal glands produce the hormone aldosterone into the blood stream which then
transported to the kidney to….
 Promote sodium ions (salt) from the kidney nephrons to be pumped out and enter into the
kidney medulla.
 The salt is then absorbed into the tissue fluids thus promoting the reabsorption of water
from the collecting ducts.
How glucose level is regulated in the blood stream?

 When there is a higher glucose in the blood, Islets of Langerhans in the Pancreas…
 Secrete insulin which stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and muscles
and
 Promotes absorption of glucose into cells and stored as fats thus decreases the level of
blood sugar.
 When there is a lower glucose in the blood, Islets of Langerhans in the Pancreas…
 Secrete glucagon which stimulates the liver cells to convert stored glycogen to glucose
thus increases the level of blood sugar.
135
7.1 Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follow.
7.1.1 Identify parts A and C. (2)
7.1.2 What change will part B undergo if the environmental temperature

suddenly rises? (1)
7.1.3 Explain the advantage of the change named in QUESTION 4.2.2 for a
person. (4)
(7)
7.2 The table below shows how body temperature is regulated by the
hypothalamus by influencing heat production and heat loss.
BODY HEAT PRODUCTION HEAT LOSS

TEMPERATURE (JOULES PER SECOND) (JOULES PER
(ºC) SECOND)
36,4 320 5
36,6 260 5
36,8 150 35
36,9 90 90
37,0 90 100
37,2 90 180
37,4 90 310
[Adapted from Cambridge Biology, 2002]
7.2.1 Are the blood vessels that supply blood to the skin constricted or dilated
when the body
temperature is 36,4 ºC? (1)
136
7.2.2 Explain the advantage of the diameter of the blood vessels
(constricted/dilated) mentioned
in your answer to QUESTION 7.2.1. (4)
7.2.3 Heat loss is the greatest at 37,4 ºC. Explain how the body is able to increase
heat loss. (4)
(9)
7.3 Study the graph below showing the changes in the glucagon concentration
during exercise.
Changes in the blood glucagon concentration

250
over time
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (minutes)
7.3.1 Describe the trend for the changes in the glucagon level over time. (3)
7.3.2 Explain the changes in the level of glucagon from 0 to 10 minutes. (3)
7.3.3 Taking into account the pattern for glucagon concentration

from 0 to 10 minutes in the graph above, what will you expect to
happen to the insulin
concentration for the same period? (1)
7.3.4 Explain why people with diabetes mellitus have very little glycogen in
their liver and
muscle cells. (3)
137
(10) 7.4 Give the correct biological term for each of the following
descriptions.
DESCRIPTION TERM
7.4.1 Glands that pour their secretions directly into the blood
stream
7.4.2 Patches of specialized cells within the pancreas that
produce insulin and glucagon
7.4.3 A gland that functions both as an endocrine and an exocrine
gland
7.4.4 Part of the brain to which the hypophysis is attached
7.4.5 A hormone which stimulates secretion of the thyroid gland
7.4.6 Interaction between TWO endocrine glands, where a
change in the hormonal production level of one, is referred
back to it, resulting in an opposite response
7.4.7 Hormone that promotes absorption of glucose into cells
7.4.8 Hormone that increases heart beat and blood pressure in
emergency situations
7.4.9 Pancreatic secretion that increases the blood sugar level
7.4.10 Hormone that controls normal growth and development
7.4.11 Hormone responsible for secondary sexual characteristics
in males
7.4.12 Hormone that controls metabolism
7.4.13 Gland that produces FSH and LH
7.4.14 Hormone produced by the corpus luteum
7.4.15 Hormone produced by the Graafian follicle
7.4.16 Hormone that controls the re-absorption of water in the
kidney
7.4.17 Organ on which the adrenal glands are located
7.6 Describe the role of the hypothalamus and the adrenal glands in bringing
about changes to the blood vessels of the human skin and explain why
these changes take place.
138
(%) MARKS
PLANT  Plant
07% Answer 4 marks
HORMONES hormones investigative
 Plant questions
defence
mechanism
s
How Auxins promote phototropism? How auxins promote
geotropism?
 Auxins are produced at the tip of the stem Auxins are produced at the tip of the
from where they move downwards evenly root from where they move upwards
causing the stem to grow straight upwards. evenly causing the root to grow
 When the stem receives light on one side straight downwards.
(unilateral light), auxins move to the darker When a root is placed horizontally,
side because they are sensitive to light. more auxin accumulates on the
 This causes less elongation of the cells on lower side due to gravity.
the brightly-lit side of the shoot. Higher amounts of auxins inhibit cell
elongation on the lower side.
 The shoot grows faster on the darker side
The root grows faster on the upper
than on the lighted side, so the shoot to
side than on the lower side, so the
bend towards the light.
root tip bends downwards.
 Therefore, the shoot is positively Therefore, the root is positively
phototropic. geotropic.
8.1 In an investigation to determine the effect of auxins (plant hormones)

in the growth of coleoptiles (young actively growing stems) a sample
of 5 seedlings were used for each investigation respectively. Each
group was treated differently as shown below:
139
140
(1)
[27]
141
8.2.2 What is the growth response of plants as demonstrated in apparatus 2.1 (iv)?
(vi) Piece of glass placed
8.2 Based on the results obtained in the experiment above (1.1), answer
inserted on the left and
exposed to unilateral
lightin the right.
(vii) Piece of glass placed
8.2.1 What is the purpose of the set of apparatus in 1.1 (i)?

inserted on the right &
exposed to unilateral
light in the right.
(viii) Tip covered with foil
the questions below.

(ix) Tip covered with foil
and exposed to
unilateral light on the
right
8.2.3 Give TWO piece of conclusions that an investigator may draw based on
the results of the experiment above. (2)
8.2.4 Give SIX factors that must be controlled and kept constant throughout the
investigation. (6)
8.2.5 In TWO ways, how the results of the experiment can be improved so as to
make them reliable. (2)
8.2.6 Describe FOUR ways the investigator can make the results of the investigation
valid. (4)
8.2.7 Other than auxins, give the names of the other TWO plant hormones not
mentioned in the experiment. (2)
8.2.8 Give TWO uses of auxins in agriculture. (2)
[20]
Role of auxins in geotropism. Role of auxins in phototropism

Plant defence mechanism
142
8.3 A learner conducted an investigation to determine the effect of auxins and
the effect of gravity on root growth in pea seedlings. He used the
following procedure:
• He germinated pea seeds for seven days.

• He then took a sample of 15 seedlings and divided them into 3
groups (A to C) of 5 seedlings each. In each group the 5
seedlings were placed horizontally on 3 different clinostats.
A clinostat is a device which has a disc

that rotates at a constant speed. A
diagram of a clinostat is shown below.
Rotating
clinostat
Seedlings
• He removed the root tips of all 5 seedlings at the same length in

group B.
• In groups A and B the clinostats were left stationary (no rotation).
• In group C the clinostat was allowed to rotate.
• All 3 clinostats were placed in a dark cupboard.
143
A summary of the learner's
procedure is shown in the table
below.
GROUP GROUP GROUP C

A B
Root tips No root Root tips
present tips present
Stationary Stationary Rotating
clinostat clinostat clinostat
After two days the direction of root growth was observed.
8.3.1 Which TWO groups were used to obtain information about:
(a) The effect of auxins on root growth (1)

(b) The effect of gravity on root growth (1)
8.3.2 Explain why the apparatus was placed in a dark cupboard.

(2)
8.3.3 Describe the expected results for each of groups B and C in

this investigation.
(2)
8.3.4 Explain the expected results for group A.
(3)
8.3.5 State THREE ways in which the learner ensured a high
level of validity for this
investigation. (3)
Q2 Explain the growth response of a plant when the stem is exposed to light
coming from one side only.
(4)
1.1 The following diagram shows an investigation that was carried out to
determine the site of auxin production and its effect on growth and and
development in plants.
tip cut off

auxin
paste
144
A B C
1.1.1 Explain why the lateral buds in B, and not C, were able to develop into lateral
branches. (2)
1.1.2 State ONE possible deduction that can be made from the diagrams with
regard to the
site where auxins are produced. (1)
1.1.3 (a) What would happen if shoot B was illuminated from one side for a few
days?
(1)
(b) Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.1.3(a). (2)
1.2 In Diagram I below, the growing point of a shoot is separated from the rest of the
plant by a piece of plastic. It is then exposed to light from one side only.
light
plastic
Diagram I
Experiment
Diagram II below shows possible results.
145
A B C D
Diagram II
1.2.1 Which growth hormone is being investigated?
(1)
1.2.2 (i) Which letter (A, B, C or D) from Diagram II, shows the correct result
expected
after three or four days? (1)
(ii) Explain your answer in QUESTION 1.2.1(i). (3)
1.2.3 (i) Filter paper is permeable to the hormone being investigated.

If the same experiment was repeated with a thin piece of filter
paper instead of a piece of plastic, which letter (A, B, C or D) from Diagram II would
then show the correct result?
(1)
(ii) Explain your answer in QUESTION 1.2.3(i). (3)
1.3 The graph below shows the growth response of roots and shoots to auxins
applied at different concentrations.
Auxin concentration (parts per

million)
1.3.1 At what concentration of auxins do shoots show the most growth?

146
(2)
1.3.2 At what concentration of auxins does growth begin to be inhibited in roots?(2)
1.3.3 Name TWO places in plants where auxins are produced.
(2)
1.3.4 Explain the role of auxins in apical dominance (2)
1.4 Explain the role of

(a) chemicals (2)
(b) thorns as plant defense mechanisms (2)
Q.6 Read the extract below and answer the questions that follow.
AUXINS AS HERBICIDES
There are many different herbicides (chemicals used as weed killers). Most
herbicides that do not contain hormones damage the plant parts above the
ground only, that is the leaves and stems. These herbicides are also
poisonous to other organisms.
Hormone-based herbicides are usually a solution to this problem. They kill the
plant as a whole and they are selective about which plants they target.
Usually auxins are used as herbicides because of their selective nature in

the type of plant they affect. They are most effective against 'broad-leafed'
dicotyledonous plants.
[Adapted from www.herbicidesymptoms.ipm.ucanr.edu]
6.1 Name ONE place in a plant where the auxins are naturally produced.
(1)
6.2 State ONE function of auxins which results in the growth of a plant. (1)
6.3 Describe TWO disadvantages of using the herbicides that are NOT made of
plant hormones. (4)
6.4 Explain why it would be a disadvantage for a farmer to use auxin herbicides in
a field planted with beans that are dicotyledonous.
(2)
147
Q.1 The table below shows the concentration of abscisic acid and
gibberellins in germinating seeds over 10 days.
HORMONE CONCENTRATION IN GERMINATING

TIME
SEEDS (ARBITRARY UNITS)
(DAYS)
ABSCISIC ACID GIBBERELLINS
0 20 0
2 8 1
4 4 4
6 3 7
8 2 10
10 1 12
[Adapted from Biology Cambridge, 2013]
1.1 Draw a line graph to show the changes in the concentration of abscisic
acid over the period of the investigation.
(6)
1.2 State what happened to the concentration of each of the following

hormones over the period of the investigation:
(a) Gibberellins (1)
(b) Abscisic acid (1)
(8)
(12)
148
J.
(%) MARKS
EVOLUTION 15 Explain  Interpret  3 marks
BY % evolution phylogenetic
NATURAL trees  2 marks
SELECTION Evidence of  Link genetics,
evolution meiosis,
reproduction
and
 5 marks
fossilisation
with Evolution
Lamarckism
 Explain
Darwinism
scientists‟
theories and  2 marks
apply them to
Punctuated given  2 marks
equilibrium scenarios
Artificial
 Interpret
selection
diagrams
Speciation by
geographic &  4 marks
reproductive  Give
isolation examples
Evolution at  Essay
present time
 Interpret
diagrams
How these processes contribute to variation that exists amongst individuals of
the same species?
MEIOSIS: Crossing over and random CHANCE FERTILIZATION: The fusion of
assortment result to genetic mixing which gametes occurs randomly and these
then introduces variation in living organisms. reproductive cells have different
combination of genes
MUTATION: Gene & chromosomal mutation
affects the genetic makeup of an organism RANDOM MATING: Mating partners
thus resulting to phenotypic changes in living showing a great deal of variation are
organisms. chosen randomly within the
population regardless of their
phenotype and genotype.
How scientists provided the evidence of evolution?
149
#Palaeontology (Fossil records): #Molecular evidence: (Fossil
 The scientific discovery, identification, and evidence):
interpretation of fossils.  The study of the DNA nucleotides
 The hard body part of the ancient life is similarities amongst related organisms
preserved without being decomposed for provides evolutionary relationships.
millions of years.  The similarities in their genetic material
 Paleontologist can infer animal’s posture, style of the modern day and ancient life forms
of walking, the position and size of its posture, links them with their ancestors.
and the contours of its body.  From the number of alterations in the
 The careful study of the fossil remains, can help DNA nucleotide sequence of one
the paleologists to construct what an ancient organism compared with another, we
organism looked like in life, when it lives, and can estimate the time divergence
kind of environment it survived in. between two closely related species.
#Biogeography: #Comparative Anatomy:

 Biogeography is the study of species and (homologous structures)
ecosystem in geographic space and through  Comparing the structural details of any
geological time. particular organ system in the diverse
 It also provides the centre of origin for a range members of a given phylum reveals a
of the population when the new species formed. basic similarity.
 Most species have their own characteristics  These basic structural similarities
geographic distribution. (homologous structures) of organs in
 Closely related species do not have identical organisms provide evidence that these
ranges nor their ranges far apart but usually animals have similar forms due to
adjacent as they are separated by a barrier. common evolutionary origin.
 These similarities offer a crucial proof of
evolution and adaptation to the
environment in which they live.
How organisms’ breeders select the animals How the types variations differ from
or plants showing good characteristics? each other?
Artificial Selection Continuous variation
 It is also called selective breeding.  There is a range of different

 Animal & plant breeders (farmers) can use their phenotypes for a particular
information artificially to increase the number of characteristic.
plants and animals that show desirable (good)  It is brought about many genes working
characteristics. together.
 An organisms showing good characteristics are  It is affected by environmental factors.
allowed to mate so as to produce breeds of
offsprings. Discontinuous variation
 In other words, humans decide which species  There is no range of different
must survive and reproduce. phenotypes for a particular
characteristic.
 It is shown when population is grouped
into classes and cannot be measured
across the entire population.
 It is controlled by single gene.
 The environment has a little or no effect
over it.
150
How Lamarck and Darwin presented their ideas of evolution?
Law of Use or Disuse Natural Selection (Darwinism)
(Lamarckism)  Organisms produce a large number of offspring.
 As an organism uses a structure or  There is a great deal of variation amongst the
organ more regularly, it becomes better offspring Some have favourable
developed or enlarged in that organism. characteristics and some do not.
 If an organism does not use a structure  When there is a change in the environmental
or organ frequently, it becomes less conditions or there is competition
developed or reduced in size and may
 Then organisms with characteristics which are
disappear altogether in that organism.
more favourable survive.
 Whilst organisms with less favourable
characteristics die.
The inheritance of acquired  This is called natural selection.
characteristic  The organisms that survive reproduce and thus
pass on the favourable characteristics to their
offspring.
 Characteristics developed during the life
of an individual.  The next generation will therefore have a higher
proportion of individuals with the favourable
 (Acquired characteristics) can be
characteristics.
passed on to their offspring.
- Lamarck theory was rejected
because… organisms evolve, not Punctuated Equilibrium
because it wanted to evolve but the  Evolution takes place through an accumulation
appearance (phenotype) of the of small gradual changes that occur over a long
organism depends on the genetic period of time.
makeup of an individual and these  It is supported by transitional forms in fossil
changes take place randomly. record.
- The evidence is not enough that  Punctuated equilibrium suggested that evolution
these modifications are inherited sometimes involves long periods of time where
species do not change/very little change occurs.
 This alternates with short periods of time where
rapid changes occur.
 New species are formed in a short period of
time/relative to the long period of no/little
change supported by the absence of transitional
forms.
151
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AND DARWINS THEORIES
LAMARCK DARWI
152
How evolution of the resistant micro-organisms occurs?
Evolution of resistance in bacteria to Evolution of resistance in mosquitoes to
antibiotics insecticides
 Drug resistant strain of TB can be explained in

terms of natural selection theory:  Before the use of DDT to malarial
 In a Mycobacterium tuberculosis population, mosquitoes the mosquito population
there is genetic variation. would show genetic variation. Most
 Most bacteria will die when treated with mosquitoes would die if sprayed with
antibiotics and some bacteria will be resistant to DDT.
antibiotics because of their genetic make-up  A few mosquitoes that will be able to
 Antibiotics resistant bacteria would be naturally survive DDT and do not die when sprayed.
selected, survive and reproduce.
 Mosquitoes susceptible to DDT die.
 Resistant strains of tuberculosis-causing
bacteria are produced  DDT resistant mosquitoes become
 they survive and this leads to MDR-TB and naturally selected and reproduce
XDR-TB. offspring that are resistant to DDT.
 If DDT is used again more mosquitoes become
resistant.
 Mosquitoes susceptible to DDT eventually
become eliminated and then over time DDT will
no longer be effective in killing mosquitoes.
How new species are formed?

*Speciation by geographic isolation: *Speciation by reproductive isolation:
 A population of a particular species may  A particular species may become separated by

become split by a geographical barrier such as a reproductive isolating mechanisms.
*mountain or river.  As a result, the two parts of the population are
 As a result, the two parts of the population unlikely to interact with each other to interbreed.
cannot interbreed.  There is no gene flow between the two
 There is no gene flow between the two populations.
populations.  Natural selection occurs independently in each
population
 Natural selection occurs independently in each  due to different environmental conditions at
population due to different environmental different times of the day (e.g. more predators
conditions on either side of the barrier. during the day rather than the evenings)
 As a result, the two populations become  As a result, the two populations become
genotypically and phenotypically different over a genotypically and phenotypically different over a
period of time such that if the geographical period of time
barrier is removed at some later time they will  such that if they have to mix at some later time
not be able to interbreed again they will not be able to interbreed again
 We say that one or both parts of the population  We say that one or both parts of the population
have become a new species have become a new species
How reproductive isolating mechanisms keep species separate?
153
Breeding at different times of the year: Adaptation to different pollinating agents
 If two species closely related species breed  Differences in structure can prevent successful
at different seasons or times of the mating. Some related species of plants have
day/year, their chances mating and different appearances such as flower colour and
producing viable fertile offspring is greatly shape that attract different pollinating agents,
reduced. preventing cross pollination between the different
species.
Species-specific courtship behaviour
 Some animals have very specific courtship Infertile offspring
behaviors that do not attract individuals of  Some closely-related species may mate and
other species, even if they are closely produce viable offspring but it may happen that the
related species. hybrid offspring may infertile. E.g. mule is sterile
Prevent of fertilization
 Some closely-related species fertilization of
the different species is prevented by the
different species having different copulatory
organs.
Q.1 Diagram 1 shows variation in a species of fish living in a lake. There was a
rocky island that extended across the whole length of the lake, but it was
under water due to the high water level. The fish were therefore able to move
freely throughout the lake.
Diagram 2 shows the same lake many years later. A drought had caused the
level of the water in the lake to drop so that the rocky island in the centre
separated the lake into two smaller lakes, A and B, for a long period of time.
Diagram 1
Rocky island
Diagram 2 Lake A Lake B
FISH POPULATION IN A LAKE
154
1.1Define population. (2)
1.2 State FOUR possible causes of the variation in the fish population in Diagram 1. (4)
1.3 Eventually, as shown in Diagram 2, lake A and lake B contained two different
species of fish.
(a) Name the process that resulted in the fish population becoming two different
species.
(b) Explain how the new species was formed.
155
Q.8 The extract and the diagram below provide information about a type of
antelope called a Bongo.
The Bongo is a large antelope species that is active at night and found in
the dense jungles and forests of Africa. The dense forests have very little
ground vegetation so the Bongo feeds in forest openings where new herbs
and shrubs grow closer to the ground. They are preyed on by lions and
leopards.
Horns that can be laid
flat along the back
when running through
Light brown coat dense vegetation
and mane with
white stripes
Short, brown tail

with black tip
Black and white

Dark brown markings on the
belly face, chest and
legs
8.1 State TWO characteristics that help the Bongo to camouflage themselves in the
dense jungle.
8.2 Use your knowledge of natural selection and explain how the Bongo's ability to lay its
horns along its back could have developed over the years.
Q.9 Lizards of a certain species on an island are usually brown in colour. A

mutation in one gene for body colour results in red or black lizards. Black
lizards camouflage well against the dark rocks and warm up faster on cold
days which will give them energy to avoid predators.
Scientists investigated the relationship between the colour of lizards in a
population and their survival rate on an island.
156
The results of the investigation are shown in the table below.
COLOUR OF PERCENTAGE (%) OF EACH COLOUR

LIZARDS IN THE POPULATION
Initial 10th 20th 30th
population generatio generatio generation
n n
BROWN 80 80 70 40
RED 10 0 0 0
BLACK 10 20 30 60
[Adapted from http//.hhmi.org/biolactive]
9.1Use the theory of natural selection to explain the higher percentage of black
lizards in the population of the 30th generation
10.1 Scientists investigated the resistance of mosquitos to DDT.
The following steps were followed:

• They captured a sample of mosquitos from the environment.
• The mosquitos were then exposed to a standard dose of DDT (4%
DDT for 1 hour) in the laboratory.
• The number of mosquitos that died was counted.
• Those that survived were left to reproduce.
• A sample was taken from this population every two months and the
same procedure was followed for a period of 16 months.
The results are shown in the table below.
TIME (IN MONTHS) MORTALITY OF MOSQUITOES (%)

0 95
2 87
4 80
6 69
8 60
10 54
12 35
14 27
16 22
10.1.1 Identify the:
157
(a) Independent variable (1)
(b) Dependent variable (1)
10.1.2 Formulate a hypothesis for this investigation. (2)
10.1.3 Draw a line graph to show how the mortality of mosquitoes

changed over the period of the
investigation due to the application of DDT. (6
10.1.4 State TWO factors, other than those mentioned, that should be
controlled in this investigation. (2)
10.1.5 State TWO ways in which the scientists could improve the
reliability of their results. (2)
10.1.6 Explain, in terms of natural selection, how mosquitoes may

develop resistance to DDT. (5)
(19)
10.2 Describe how each of the following contributes to genotypic variation

within a species:
10.2.1 Meiosis (2)

10.2.2 Mutation (4)
10.2.3 Sexual reproduction (12)
10.3 The following questions are based on mutation.
3.3.1 Define a gene mutation. (2)

3.3.2 Name TWO factors that can cause mutations (2)
(4)
10.4 Study the passage below and answer the questions that follow.
CHARLES DARWIN
In 1831 Charles Darwin set out on a trip around the world in

the HMS Beagle. At the Cape Verde Islands, he saw the
fossil remains of sea creatures in the cliffs, many metres
above sea level.
The unique forms of life he found on the Galapagos Islands,

such as the giant tortoises, convinced him that living
158
organisms had evolved over many millions of years. He
noticed that these tortoises were quite different from those
found elsewhere in the world. Each island also had a
distinct type of tortoise, differing in the shape of the shell
and mating behaviour.
10.4.1 Explain how Darwin would have used the example of the
tortoises to explain speciation. (4)
10.4.2 How do fossils provide evidence for evolution? (2)
10.4.3 Give ONE reason why there are gaps in the fossil records.
(2)
.
(8)
10.6 Study the diagram below showing the effect of antibiotics on a

bacterial infection in a human. Antibiotics have been administered
on day 1 and day 2 of a five-day course.
Before administration of antibiotics After administration of antibiotics

Day 1
A
X
B
Day 2
X
10.6.1 Which bacteria, A or B, is resistant to the antibiotics?

(1)
10.6.2 Explain the effect that the antibiotics have on the bacteria after
the first day of treatment. (3)
10.6.3 Name the process that is represented by the arrows labelled

X. (1)
159
10.6.4 Explain what would happen if the person stopped taking their
antibiotics on day 3 (3)
10.6.5 Use the information in the diagram to explain how mosquitoes

may become resistant to DDT. (5)
(12)
10.7 The diagrams below show two species of butterfly that live in the
same habitat and feed on nectar from flowers, but are
phenotypically identical. The graphs show the breeding season of
each species of butterfly.
Species A Species B
10.7.1 (
Why are these two butterflies‟ two different species de phenotypically identical?
spite being 1
)
10.7.2 Name the type of speciation that has occurred to produce these
two species of butterfly. (1)
10.7.3 Explain how the two species of butterfly evolved.

Breeding season is an example of a reproductive isolating mechanism. (4)
10.7.4 Name THREE other reproductive isolating mechanisms. (3)
(09)
10.9 Complete the table to compare the types of variation:
Criteria Continuous Discontinuous variation

variation
Range of phenotype
160
Genetic effect
Environmental influence
Why humans belong What makes humans to be different from other Primates such as
to Primates? chimpanzee and gorilla?
Humans Other Primates (E.g, Chimpanzee)
 Stereoscopic Foramen on the ventral Foramen magnum on the posterior
vision side side
 Two mammary  Brow ridges less  Brow ridges more pronounced
glands protruding Sloppy face
 Upright posture Flat face  More developed chin
 Opposable thumb Broad and more developed lower
 Many languages Lower less jaw
to communicate jaw developed  Rectangular jaws
 Free rotating  Chin less developed
More developed canines
arms up to 180o  Gaps between teeth present
 Round jaws
 Bare finger tips Small brain capacity
with opposable Less developed canines
 Long upper limbs
thumb  No gaps between teeth
Straight spine
 Large brain mass Large brain capacity
compared to  Shorter upper limbs Have opposable thumb on the
body mass S shaped spine feet, no big
 Eyes with cones  Broad, short pelvis
toe
to identify colours No opposable thumb on instead.
 Produce few the feet, a big toe instead  Narrow, long pelvis
offsprings
 Flat nails instead
of claws/bare
finger tips
What changes the hominids developed as they evolved into modern humans and state
the advantages of each characteristic?
Dryopithecines Ardipithecines Australopithecines Homo
species
Characteristics Advantages
• The foramen magnum shifted from posterior to ventral position
• Changed from being more prognathous to none prognathous
• The pelvis changed from being narrow & long and become broad
- Support bipedalism
& short
• The spine changed from being straight and developed a s
shaped spine
Population size
Graphical representation
Own example
161
- Better view of the environment in
search for food.
- Can see predators at the
distance
- Absorbs less heat from the sun
Was quadrupedal then gradually changed to be as the surface area has
bipedal (developed bipedalism) decreased.
- Can use hands for feeding and
handling tools while moving.
- Better exposes the reproductive
organs for courtship behavior
The brain size increased - Became more intelligent which

leads to advanced technology,
development of many
languages, invention of tools
and weapons.
How scientists believe that the origin of the human ancestor was in Africa and what
evidence they provide to support this hypothesis?
Out of Africa Hypothesis
Based on the...
* Fossils found in Africa,
* Analysis of mitochondrial DNA….
Scientists believe that the oldest human ancestors were found in Africa and they migrated to the
rest of the world in search for resources.
Evidence of to support Out of Africa
Human fossils found in Africa
- The evolutionary trends show that fossils of human ancestor were only found in
Africa.
- The fossils of Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and oldest Homo sapiens were also
found in African countries, i.e. South Africa, Tanzania, Chad and were dated to be
trending between 7.0 to 0. 25 million years old respectively.
Using mitochondrial DNA
- All cells contain mitochondria where cellular respiration takes place.
162
- During this process, energy is released which helps the cell to do its
activities.
- Mitochondria in cells contain DNA which is known as mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA).
- Egg and sperm cells contain mtDNA like all cells.
- When egg cell and sperm fuse during fertilisation, the mtDNA of the sperm
cell does not enter the egg cell.
- This is because only the head part of the sperm penetrates the egg cell and
the neck with the mitochondria does not penetrate the egg cell.
- The zygote formed will only have mtDNA of the mother and the offspring,
male or female, will only have mtDNA from the mother.
- mtDNA is used when one traces the female ancestry
- Genetic researchers analysed modern humans using 133 types of mtDNA
and they concluded that, all modern humans descended from a common
ancestor, a woman from Africa.
Details about the discovery of Human Ancestors’

Fossils
Species Fossil Estimated Site where When Scienti
Name nickname Age discovered discovere st/s
d Name/s
“Toumai” 6–7 Southern Sahara 2001 Brunet
mya Desert in Chad, in and his
Dryopithecus
Central Africa team
“Ardi” 1994, Tim

1999 & white
4.32 – 4.51 Middle Wash river
Ardipithecus 2003 and
mya valley, in Ethiopia.
Sileshi
Semaw
Australopithec us Donald
afarencis Johans
3.2
“Lucy” Hadar in Ethiopia 1974 on &
mya
Tom
Gray
Village of Taung, in
“Taung 2.6 – 2.8 Raymon
South Africa 1924
child” mya d Dart
Australopithecus
Sterkfontein caves,
africanus
in Robert
“Mrs Ples” 2.6 mya 1947
South Africa Broom
163
Sterkfontein caves, 1997 & Ron
in 1998 Clarke,
South Africa Stephen
3.9 – 4.2 Motsumi
“Little Foot”
mya &
Nkwane
Molefe
Malapa Site, in Mathew

Austrolopithecus 1.78 – 1.98 South 2008 & Berger &
“Karabo”
Sediba mya Africa 2009 Lee
Berger
Olduvai George,
Australopithecus “Nutcracker 1.75 Mary
Tanzania 1959
boisei Man” mya Leakey
Olduvai George, Louis &

“Handy 2.33 – 1.4
Homo habilis Tanzania 1960 Mary
man” mya
Leakey
HUMAN EVOLUTION SUMMARY
Characteristic Structural changes/trends from African apes Significance of structural change from
to humans African apes to humans
AFRICAN APES HUMANS

Cranium Smaller cranium housing a Larger cranium housing a A larger cranium allows space for a larger brain in
smaller brain larger brain humans than in ape-like beings, making the
following possible:
 Better co-ordination of movement
 Processing of a large amount of information
 Processing information faster
 Development of spoken and written
languages to communicate
Position of foramen Foramen magnum – at the Foramen magnum –  The foramen magnum is located towards the
magnum back of the skull centrally/more forward back of the skull in African apes so that the
vertebral column arises from the back of the
skull for quadrupedal locomotion
 The foramen magnum is located
centrally/more forward below the skull in
humans so that the vertebral column arises
from beneath the skull for bipedalism
 A decrease in the length of the arms indicates
a decreased dependency on its use in
locomotion and therefore shows a more
advances bipedalism.
Advantages of bipedalism:
 Increased awareness of the environment in
164
sensing danger/food
 Freeing of the hands to use implements√ /
carry objects/ weapons/ offspring
 Exposure of a large surface area for
thermoregulation /losing body heat to
surroundings in hot conditions/reducing
overheating
Spine Less curved spine (C-shaped) More curved spine (S-  The spine is more curved in humans for
shaped) balance keep the centre of gravity of the
body over the pelvis
 Lower spine has a greater curvature in
humans to allow free movements of the legs
Pelvic girdle Long, narrow pelvis Short, wide pelvis  The pelvis more cup-shaped to support the
internal organs
 Wider sacrum and hips to be able to carry
the upright weight of the body.
Brow ridges Brow ridges well developed Brow ridges not well  Brow ridges became less developed since the
developed action of smaller jaws did not create forces
great enough for the skull to have increased
strength from the brow ridges
 The change in food diet from raw to cooked
food does not require the same amount of
tearing, biting and chewing
Teeth Large canines/teeth Small canines/teeth  Dentition: Decrease in the size of the teeth in
Diastema present/larger No diastema/fewer spaces humans OR decrease in the size of the
spaces between teeth between the teeth canines.
 The change in food diet from raw to cooked
food does not require the same amount of
Palate shape Narrow and rectangular Wider and more curved  The change in food diet from raw to cooked
shaped shaped food does not require the same amount of
Jaws Large jaws Small jaws  The change in food diet from raw to cooked
More protruding jaws/more Less protruding jaws/less food (softer)does not require the same amount
prognathous prognathous of tearing, biting and chewing
Cranial ridges Cranial ridge across the top No cranial ridge  Cranial ridges served as attachment for jaw
of the cranium muscles and indicate the presence of strong
jaw muscles in some ape-like beings.
 Humans do not have a cranial ridge because
there is no need for strong jaw muscles as
humans rely mainly on a diet of cooked food
that does not require the same amount of
tearing/biting and chewing.
165
C
11.1 Examine the pictures of the skeletons of a chimpanzee, an

Australopithecine and a modern human:
166
11.1.1 Which skeleton, A, B or C, represents the oldest specimen on the
evolutionary tree? (1)
11.1.2 Suggest why the middle skeleton is only shown partly, not in its
entirety. (2)
11.1.3 (a) Name TWO South African examples of Australopithecine

fossils.
(b) To which species do they belong?
11.1.4 Give TWO visible ways in which the skeleton developed over time
from species A to C.
The ways you give must have evolutionary significance. (2)
11.1.5 State THREE primate characteristics that are common to all three
specimens above. (3)
(11)
10.5 Look at the flow chart below, which shows the evolution of the
modern-day elephant.
167
10.5.1 Namethe ancestor of the elephant. (1)
10.5.2 When did the ancestor of the elephant first appear on Earth?
(1)
10.5.3 How does the ancestor differ from modern-day elephants? (3)
10.5.4 Give the scientific name of the African elephant. (1)
10.5.5 According to the flow chart, which evolved first – the African
elephant or the mammoth? (1)
10.5.6 When did the mammoth become extinct? (1)
10.5.7 Is the African elephant under threat of becoming extinct? Give a

reason for your answer. (2)
(10)
168
10.8 The evolutionary pathway of five species of mammal is shown in the
figure below. Study the figure and answer
the questions that follow
10.8.1 Which
TWO species are likely to have the most
similar sequences
of bases in their DNA? Ex
10.8.2 Which
TWO species are likely to have the fewest
similar sequences
of DNA? Explain your ans
10.8.3 How long

did the most recent common ancestor of the
following
species live?
(i) A & B (ii) C & D (
10.8.4 Was there

any extinction of the mammal species
experienced? (1)
10.8.5 When did

the common ancestor of these mammal species
existed
on Earth? (1)
10.8.6 How long did the existence of species D & E

occurred after the
evolution species C? (2)
10.8.7 Explain why you think evolutionary biologists

would expect a
phylogenetic tree drawn up from physical characteristics of organisms to
agree with one drawn up from their DNA sequences. (3)
10.8.8 Give TWO species that are youngest the group.
(2)
11.2 The map and information below should be used in answering the
questions that follow:
169
It seems that Homo
sapiens emerged in
Africa as a new
species and from there
migrated into the
Middle East, southern
Africa, Europe, central
Asia, and finally into
North America.
To reach the Bering

Strait (between the
current Asia and
Canada) from Africa by
14,000 years ago,
humans would have
had to wander no more
than 2 km every eight
years.
11.2.1 Scientists believe that Homo sapiens developed in Africa and then
migrated to other areas.
How long ago do they think modern humans developed? (1)
11.2.2 Name the hypothesis that has been put forward in support of this
idea. (1)
11.2.3 How long ago did the earliest Homo sapiens members reach South
Africa?
Name the modern people that are thought to be their direct descendants. (2)
Q.10 The diagram below shows the distribution of members of the camel family on
the different continents. The arrows indicate the current distribution of the
animals.
Llama
Dromedary Bactrian 170
[Adapted from http://www.ck12.org]
10.1 Explain how speciation of camels may have occurred.
(6)

Q.2 The characteristics of organisms can be changed through selective breeding
and the genetic engineering process.
2.1 State TWO similarities between the selective breeding process and the genetic
engineering process.
2.2 Explain TWO reasons why some people may be against the use of genetic
engineering. (4)
(6)

Q.3 The diagram below shows possible relationships between members of the
family Hominidae.
POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HOMINIDS
Present
Homo sapiens
Time (million years
Homo erectus
Australopithecus robustus
ago)
Australopithecus boisei
Homo habilis
Australopithecus
africanus Australopithecus afarensis
[Adapted from
http://www.ideacentre.org]
3.1 What is the name given to the type of diagram above?

(1)
3.2 How many of each of the following are represented in the diagram?
171
(a) Genera (1)
(b) Species (1)
3.3 Explain why A. robustus and A. boisei are more closely related than
A. boisei and A. afarensis. (2)
3.4 Which of the hominids in the diagram above is considered to have been the
first to
use tools? (1)
3.5 Name TWO Australopithecus fossils found in South Africa.
(2)
3.6 Explain how the location and the age of Homo fossils are used as evidence
for the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis.
(3)
(11)
Q.4 The diagrams below represent parts of the skeletons of an African ape and a
human. Diagrams A and B are drawn to scale.
DIAGRAM A DIAGRAM B
DIAGRAM C DIAGRAM D
SKELETON PARTS OF AFRICAN APE AND HUMAN
4.1 Write down the LETTERS only of the diagrams (A–D) that represent bipedal
organisms. (2)
172
4.2 Explain how the shape of the pelvis contributes to bipedalism. (2)
4.3 Explain the significance of the position of the foramen magnum in the skulls in
diagram A and in diagram B.
4.4 Tabulate THREE visible differences between the jaws/teeth of the skulls labelled A
and B that indicate trends in human evolution.
4.5 State THREE physical characteristics of the forelimb/upper limb that humans
share with African apes.
(3)
Q.5 The diagram below represents the fossilised skulls of three different species
of primates. They were either bipedal or quadrupedal (organisms that habitually walk
on all four limbs).
Y
A
X
5.1 Label part X and the type of teeth at Y. (2)

5.2 C
Explain the significance of the location of structure X in organism C. (3)
5.3 Which of the skulls (A, B or C) belongs to:

(a) An Australopithecine (1)
(b) A quadrupedal primate B (1)
5.4 Explain how the change in the skull from B to C could indicate a change
in intelligence. (3)
5.5 Tabulate TWO observable differences, other than those mentioned in
QUESTIONS 5.2 and 5.4, between skulls B and C that represent trends in
human evolution. (5)
(15)
Q.6 Humans and African apes share many characteristics, yet each is a distinct
specie.
173
6.1 Name FIVE characteristics that humans share with African apes.
(5)
6.2 Describe how each of the following structures is different between humans
and apes:
(a) Spine (2)
(b) Pelvic girdle (2)
6.3 Explain the significance of the changes to the teeth of humans that show
progression in evolution.
(4)
(13)
Q.7 Fossils of the bipedal primates Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and early
Homo species are used to support the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis.
State the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis. Describe the evidence that supports
the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis and the evidence that shows that the three
primate genera mentioned above were all bipedal.
Content:
(17)
3.3 Study the following diagrams of three hominid skulls and
answer the questions that follow.
3.3.1 Which ONE of the above skulls belongs to a bipedal organism? (1)
3.3.2 Give ONE observable reason to support your answer in

QUESTION 3.3.1. (1)
174
3.3.3 Explain ONE advantage of bipedalism to the organism referred to
in QUESTION 3.3.1.
(2)
(4)
QUESTION 3
3.1 The diagram below illustrates the evolution of humans and the brain
volume of some hominids.
3.1.1 Name the type of diagram shown above. (1)
3.1.2 State TWO reasons why the increase in brain size might have
been beneficial to humans. (2)
3.1.3 Which organism was the direct ancestor of Homo habilis? (1)
175
3.1.4 The „Out of Africa‟ hypothesis states that Homo sapiens originated in
Africa and spread from here to the rest of the world.
Name and discuss TWO proofs of evidence which support this

(6)
hypothesis. (10)
HUMAN IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT

(Paper 1 - 25 Marks)
176
decreases the amount of and landfills releases methane
The atmosphere is made up of carbon dioxide that would • The increased number of livestock:
nitrogen, oxygen and trace gases have been taken up by the ruminants such as cows releases methane
which include the greenhouse plants during photosynthesis. gas
This increases the amount of through their digestive tracts
gases such as
carbon dioxide available in the • Mining of coal
carbon dioxide and methane. atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases absorb long THE ATMOSPHERE AND The greenhouse effect is important in
CLIMATE CHANGE keeping the Earth warm so that it can
wave radiation emitted from the sustain life. However, an increase in the
Earth and prevent it from concentration of greenhouse gases
escaping back into the atmosphere. leads to the
This is known as the ‘greenhouse Climate refers to the long-term ‘enhanced greenhouse effect’.
effect’. prevalent weather conditions of
an area. As a result, there may be a significant
rise in the average temperature of the
surface of the Earth over a period of time.
1. Increased concentration of the This is known as ‘global warming.
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
is due mainly to:
3. Increased temperatures
• Burning of fossil fuel may lead to:
(for electricity, to power vehicles
and for industrial processes): 2. Increased concentration of the
methane in the atmosphere is due
Combustion of carbon-rich fuels mainly to: • More evaporation of water which can lead
such as coal or plants to increased precipitation eventually
(wood) releases carbon that was increasing the potential of flooding
stored in them, as carbon • The expansions of rice • Rising sea levels caused by melting ice in
dioxide. agriculture and increased the glaciers as well as thermal expansion
• Deforestation: Cutting number of landfill: decay of which can eventually increase the potential
down of trees and removing organic matter in waterlogged of flooding
vegetation from the land soils such as rice paddies
177
• Increased wildfires increasing
the chances of soil erosion and
eventually desertification
• Increased loss of biodiversity M ainly caused by the Ozone (O3) is a greenhouse
as species are unable to cope chemicals called CFCs gas that is found at low
with rapidly rising temperatures concentrations
( chlorofluorocarbons)
can eventually lead to 15 – 50km above the Earth‟s
desertification released by
refrigerators, aerosol surface. It absorbs the
• Increased droughts in some ultraviolet rays from the sun.
areas leading desertification sprays and fastfood
and food insecurity packaging.
Destruction of
the ozone layer
If the measures to reduce the CARBON FOOTPRINT
destruction of ozone layer
fail:
CAUSES What is OZONE? DEFINITION:
There will be a significant increase in This is a measure of the total amount of

the number of skin cancer cases greenhouse gas emissions of an individual, a
Ultraviolet rays reaching the Earth‟s defined population or a company per year.
surface may cause a permanent
damage to eyes
Strategies to reduce the carbon footprint
Reuse and recycle – less fossil

fuels burnt in the production of
some of the material
178
Drive less – by using public Carbon offsetting – by using Technological developments-
transport, walking, bicycles alternative energy (solar and wind) decrease the amount of energy
Reduce the need for heating by and reforestation for trees to act needed for production/
insulating walls and building as carbon reservoir. decreasing the dependency of
energy efficient homes carbon emitting fuels
WATER Quality of water

Availability of water
• The cost per kilolitre (kl) of water increases with increased use of water. This is meant
to discourage over-use of water thus allowing for its sustained use.
Construction of Dams • certain amount of water is available free to all citizens to ensure that water is available
increasing the quantity of water to the poorest.
stored
Poor farming practices
• fertilizers and pesticides have also decreased the amount of clean water available
Water wastage
• water used for irrigation is lost due to • Over-grazing leads to soil erosion
poor farming practices.
• wastage of water through leaking taps
Water recycling existing water is used for more than one purpose
and toilets and faulty pipelines.
Destruction of wetlands: Eutrophication and algal Mining should not be
• can be reduced by reducing the pressure destroyed because bloom This water is
in the pipes, by educating people to use
water wisely and by maintaining all they influence both the availability Water used for agriculture generally acidic, and
plumbing in quality of water; my contain pesticides and toxic and hot and it provide water for domestic
good condition. and herbicides and fertilizers contributes to
livestock use as well as for which pollute the water in
Cost of water
irrigation. rivers, dams and lakes Alien Plants
• The cost of water is influenced by costs The vegetation in the wetlands causing eutrofication. block waterways, also helps in purifying
involved in increasing the availability
and quality of water. the water lead to an increase in algal reducing light to
179
cooling of power-stations is improved
naturally. growth (algal Droughts
bloom). and floods other aquatic and in industries through
• thus deplete the oxygen • water availability decreases. heated water has a lower purification
plants;decompose. Boreholes and • natural vegetation can hold back oxygen content making it methods water from floods.
its effect on aquifers level in the difficult to support life
water thus Bacteria deplete
• to increase water availability in Pollution of water through domestic and
reducing the potential for the oxygen Exotic plantations and the depth of agricultural use
supply areas that do not have direct the water table
access life in such water. in the water. • Some exotic plants use a large domestic water may contain detergents and
to other sources of water pathogenic bacteria which has to be quantity of water from the ground. this decreases
• Constant use of boreholes eventually the level of the treated before it can be used again. water table, making less water
leads to the drying up of Thermal water is used for industrial purposes available may contain many heavy metals, oil,
pollution Water aquifers heating of heat and fertilizers.
water caused by purification • Fertilisers and pesticides may run off into rivers, ponds and dams and pollute the water.
the use of water in the quality of water
FOOD SECURITY
DEFINITION: Food security is the access, by all people at all times, to adequate, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and
productive life.
exponential rate (very rapidly) Growing of one type
• some countries cannot produce enough food to feed their growing population. of crop over large
areas of land year
• Food production needs to increase as rapidly as the world population after year.
• otherwise man y countries would experience food insecurity.
Monoculture
Exponential growth of the depletes nutrients
human population and water supplies
• W orld‟s population is and therefore
growing at an Monoculture impacts negatively
180
on the quality of the nced by the following factors o
topsoil r
g
F Droughts and Poor farming Alien plants and The loss of wild floods practices a
o reduction of varieties and its Droughts result agricultural land impact on gene n
o in crop losses Deplete the topsoil of pools and livestock water and nutrients. Crop i
d plants have death These alien plants out- replaced wild Floods causes compete s
indigenous varieties; wild m
s s
extensive varieties could be
e ;
damage in a plants; no natural short period of predators, growing used as an
c
u time and rapidly alternative source of decrease land food; it will reduce i
r available to the genetic diversity grow crops. n
v
i
o
t
l
y
v
Pest control Loss of topsoil Use of fertilizers Use of e
m pesticides Top 15 cm of soil Inorganic (chemical) and to kill pests that s
a compete that contain the organic (compost and manure) with humans
y for food. nutrients that can increase the nutrients in the Pesticides t
may kill or get plants require for soil and keep soil fertile into the tissues h
b of healthy growth plants. e
e Many farmers now use
biological control, which i
i uses a natural n
n predator/parasite to get s
f rid Genetically e
l engineered food r
u Produced from t
e genetically modified i
181
n (with a desired
g characteristic) from one
organism into another
o organism to increase
f the yield
a
Food wastage Could occur during the storage, production and processing of
g food. Includes food thrown away and food not eaten. Increases the prices of food to
e consumers and could reduce food security in a country.
n
e
of the pest
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
DEFINITION: Biodiversity refers to the variety of plant and animal species on Earth. Biodiversity ensures that humans have food, fresh
water, medicines and fuel that we obtain from our environment. It also ensures that the climate is regulated, floods are controlled
(wetlands), diseases are kept in check (predators eat the sick animals) and water is purified (filtering by wetlands). Biodiversity ensures
that seeds are dispersed, nutrients are cycled (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) and oxygen and soil continue to form. It also helps with
human quality of life by providing us with forms of recreation and ecotourism. As biodiversity declines, these things do not occur as they
should and the survival of humans become threatened
Factors that Reduce our methods The growth of large
Biodiversity cities may also be applied to plants
that are Monocultures
(urbanisation) negatively removed
Habitat destruction and sold for profit e.g. medicinal
through: Poaching Overgrazing impacts on
Refers to the illegal hunting of animals, biodiversity. plants.
either for food or because certain body Surfaces are covered with
Farming Urbanization parts can be sold for money. Poaching
182
concrete, and natural Alien plant invasions These
habitats are destroyed Ways in which our plants are species that have been
Golf Estates biodiversity can be introduced in an area and compete with
the natural plants in the area. They can
A form of maintained outcompete indigenous plants and
monoculture that Deforestation reduce the biodiversity Sustainable use
require large Permanent destruction of amounts of of the environment Using resources
water, indigenous forest and woodland without harming the ability of future
pesticides and areas. Caused by human Control of alien plant invasions generations to use that resource.
Substances from indigenous plants such
fertilisers which activities such as agriculture, May be controlled by mechanical (chopping as the African potato, Hoodia, rooibos
may runoff and logging, and using trees as down plants or physically removing them by and Devil‟s claw all have economical
poison aquatic firewood. It leads to the hand), chemical (spraying and medicinal value. Encourage
herbicides on the ecosystems destruction of the habitats of other plants) and traditional healers to grow their own
biological (introducing a natural organisms, like frogs and insects, enemy from the alien plant‟s plants and improving education of the
environment and Mining and this leads to the destruction of biodiversity. allowing it to women who generally gather the plants
reproduce and feed on the in the wild. Legislation should be
Alters the invasive plant methods) methods environment and can passed to limit the numbers of plants
that can be harvested at one time and
negatively affect the Loss of wetlands and grasslands biodiversity seeds of medicinal plants could be
Grasslands and wetlands have unique plant and wildlife collected
and provide many ecological services to humans.
Habitat destruction will lead to the loss of species.
183
Managing dumpsites for rehabilitation and prevention of soil and water
pollution
The simplest and most cost effective way of disposing of solid waste is to bury it in landfill
sites. It is a hole where solid waste is dumped

and then covered by soil. However, this way of disposing of solid waste contributes to soil
and groundwater pollution because rain seeps through the waste to produce a toxic
substance called leachate. To prevent the toxic leachate from reaching the groundwater,
a plastic liner is placed under the dumpsite
area.
Rehabilitation of landfill sites occurs before it is closed down. This involves the covering
of the old landfill site with clay soil, which is
impermeable to water, and then it is covered with topsoil. Grass or other vegetation is
then planted on the old landfill site. The growth of the plants stabilizes the area and the
old landfill site may be used as a recreational area such as a park or a golf course.
The need for recycling Re-using waste products includes re-using plastic shopping
bags, reusing glass and plastic containers – this helps to reduce the waste
produced. Recycling is a process whereby used materials/waste products are
recycled to make new products, for example plastic, glass, tin and paper. The
advantage of recycling is that it provides employment, reduces the use of raw
materials and energy, and reduces air, ground and water pollution.
Using methane from dumpsites for domestic use: heating and lighting
Methane is a gas produced as a result of the decomposition of organic waste. The
methane gas can be used as a fuel. Methane can be collected from landfill sites and
used to generate electricity for domestic use – heat for cooking and electricity for
lighting.
Safe disposal of nuclear waste
South Africa also uses radioactive material for example uranium, to power its nuclear
power station at Koeberg in the Western Cape. Unfortunately, a by-product of using
uranium is nuclear waste that is still radioactive and therefore dangerous to living
organisms. The nuclear waste is stored in thick steel drums and buried in trenches at
special protected sites.
9.1 The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) conducted a survey on food
security across the provinces. The results showed that the overall
percentage of food secure households in South Africa is 45,6 as opposed
to 48 in 2008.
The results showing the percentage of food insecure households in each

province according to the latest survey are shown in the table below.
Province Percentage of food
insecure
households
Eastern Cape 36
Limpopo 31
Mpumalanga 30
Free State 29
KwaZulu-Natal 28
Northern Cape 21
Gauteng 19
Western Cape 16
9.1.1 What is meant by food security? (2)
9.1.2 Use the data in the table to draw a bar graph for the four provinces
that have the highest
percentage of food insecure households. (7)
9.1.3 State how the use of fertilisers by farmers can:
(a) Increase food security for a country (1) (b)

Decrease food security for a country (1)
9.1.4 Explain how the use of pesticides by farmers can:
(a) Increase food security for a country (1) (b)

Decrease food security for a country (1)
9.1.5 State TWO factors, other than the use of fertilisers and pesticides, which
may have led to a decrease in the percentage of food secure
households in South Africa since
2008. (2)
(15)
9.2 The following table shows the total amount of solid waste and the amount of
recyclable material
dumped in a South African city landfill site over a number of years.
AMOUNT OF RECYCLABLE
TOTAL AMOUNT OF SOLID
YEAR MATERIAL IN SOLID WASTE
WASTE (MILLIONS OF TONS)
(MILLIONS OF TONS)
2003 1,49 0,78
2004 1,59 0,82
2005 1,80 1,20
2006 1,93 1,30
9.2.1 Describe the general trend in the total amount of waste produced and
the amount of recyclable materials dumped from 2003 to 2006. (4)
9.2.2 Explain TWO advantages of recycling. (4)
9.3 The table below shows the composition of household waste from a community.
TYPE OF WASTE PERCENTAGE

COMPOSITION
Organic matter 30
Plastic 25
Paper 15
Glass and tin 10
Other 20
9.3.1 Draw a pie chart to represent the data in the table above. Show ALL working.
(9)
Q2 Read the extract below.
FOOD SECURITY IN SOUTH AFRICA

One of the challenges in South Africa is access to food by the poor. In 2009
Statistics SA conducted a survey to determine the percentage of households in
each province that had access to food.
The results are shown in the table below:
PROVINCE HOUSEHOLDS THAT

HAVE ACCESS TO FOOD
(%)
Western Cape 85
Eastern Cape 79
Mpumalanga 79
Free State 67
Northern Cape 75
North West 79
KwaZulu-Natal 77
Limpopo 88
Gauteng 82

South Africa seems to have adequate food access in urban areas, but the same
cannot be said of households in rural areas. In rural areas prices of staple foods
(e.g. maize and rice) are usually higher than in urban areas.
Increasing agriculture is the key to food security and poverty alleviation. The
majority of people living in rural areas have access to land, but more still needs to
be done to make household farming (growing crops for family use only) in these
areas more efficient.
[Adapted from Food Security, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, March 2011]
2.1 What is meant by food security? (2)

2.2 Suggest ONE reason why food prices in rural areas are usually higher than food
prices in urban areas. (1)
2.3 State TWO ways in which household farming could reduce poverty.
(2)
2.4 Suggest TWO ways in which the Department of Agriculture can improve farming in
the rural areas. (2)
(7)
Q.2 One of the challenges in South Africa is access to food by the poor. In 2009,
Statistics SA conducted a survey to determine the percentage of households in
each province that had access to food.
PROVINCE HOUSEHOLDS THAT HAVE ACCESS

TO FOOD (%)
Western Cape 85
Eastern Cape 79
Mpumalanga 79
Free State 67
Northern Cape 75
North West 79
KwaZulu-Natal 77
Limpopo 88
Gauteng 82
2.1 DRAW a bar graph to compare access to food in the following three provinces,
namely Limpopo, Northern Cape and Free State.
(6)
Q3 The table below shows the percentage of carbon dioxide (CO 2) emitted by different
sectors in a certain city in South Africa.
CO2 EMISSION
SECTOR
(%)
Transport 25
Residential 27
Industrial 15
Commercial 28
Other 5
[Adapted from Energy scenarios for CT to-2050, 2011]
3.1 Draw a pie chart to represent the data in the table above. Show ALL calculations.
(7)
Q.4 Read the extract below.
FOOD SECURITY IN SOUTH AFRICA
One of the challenges in South Africa is access to food by the poor. In 2009
Statistics SA conducted a survey to determine the percentage of households
in each province that had access to food.
PROVINCE HOUSEHOLDS THAT

HAVE ACCESS TO
FOOD (%)
Western Cape 85
Eastern Cape 79
Mpumalanga 79
Free State 67
Northern Cape 75
North West 79
KwaZulu-Natal 77
Limpopo 88
Gauteng 82
South Africa seems to have adequate food access in urban areas, but the
same cannot be said of households in rural areas. In rural areas prices of
staple foods (e.g. maize and rice) are usually higher than in urban areas.
Increasing agriculture is the key to food security and poverty alleviation.

The majority of people living in rural areas have access to land, but more still
needs to be done to make household farming (growing crops for family use
only) in these areas more efficient.
[Adapted from Food Security, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, March 2011]
4.1 What is meant by food security? (3)

4.2 Suggest ONE reason why food prices in rural areas are usually higher than food
prices in urban areas. (1)
4.3 State TWO ways in which household farming could reduce poverty.
(2)
4.4 Suggest TWO ways in which the Department of Agriculture can improve farming in
the rural areas. (2)
(8)
Q.5 Read the extract below.
WATER CRISIS IN SOUTH AFRICA
The impact of the water scarcity will be one of South Africa's biggest
problems soon. Recently a province had to switch off the water supply
because the dams were 'so close on the edge'. It is stated that people are
using more water than what's available; the demand is more than the supply.
About 37% of the clean, drinkable water is being lost through poor
infrastructure (leaking pipes, dripping taps) and wastage. About 60% is used
for irrigation.
Industries and mines also contribute to the water crisis by polluting our water
bodies. They generate harmful waste which is sometimes dumped into water
bodies, creating acid mine drainage. The impact of climate change also adds
to the water crisis.
There is a suggestion that South Africa needs to work with neighbouring

countries to come up with solutions. An example is to grow the agricultural
products in neighbouring countries with a higher rainfall, and then South
Africa imports these products.
[Adapted from mg.co.za/article and www.news24.com]
5.1 Refer to the extract and state TWO causes of the water crisis facing South Africa.
(2)
5.2 State how importing agricultural products from neighbouring countries would reduce
South Africa's water crisis. (1)
5.3 Explain how switching off the water supply would affect the industries that depend
on water. (2)
5.4 The South African government could possibly solve the water crisis by increasing
the cost of water. Suggest TWO ways in which this solution could help to reduce
the water crisis.
(2)
(7)
1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions.
Write only the term next to the question numbers (1.2.1 to 1.2.9) in the ANSWER
BOOK.
1.2.1 The structures formed by the centrioles during cell division
1.2.2 Receptors that provide information about the position of the head
1.2.3 A hormone that regulates the water balance in the body
1.2.4 A flammable gas produced in landfills
1.2.5 Areas with porous rock that store water
1.2.6 The part of the brain that regulates breathing
1.2.7 The process of maintaining a constant internal environment in the

human body
1.2.8 The membrane that, together with the endometrium, forms the
placenta

1.2.9 The structure in the head of a sperm containing digestive enzymes
(9)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY,

B ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A
only, B only, both A and B or none next to the question numbers (1.3.1
to 1.3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Unfertilised eggs are released from A: Asexual reproduction

the female's body B: External fertilisation
1.3.2 Plant hormone that helps plant A: Gibberellins Abscisic
seeds to survive unfavourable B: acid
conditions, e.g. droughts
1.3.3 Hormones secreted by the pituitary A: Prolactin
gland B: Growth hormone
(3 x 2) (6)
1.4 The diagrams below show the response of the human eye to two different
conditions.
Diagram 1
Diagram 2
C
A
1.4.1 Identify part:

(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
(c) C (1)
1.4.2 Identify the process in Diagram 1. (1)
1.4.3 Name the part of the eye that is responsible for the response
in Diagram 1. (1)
1.4.4 State the consequence to the person's vision if the process in

Diagram 2 does not occur. (1)
(6)
1.5 The diagram below represents an endocrine gland A and the events that take place
in the ovary during the menstrual cycle in humans.
GlandA
FSH B
E
Identify:
1.5.1
(a) Gland A (1)
(b) Structure B (1)
(c) Process C (1)
(d) Structure D (1)

1.5.2 State the effect on the oestrogen levels in the blood if gland A
stops secreting FSH. (1)
1.5.3 State ONE function of LH. (1)

(6)
1.6 A normal, healthy person was placed in a cold room. After 30 minutes the
thermal image shown below was produced. This thermal image indicates
the temperature of different parts of the body. Lighter colours on the scan
indicate temperatures lower than normal body temperature.
1.6.1 Which colour, black, grey or white, represents the normal body
temperature? (1)
1.6.2 State what occurred in each of the following parts in this person's
skin during temperature regulation:
(a) Blood vessels (1)
(b) Sweat glands (1)
1.6.3 Name the part of the brain that is responsible for thermoregulation. (1)
1.6.4 State ONE way in which the thermal image would differ if the
person was placed in a hot room for 30 minutes. (1)
(5)
TOTAL SECTION A: 50 SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagram below represents a phase of meiosis.

A
2.1.1 Identify the phase of meiosis in the diagram above. (1)
2.1.2 Draw a diagram to show only the TWO gametes formed from
cell A. (NO labels required.) (4)
2.1.3 Tabulate TWO differences between prophase I and prophase II. (5)
(10)
2.2 A clinostat is a device used to investigate plant growth responses. It has a disc that
rotates very slowly when the clinostat is switched on.
During an investigation on plant responses to light, the procedure below was

followed:
• Three pot plants of the same species were used.

• Each pot plant was placed on one of three identical clinostats.
• Each set of apparatus, A, B and C, was placed in a box with a single
opening.
• Each clinostat was treated in a different way over a period of five weeks.
The results of the investigation are represented in the diagrams below.

Disc of
clinostat
A B C
2.2.1 (1)
Name the plant growth response to light.
2.2.2 State TWO factors that were kept constant during the investigation. (2)
2.2.3 Give ONE reason why the results of this investigation may be
considered to be unreliable. (1)
2.2.4 In which apparatus (A, B or C) was the clinostat:
(a) Switched on and rotating slowly (1)
(b) Switched off, but manually rotated through 180° once a week
(1)
2.2.5 Explain the effect of the unilateral light on the distribution of auxins
in the plant in apparatus C. (3)
(9)
2.3 The graph below shows the speed at which impulses are transmitted along
sensory neuron axons of increasing diameter when the axons are
myelinated (covered with myelin sheath) and unmyelinated (no myelin
sheath present).

COMPARISON OF THE SPEED OF IMPULSE
TRANSMISSION IN MYELINATED AND
UNMYELINATED SENSORY NEURONS OF
INCREASING AXON DIAMETER
9 Myelinated
8
7
6
5 Unmyelinated
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
Axon diameter (µm)
Adapted from: www.quora.com

2.3.1 Describe the direction of the impulse within a neuron. (2)
2.3.2 Give the diameter range (in µm) when the speed of the impulse is
faster in unmyelinated axons than in myelinated axons. (2)
2.3.3 Describe the relationship between axon diameter and the speed of
the impulse in myelinated axons. (2)
2.3.4 Use evidence from the graph to explain the effect of multiple
sclerosis on a sufferer whose motor neuron axons are greater
than 1 µm in diameter. (3)
(9)
2.4 TWO types of hearing loss occur in humans:
• Conductive hearing loss – occurs when sound vibrations cannot be

conducted through the outer and middle ear
• Sensorineural hearing loss – occurs when sound waves in the inner ear are
not converted into nerve impulses or when the impulses cannot be
transmitted to the brain

The diagram below represents the human ear.
A C D
B
E
H G
2.4.1 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:
(a) Transmits impulses to the brain (2)
(b) Allows pressure to equalise between the outer ear and the
middle ear (2)
2.4.2 Give only the LETTER of TWO structures in the diagram of the ear that, when
damaged, would result in the following:
(a) Conductive hearing loss (2)
(b) Sensorineural hearing loss (2)
2.4.3 Middle-ear infections are a common cause of hearing loss.
State ONE way in which middle-ear infections are treated. (1)
2.4.4 Name the part of the ear where ear wax is produced. (1)
2.4.5 Explain why hearing loss due to ear wax is usually temporary.
(2)
(12) [40] QUESTION 3
3.1 The diagram below represents some parts of the male reproductive system.

Vas deferens
3.1.1 Identify parts:
(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
(b) C (1)
3.1.2 Describe the process of spermatogenesis in part A. (4)
3.1.3 Test results show that a man has a low sperm count.
Explain why a doctor would advise the man to wear underwear that
is not tight. (3)
3.1.4 During a vasectomy the vas deferens from both testes is cut.
Explain ONE reason why a man who:
(a) Does not want to have children will choose to have a

vasectomy (2)
(b) Has had a vasectomy is still capable of ejaculation (2)

(14)
3.2 Maize was genetically modified (GM) to increase its resistance to insects. This GM
maize was introduced into a country to increase food security.

The graph below indicates the number of maize farmers in the country
that were diagnosed with severe depression over a period of ten years. It
also shows the area of agricultural land that was planted with GM maize
crops.
NUMBER OF FARMERS DIAGNOSED WITH

AND THE NUMBER OF HECTARES PLANTED
DEPRESSION
GENETICAL
WITH Y MODIFIED (GM) MAIZE FROM 1997 TO
350 L 2006 700
0 Casesof
300 60
0 depression 0
250 500
0
200 400
0
150 300
0 Area planted with GM
100 20
maize
0 0
50 10
0 0
0 0
199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
7 8 9 0 Yea1 2 3 4 5 6
r
3.2.1 Give a definition for food security. (3)
3.2.2 Name TWO farming practices other than growing GM foods, that
the farmers may use to improve food security. (2)
3.2.3 From the graph, state how many farmers suffered from depression
in 2003. (1)
3.2.4 Explain why more farmers suffered from depression before the
introduction of GM maize. (3)
(9)
3.3 Read the extract and study the diagram below.
ECTOPIC PREGNANCIES
An ectopic pregnancy is a problem in which the embryo attaches outside the

uterus. In most cases the embryo implants in the Fallopian tubes but
implantation can also occur on the ovaries, in the cervix or in the abdominal
cavity. An ectopic pregnancy cannot proceed normally. The embryo usually
cannot survive.
Ectopic pregnancies are caused by one or more of the following:
• An infection or inflammation of the Fallopian tubes

• The development of scar tissue from a previous infection or a surgical
procedure in the Fallopian tubes
• Previous surgery in the pelvic area
In most cases, the Fallopian tube where the ectopic pregnancy occurs, has to
be removed surgically to save the woman's life.
B
C
A
D
E
3.3.1 Give only the LETTERS of the TWO parts in the diagram where implantation of
the embryo may occur during an ectopic pregnancy. (2)
3.3.2 Explain why women who have had surgery on their Fallopian tubes have a
greater risk of experiencing an ectopic pregnancy. (3)
3.3.3 Explain why a woman who had her Fallopian tube removed after an ectopic
pregnancy occurred, may still be able to fall pregnant. (2)
3.3.4 Give TWO reasons why the embryo may not be able to survive during an
ectopic pregnancy inside the Fallopian tube. (2)
(9)
3.4 Water hyacinths are aquatic alien plants. The plants grow rapidly when introduced into
a new environment.
Due to heavy rain, a few water hyacinths were washed into a natural pond
from a dam further up the river.

The diagram below represents a longitudinal section through the pond two weeks
later.
Floating hyacinth plants
3.4.1 Name TWO methods that could be used to reduce the alien plant
population. (2)
3.4.2 Explain how the alien plant invasion will negatively affect the availability of
clean water for the surrounding community. (4)
3.4.3 Water hyacinths release oxygen during photosynthesis.
Explain why this process does not increase the oxygen

concentration of the water. (2)
(8)
[40]
TOTAL SECTION B: 80
SECTION C
QUESTION 4
Both the nervous and the endocrine systems are involved when a person is in a
dangerous situation.
Describe the path of an impulse in a reflex arc during a reflex action. Also describe
the role of different glands of the endocrine system in providing the body with extra
energy during the dangerous situation.
Content: (17)
(3)
Synthesis:

Write only the term next to the question numbers (1.2.1 to 1.2.6) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
1.2.1 The analysis of DNA samples to identify individuals that may be

related
1.2.2 The sugar found in RNA
1.2.3 The structure in an animal cell that forms spindle fibres
1.2.4 Undifferentiated animal cells that can give rise to specialised cell
types
1.2.5 The division of the cytoplasm after a cell nucleus has divided
1.2.6 A diagram representing possible evolutionary relationships between

species (6 x 1) (6)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY,

B ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A
only, B only, both A and B or none next to the question numbers (1.3.1 to
1.3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II (6)
1.4 A1.3.1 Jawofofa African

section apes has the following
DNA molecule A: Nobasespaces between teeth
sequence:
B: Large canines
C 1.3.2TIncreases genetic variation A: Cloning
B: Crossing over
T 1.3.3 All the genes in a species A: Genome Genotype
A B:
(3 x
C 2)
1.4.1 Name the nitrogenous base represented by C in the DNA molecule.

(1)
1.4.2 The percentage of guanine in this DNA molecule is 30%.
Give the percentage of thymine in the same molecule. (2)
1.4.3 Give the mRNA sequence, from left to right, for this segment of DNA.
(2)

1.4.4 The table below shows the DNA triplets that code for some
amino acids.
DNA TRIPLET AMINO ACID

ACA Cysteine
CTT Glutamic acid
TGT Threonine
TTA Asparagine
GAA Leucine
TAC Methionine
Give the sequence of amino acids that would be coded for by the
section of DNA above. (2)
1.4.5 Give the anticodon for the amino acid methionine. (1)
(8)
1.5 The diagram below shows the karyotype of an individual with a disorder caused by
non-disjunction.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 Y
X
23
1.5.1 Name:
(a) This disorder (1)
(b) The phase in meiosis when non-disjunction occurs (1)
(c) The type of mutation that is a result of non-disjunction (1)
1.5.2 Identify the type of chromosomes numbered 1 to 22. (1)

(4)
1.6 The table shows the evolution of cranial capacity in some species.
SPECIES PERIOD OF AVERAGE
EXISTENCE CRANIAL
(MILLION YEARS CAPACITY
AGO) (cm3)
Sahelanthropus 7,0–6,0 450
Australopithecus africanus 3,0–2,0 480
Homo habilis 2,2–1,6 650
Homo erectus 2,0–0,4 900
Homo neanderthalensis 0,4–0,04 1 500
Homo sapiens 0,2–0 1 450
1.6.1 Name:
(a) TWO hominid genera in the table above (2)
(b) TWO fossils of A. africanus that were found in South Africa

(2)
(c) The genus that appeared first on Earth as shown in the table
(1)
1.6.2 Which hominid had a cranial capacity closest to that of

Homo sapiens? (1)
1.6.3 Give the smallest cranial capacity (in cm3) of a Homo species. (1)
1.6.4 When did Australopithecus africanus become extinct? (1)
1.6.5 Fossils are used as evidence of hominid evolution.
Name TWO other lines of evidence. (2)

(10)
TOTAL SECTION A: 50 SECTION B QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagram below represents a portion of a DNA molecule.

B
2.1.1 Identify B and C. (2)
2.1.2 Name:
(a) Monomer A (1)
(b) TWO scientists who received a Nobel prize for discovering the
DNA molecule (2)
(c) ONE organelle in a cell where DNA is located (1)
2.1.3 Describe how a mutation on DNA may change the structure of a

protein. (4)
2.1.4 Tabulate TWO structural differences between a monomer of RNA

and a monomer of DNA. (5)
(15)
2.2 Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) in dogs is caused by a dominant allele (H).
The pedigree diagram below shows the offspring produced by two dogs,
1 and 2.

1 2
KEY:
Male dog without PKD Female dog without PKD
Male dog with PKD Female dog with PKD
2.2.1 How many offspring are affected by PKD? (1)
2.2.2 Explain how the genotype of offspring A shows that both parents
are heterozygous. (4)
(5)
2.3 Read the following extract on artificial selection.
Broccoli, brussel sprouts and cauliflower are edible plants in the

cabbage family. They are different varieties of the same
species (Brassica oleracea). They produce a cluster of yellow
or white flowers. Each flower has four petals, four sepals, six
anthers and a single stigma, style and ovary.
The somatic cells of these plants have a diploid chromosome number of

18. The chromosome number is reduced from diploid to haploid during
gamete production, specifically during anaphase I of meiosis.
The size of the cabbage head was always important in artificial selection
projects, but now the focus is on increasing resistance to various insects
and diseases and on improving the nutritional content of cabbage.
2.3.1 Define a species. (2)
2.3.2 Name TWO structures in a flower where meiosis takes place. (2)

2.3.3 How many of each of the following structures is present in each cell
of Brassica oleracea in the process of meiosis:
(a) Chromosomes at the end of telophase II (1)
(b) Chromatids during metaphase I (1)
2.3.4 Describe the events of anaphase II. (3)
2.3.5 Explain why the focus is now on increasing resistance to insects

and diseases. (2)
(11)
2.4 A species of fish has three phenotypes for fin length: elongated, short and medium.
Heterozygous fish have medium fins.
The characteristic is under the control of one gene with two alleles: elongated
(E) and short (S).
2.4.1 Name and describe the type of dominance shown here. (3)
2.4.2 Use a genetic cross to show the percentage chance of two fish with
medium fins having offspring with short fins. (6)
(9)
[40]
QUESTION 3
3.1 A group of students observed that the mating calls of a population of frogs at
the local dam had recently become much louder. The dam is close to a
highway, where traffic noise has increased over the years.
They wanted to investigate if the increase in traffic noise from the highway
had an evolutionary effect on the loudness of the frogs' mating calls in the
mating season.
They recorded the following:
• Average level of traffic noise over a period of 6 years

• Average loudness of the frogs' mating calls during the same period
YEAR AVERAGE LOUDNESS OF AVERAGE LOUDNESS OF

TRAFFIC NOISE (dB) MATING CALLS (dB)
2006 30 36
2007 32 38

2008 36 40
2009 40 48
2010 55 68
2011 62 74
3.1.1 Explain the advantage of a louder mating call. (2)
3.1.2 State why these results may be considered to be reliable. (1)
3.1.3 State a conclusion for this investigation. (2)
3.1.4 Give TWO variables that should be kept constant in this

investigation. (2)
3.1.5 Draw line graphs on the same set of axes to show the change in
average loudness of traffic noise and mating calls for the period
2006 to 2009. (7)
(14)
3.2 In holly trees, red fruit (R) is dominant over white fruit (r) and spiny leaves (L) are
dominant over smooth leaves (l).
The Punnett square below shows the possible results of a cross between two
individual plants. The genotype at X is not given.
GAMETES RL Rl rL rl
RL X RRLl RrLL RrLl
Rl RRLl RRll RrLl Rrll
rL RrLL RrLl rrLL rrLl
rl RrLl Rrll rrLl rrll
3.2.1 Give the:

(a) Genotype of X (1)
(b) Phenotype of the parents (2)

3.2.2 In a population of 128 plants, how many plants
with red fruit and
smooth leaves are expected from the Punnett square above?
Show ALL working. (3)

3.2.3 A farmer wanted to produce plants with only white fruit and spiny
leaves.
Give the genotype of the plants that he should use in the cross. (2)
(8)
3.3 Synthetic insulin is used to treat diabetes and is produced by genetic engineering
technology.
The diagram below represents the process.
Genetically engineered
bacterium
Human cell
DNA
Human insulin-
producing gene
Recombinant DNA Fermentation

tank
Plasmid
DNA Human
insulin
Bacterium
3.3.1 Define genetic engineering. (2)
3.3.2 Describe the steps involved in producing the recombinant DNA. (4)
3.3.3 Explain why bacteria are most suitable for genetic engineering. (2)
3.3.4 Suggest THREE objections that some people might have to

genetic engineering. (3)
(11)
3.4 Flightless bird species that are currently distributed across different continents
are shown in the picture below.
South America
Tinamou
Tinamou Africa Australia
Africa
Australia
Ostrich
Ostrich Emu
Emu New Zealand
Rhea
Rhea Kiwi
Scientists hypothesise that these species of flightless birds arose from a single
common ancestor that was able to fly.
3.4.1 Describe how Lamarck would have explained the evolution of

flightless birds. (4)
3.4.2 Name THREE reproductive isolation mechanisms that keep

species separate. (3)
(7)
[40]
SECTION C
QUESTION 4
Describe natural selection and punctuated equilibrium. Also state THREE ways in which
natural selection differs from artificial selection.
Content: (17)
Synthesis: (3)
(20)

NOTE: NO marks will be awarded for answers in the form of a table, flow charts or
diagrams.
TOTAL SECTION C: 20
GRAND TOTAL: 150
Write only the term next to the question numbers (1.2.1 to 1.2.9) in the ANSWER
BOOK.
1.2.1 The bonds between nitrogenous bases in a DNA molecule
1.2.2 All the genes that make up an organism
1.2.3 The type of evidence for human evolution that includes tool-making
1.2.4 The process whereby new species are formed
1.2.5 An inherited disorder where blood fails to clot properly
1.2.6 The opening in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord
passes
1.2.7 Two or more alternative forms of a gene at the same locus
1.2.8 The type of variation in a population with no intermediate

phenotypes
1.2.9 Chromosomes involved in sex determination (9 x 1)

(9)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A

ONLY, B ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN
II. Write A only, B only, both A and B or none next to the question
numbers (1.3.1 to 1.3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Type of inheritance where both A: Co-dominance

alleles are expressed equally in B: Complete dominance
the phenotype
1.3.2 Evidence of evolution A: Modification by descent
B: Fossil record

1.3.3 Discovered the structure of the A: Watson and Crick White
DNA molecule B: and Dart
(3 x 2)
(6)
1.4 The diagram below shows the structure of a chromosome.
A B
1.4.1 Identify parts D and E. (2)
1.4.2 How many pairs of chromosomes are found in a normal human

somatic cell? (1)
1.4.3 Give only the LETTER of the part that:
(a) Attaches to the spindle fibres during cell division (1)
(b) Represents a gene (1)
1.4.4 Name:
(a) TWO organelles in an animal cell where DNA is found (2)
(b) The natural shape of a DNA molecule (1)

(c) The process whereby DNA makes an identical copy of itself
(1)
(9)
1.5 Read the extract below.
Trilobites are an extinct group of marine arthropods. Many of their fossils

have been discovered. They had a tough exoskeleton and they
are thought to be closely related to three other phyla of extinct
arthropods, namely helmetids, tegopeltids and naraoids.
The tegopeltids and helmetids are the two most closely related phyla and
are more closely related to trilobites than to naraoids.
Study the diagram below, which illustrates the possible evolutionary

relationships among the four phyla, represented by the letters M, N, O
and P.
M N O P
R S
U
1.5.1 Name the type of diagram illustrated. (1)
1.5.2 What structural feature of trilobites, described in the extract,

improved the chances of fossilisation? (1)
1.5.3 Give only the LETTER of the most recent common ancestor for
phyla:
(a) M and O (1)
(b) M, N, O and P (1)

1.5.4 Which of the extinct arthropods (trilobites, helmetids, tegopeltids or naraoids) are
represented by phylum:
(a) M (1)
(b) N (1)
(c) O (1)
(d) P (1)
(8)
TOTAL SECTION A: 50 SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1 The diagrams below represent the distribution of chromosome pair 21 as it appears in
gametes at the end of meiosis II in a human male.
A B C D
2.1.1 Explain why the gametes represented by diagrams C and D do not

have any chromosomes. (3)
2.1.2 If gamete A is involved in fertilisation, describe how this may result

in Down syndrome. (3)
2.1.3 Due to the process of crossing over, the chromosomes in diagrams A

and B appear different to each other.
(a) Identify the phase of meiosis during which crossing over

occurs. (1)
(b) Describe the events during crossing over. (3)
(c) Explain the significance of crossing over in natural selection.

(3)
(13)

2.2 Severe combined immune deficiency syndrome (SCID) is a disorder affecting the
immune system. It is caused by a sex-linked recessive allele (Xd).
The diagram below shows the inheritance of the disorder in a family. It is not
known if individual 1 has the disorder or not.
?
1 2
3 4
5
KEY:
Male without SCID Female without SCID
Male with SCID Female with SCID
2.2.1 Give the:
(a) Phenotype of individual 2 (1)
(b) Phenotype of individual 1 (1)
(c) Genotype of individual 3 (2)
2.2.2 Explain how individual 5 inherited the disorder. (2)

(6)
2.3 Read the extract below.
The first cloned animal in Africa, a calf named Futhi, was born in North
West in South Africa on 19 April 2003. No fertilisation was
involved in the production of Futhi. She was produced from a
single cell taken from the ear of a donor cow named LMJC 865.
The donor cow had a high average milk yield of 78 litres a day.
Cloning allows for the production of organisms with desired
characteristics.

Some people argue that cloning reduces genetic variation in the
offspring, with no further genetic improvement. Cloning is an expensive
procedure and may not be economical for commercial agriculture.
2.3.1 According to the extract, state ONE:
(a) Advantage of cloning (1)
(b) Disadvantage of cloning (1)
2.3.2 State why the donor cell was taken from LMJC 865 and not from any
other cow. (1)
2.3.3 State why an ear cell was used and not an ovum. (2)
2.3.4 Briefly describe the process of cloning. (4)

(9)
2.4 Flower colour (purple or white) in a particular plant species is controlled by two
alleles, D and d.
Four crosses were carried out to determine which allele is dominant.

Forty (40) offspring were produced in each cross. The phenotypes of the
parents and offspring in each cross were recorded.
The results are shown in the table below.
PHENOTYPE
CROSS
PARENT 1 PARENT 2 OFFSPRING
1 purple white 40 purple
2 purple purple 31 purple, 9 white
3 white white 40 white
4 purple white 21 purple, 19 white
2.4.1 State the dominant flower colour. (1)
2.4.2 Use cross 1 to explain your answer to QUESTION 2.4.1. (2)
2.4.3 State Mendel's Law of Segregation. (3)
2.4.4 Use a genetic cross to show how the crossing of two purple flowering
plants can produce white offspring, as in cross 2. (6)
(12)
[40]
QUESTION 3
3.1 The diagrams below show the upper jaws of some fossils. These diagrams are drawn
to scale.
Chimpanzee Australopithecus afarensis Homo sapiens
3.1.1 Describe ONE visible difference between the jaw of a chimpanzee and that of
Homo sapiens which show trends in human evolution. (2)
3.1.2 Based on the differences in dentition, what conclusion can be made about
the change in diet from Australopithecus afarensis to
Homo sapiens? (2)
3.1.3 Australopithecus may be described as a transitional species

between the chimpanzee and Homo sapiens.
(a) Define a transitional species. (1)
(b) Use ONE visible feature of the jaw to explain why

A. afarensis may be described as a transitional species. (2)
(7)
3.2 There are two variations in the colour of kingsnakes. Some have a bright
colourful pattern and others have a dull pattern. Kingsnakes are non-poisonous to
their predators.
Coral snakes also have a bright colour pattern, but are poisonous to their
predators. This is a defence mechanism as predators avoid them.
Scientists observed that where kingsnakes shared the same habitat with coral
snakes, there were more kingsnakes that had bright colourful patterns.

The diagram below represents the distribution of the snakes.
KEY:
Coral snakes
Bright kingsnakes
Dull kingsnakes
3.2.1 Explain how the bright colour pattern of coral snakes influences their
survival. (3)
3.2.2 Use Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection to explain
why there are more brightly coloured kingsnakes in this habitat. (6)
(9)
3.3 Artificial selection programmes have produced two varieties of maize. The
one has grains with a high oil content (Variety F) and the other has grains with a
low oil content (Variety G).
The graph below shows the changes in the oil content of the grains of the two
varieties over 100 years of artificial selection.

Changes in the oil content of the grains of two varieties of
maize over 100 years
120
100 Variety F
80
60
40
20
Variety G
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Years
3.3.1 In which year did the two maize varieties have the same oil content? (1)
3.3.2 Calculate the percentage increase in the oil content of Variety F over
the 100-year period. Show ALL working. (3)
3.3.3 Tabulate TWO differences between natural selection and artificial

selection. (5)
(9)
3.4 Weeds are problematic to farmers because they invade farm fields and
outcompete crop plants for space. This reduces the crop yield.
Farmers spray their fields with chemicals, known as herbicides, to kill the weeds.
Some weeds, however, have evolved to be resistant to herbicides.
Scientists investigated the time it took for a species of weed to develop

resistance to five types of herbicides. The results are shown in the table
below.
TYPES OF TIME TAKEN FOR WEEDS TO

HERBICIDE DEVELOP RESISTANCE (YEARS)
2,4-D 9
Dalapon 9
Picloran 25
Dicloflop 7
Trifluralin 26
3.4.1 Refer to the passage above and state how weeds act to reduce crop
yield. (1)
3.4.2 Identify the:

(a) Independent variable (1)
(b) Dependent variable (1)
3.4.3 Name the herbicide:
(a) To which the weeds developed resistance the fastest (1)
(b) That remained effective for the longest period of time (1)
3.4.4 The scientists used the same weed species when investigating
resistance to the different herbicides.
(a) Describe how the scientists would have determined the resistance of the
weeds to the herbicides. (2)
(b) Explain how the use of the same weed species improved the
validity of the investigation. (2)
3.4.5 Draw a bar graph to show the time taken for the evolution of
resistance to the herbicides. (6)
(15) [40]
TOTAL SECTION B: 80
SECTION C
QUESTION 4
Describe the structure of RNA in a cell and the involvement of the different types of
RNA in protein synthesis.
Content: (17)
Synthesis: (3)
(20)
NOTE: NO marks will be awarded for answers in the form of a table, flow charts or
diagrams.
TOTAL SECTION C: 20
GRAND TOTAL: 150

3.1.2 Terminology
Terminology is the key for understanding Life Sciences. You need to understand the
biological terms in order to be able to understand the question and to have the necessary
vocabulary to answer the questions. Most of the key concepts can be found in Mind the
Gap. Some of the biological terms are listed below:
Paper 1
Biological term Description
The plant growth hormone that promotes seed dormancy
The series of changes that take place in the shape of the lens
and the eyeball in response to the distance of an object from
the eye
A hormone that regulates the salt concentration in human blood
The structure in the amniotic egg that stores wastes
The reproductive strategy when hatchlings of birds are not able
to move and feed themselves
The watery fluid that supports the cornea and the front chamber
of the eye
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls
involuntary actions
The variety of plant and animal species on earth
Measurement of the total amount of carbon dioxide emissions
of an individual per year
Organelle found only in animal cells that forms the spindle
during cell division
Structures formed when the centrosome divides into two which
moves to opposite poles of the cell during cell division
The point where two chromatids overlap during crossing over
A layer inside the eye that absorbs light, thus reducing
reflection
The outermost membrane found around the embryo/foetus
The receptors in the ear that detect changes in the direction
and speed of any movement of the body
The division of the cytoplasm through the constriction of the cell
membrane at the end of cell division
Removal of large numbers of trees from an area
The inner lining of the uterus where implantation of the embryo
occurs
The part of the ear that equalises the pressure on either side of
the tympanic membrane
The accumulation of nutrients in water bodies from the overuse
of fertilisers on land, stimulating excessive plant growth
A type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with
the nucleus of an ovum outside the body of the female
Part of the female reproductive system where fertilisation
occurs
The access, by all people at all times, to adequate, safe and
nutritious food
The growth of part of a plant in response to gravity
Trapping of heat by a layer of greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon
dioxide, methane) surrounding the earth. The enhanced
greenhouse effect is caused by the large scale release of
greenhouse gases surrounding the earth and thereby causing
global warming
Small tubes placed in the tympanic membrane to drain liquid
from the middle ear
The maintenance of a constant internal environment in the
body within certain limits
A type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with
the nucleus of an ovum inside the reproductive system of the
female
The phase in the cell cycle when DNA replication occurs
A defective condition of the eye where a person can see distant
objects clearly while nearby objects are blurred
The hormone responsible for ovulation and the formation of the
corpus luteum
The part of the brain that controls the heart rate
A collective name for the membranes that protect the brain
The hormone that causes the thickening of the endometrium
and is produced by the Graafian follicle
The membrane that transmits sound vibrations to the inner ear
The reproductive strategy involving the laying of eggs
A layer in the atmosphere that is damaged by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
The growth of part of a plant in response to light
Part of the human ear that directs sound waves into the
auditory canal
The reproductive strategy when hatchlings of birds are able to
move and feed themselves
The stage in humans when sexual maturity is reached in males
and females
Innermost membrane in the eye that contains photoreceptors
A defective condition of the eye where a person can see nearby
objects clearly while distant objects are blurred
A detectable change (e.g. pain, heat, light, sound) that will be
received by a receptor and converted into an impulse
A hormone that stimulates the maturation of sperm and
stimulates puberty in males
The type of pollution caused when water is released into a river
after being heated in power stations or industries
A hormone which stimulates the secretion of thyroxin
The male reproductive tube that connects the testis with the
urethra
The narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin that decreases
the amount of blood flowing to the skin in humans when the
environmental temperature is low
The widening of the blood vessels in the skin that increases the
amount of blood flowing to the skin in humans when the
environmental temperature is high
A type of reproduction in humans where the foetus develops
inside the uterus
Paper 2
Biological term Description
The condition that results from the absence of skin
pigmentation
Two alternative forms of a gene at the same locus
Using two eyes with overlapping fields of view to create a
single visual image
The variety of life forms that exist on Earth
The distribution of species in different parts of the world
The ability of an organism to walk on two limbs
A copy of an organism that is genetically identical to the
original organism
The process by which genetically identical organisms are
formed using biotechnology
The type of inheritance where both alleles are equally
dominant and both express themselves equally in the
phenotype. E.g. A white cow crossed with a black bull will
produce a calf with black and white patches
The type of inheritance where the dominant allele masks the
expression of the recessive allele in the heterozygous
condition
A genetic cross involving two different characteristics e.g.
shape and colour of seeds
A bar code pattern formed from DNA which is unique to each
person/organism
A human disorder caused by non-disjunction of chromosome
pair number 21
The permanent disappearance of a species from earth
The opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal
cord enters
A segment of DNA/a chromosome that codes for a particular
characteristic
The complete set of chromosomes in the cell of an organism
A sex-linked genetic disorder characterised by the absence of
a blood-clotting factor
The family to which humans belong
Similar structures on different organisms that suggest they
have a common ancestor
Two chromosomes that carry the same set of genes
The weak bond between nitrogenous bases in a DNA molecule
A tentative explanation of a phenomenon that can be tested
and may be accepted or rejected
The type of inheritance where both alleles express themselves
in such a way that an intermediate phenotype is formed. E.g. A
white flowering plant crossed with a red flowering plant will
produce a pink flowering plant.
A representation of the number, shape and arrangement of all
the chromosomes in the nucleus of a somatic cell
The position of a gene on a chromosome
A genetic cross involving one characteristic e.g. colour of
seeds
The process by which organisms best suited to survival in the
environment achieve greater reproductive success, thereby
passing advantageous characteristics onto future generations
The name of the process when homologous chromosome pairs
fail to separate during meiosis
Openings in the nuclear membrane that allow mRNA to leave
the nucleus
The hypothesis that states that modern humans/Homo sapiens
originated in Africa and migrated to other parts of the world
The name of the bond that forms between amino acids in a
protein molecule
A diagrammatic representation showing possible evolutionary
relationships among different species
A group of organisms of the same species living in the same
habitat at the same time
The ability of an organism to walk on four limbs
The process by which a DNA molecule makes identical copies
of itself
The organelle in the cytoplasm which is the site of protein
synthesis
Process whereby new species are formed from the original
population
A group of organisms which can interbreed to produce fertile
offspring
The structure responsible for pulling chromosomes to the poles
of an animal cell during cell division
The type of vision that allows for depth perception and 3-
dimensional vision
The stage of protein synthesis during which mRNA forms from
DNA
The stage of protein synthesis during which tRNA interprets the
message
For on in
any help thephysical
mRNA toand
form
lifea sciences
specific protein
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The type of nucleic acid that carries a specific amino acid

Examination Oriented: Name: Surname: School: Royal College

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www.thundermoviz.com, 23 Goldman Florida

www.royalcollege.co.za , 12 Goldman Florida

T2 Responding to be environment (humans) 27 40

T3 Human endocrine system 10 15

T4 Human impact (Grade 11) 17 25

TOTALS 100% 150

T1 DNA: Code of Life 19 27

T2 Genetics and Inheritance 30 45

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T3/T4 Human Evolution 29 43

TOTALS 100% 150

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How is the nucleus constructed?

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STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:

1. Each DNA nucleotide consists of:

Contains the nitrogenous bases adenine,

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Weak hydrogen bonds

DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID) RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)

Differences between DNA and RNA:

Ribose sugar Deoxyribose sugar

Single strand Double strands

It is linear/straight Strands form a helix (twisted)

Strand is short Strands are long

Contains the nitrogenous bases adenine, Contains the nitrogenous bases

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B) If c is 20% what is the ratio T:G

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Alanine CGA GCU CGA

Histidine GTC CAG GUC

Valine CAT GUA CAU

Serine AGA UCU AGA

DISADVANTAGES OF DNA PROFILING

2.1 Identify the following:

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3.4 Provide the:

tRNA Amino acid

4. What is the collective name for the parts numbered 2, 3 and 4?

Nitrogenous base composition (%)

1.2.1 Which test tube (1 or 2) contains virus DNA?

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1.4.1How many codons are shown in the

Q.1 The diagram below shows the process of protein synthesis.

1.1 Identify the following molecules:

AGA AUG GGA

Write down the correct sequence of amino acids for triplets 1 to 3.

Base triplet number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Zinhle Ayanda Lindiwe Gugu Bandile Litzwe

DNA profiles of different individuals

1.5.1 The diagram below shows the sequence of nitrogenous bases of a

GTT ATG TGG

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Anticodons of nine different tRNA molecules each

1.2.1 Name the process represented in the diagram. (1)

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Answer each of the following questions based on the tables above.