1

DISTANCE LEARNING EFFECTIVENESS TO LEARNING OUTCOME AS

PREDICTED BY STUDENT’S CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN FEATURES

Review of Literature

This part provides some important literature and studies which have bearing on

the issues and problems under investigation of this study. Work of authorities and

research on subjects related to the topic were carefully reviewed to help the researchers

acquire a much broader understanding of the different issues relating to various distance

learning modalities.

In organizing the various related literature readings, thematic classification of

various literature were utilized as follows:

1. Distance Learning

2. Learner’s Characteristics and Design Features of Modular Learning

3. Student Learning Outcomes

4. Predictors of Distance Learning Effectiveness

5. Conceptual Model of the Present Study

Distance Learning

Distance Learning modality has three types namely, Modular Distance Learning

(MDL), Online Distance Learning (ODL), and TV/Radio-Based Instruction as per DO #12

S. 2020.

According to Ellison (2000), that "distance learning" and "distance education"

have been used interchangeably in a variety of institutions, academic units, government

agencies and media. It is defined differently depending on who delivers the content,

creates, or develops the technology and system used to transmit learning to learners. In

the simplest terms, distance learning is any method of organizing and delivering
 2

instruction that does not require the physical presence of the learners. Therefore,

delivery may be by paper and pencil, via mail, radio, interactive video, television, web

bulletin boards, or other delivery system on the drawing boards.

Although there are different types of Distance learning, this research focuses on

Modular Distance Learning as it is the learning modality used in Julio Ledesma National

High School. Modular distance learning involves individualized instructions that allows

the learners to use self-learning modules (SMLs) in print or digital format/electronic copy.

The teachers’ responsibility is only to monitor learners’ progress (DepEd, 2020).

Learner’s Characteristics and Design Features of Modular Learning

Nadeak (2020) claimed that the characteristics of an effective learning program

are predetermined instructional goals to be achieved, provide attractive learning

experience, and actively involve students to support the teaching and learning process.

The effectiveness of the learning program is not only in terms of the level of learning

achievement but must also consider the processes and supporting facilities like the way

face-to-face mode is delivered.

Studies indicated that student characteristics such as age and gender play

significant role in academic achievement (Oxford Group, 2013). The study of Picciano &

Seaman (2007) noted a success of e-learning and blended learning on student’s

experience in using the internet and other computer applications.

In a study conducted by Shraim & Khlaif (2010), 75% of students and 72% of

teachers were lacking skills to utilize ICT based learning components. This is due to

insufficient skills and experience in computer and internet applications that may lead to

the failure of the program.

 3

Rovai (2003) concluded that time management is crucial and meaningful in

distance learning contexts. This is supported by Selim (2007) that self regulatory skills in

time management lead to better performance and learner’s ability to adjust in new

learning environment. Another common factors that may also affect the effectiveness of

a program is the time conflict, management support and internet or load sufficiency

(Packham et al., 2004).

According to Selim 2007, learner’s attitude can also result to distance learning

effectiveness, which usually shows students persistence to learn in a given learning

environment. Relatively, this is corroborated with the findings of Nikolov (2007) study

that distance learning is primarily text-based, which would be difficult for students with

lower levels of literacy.

Base on the different studies under learner characteristics, the following factors

were considered: age, gender, experience using internet and computer applications,

time management, internet or load sufficiency to describe the level of effectiveness of

the MDL.

The quality of instructional design is a crucial part for effective instruction.

Florini (1990) asserts that “whether intended for electronic delivery or for more traditional

means, efficient and effective instruction depends on good instructional design.

Moore (2010) recognizes the critical nature of instructional activities in support

of the corresponding study regarding DL. He identifies two phases, preactive and

interactive. Preactive activities are accomplished apart from the learner where teacher

prepares objectives, selects instructional strategies, and prepares materials. Moore

observed that “while preactive teaching is deliberative, a highly rational process, while
 4

interactive teaching is more spontaneous and to some extent controlled by the students

questions, requests, and reactions.

In distance learning, the preactive program design is crucial. The designer must

plan for a large number of learners without knowing them, instruction occur in a period of

time and materials are used to give instructions. Gagne et al. (1992) emphasized that

instructional design results in a deliberately arranged set of external events designed to

support internal learning processes. Under instruction design, tools and resource are

important. In some ways, the perceptual modality is one of the easier dimensions to

address because it is readily apparent whether the designers are meeting a variety of

perceptual elements. For example, drawing, graphs, or pictures could be added in the

instruction for aiding understanding. Research conducted by James and Blank (1991)

indicated three most commonly preferred modalities which are visual, interactive, and

haptic.

Another feature considered in the effectiveness of the program is interaction. A

research conducted by Willging & Johnson (2009) shows that absence of learner

interaction and the lack of learner engagement were noted as the internal factor leading

to learner drop-out.They added that learners’ interactions with teachers and peers can

make distance learning effective. Students may ask teachers for clarification,

explanation, and examples to help them in their learning experiences.

Support

The study of Sanjay Kumar and Praveen Rai (2008) showed a low use of

learning platforms due to lack of prior information about the scheduled programs, lack of

infrastructural facilities at the centers. Suggestions to increase the use of these facilities
 5

include information about the schedules in newspapers, TV channels, through SMS and

sending e-mails.

Student Learning Outcomes

A distance education program is perceived to be effective if it fulfills the needs

of its participants (Philipps & Merisotis, 2010). According to Holmes and Gardner

(2006), the ability to asses students’ learning is their experiences in education through

community education, cultural diversity, and globalization. The needs of the learners

represent individually and socially defined goals that can be achieved in a variety of

ways and relate to a number of outcomes. Although the ultimate objective of a program

is to enable learners to achieve their goals, the assessment of its effectiveness

consistently involves evaluation of factors at two levels, the practical relevance of

acquired skills, and satisfaction with the learning experience (Chute et al., 1999).

Based on the foregoing literature of learning outcomes, this study seeks to

establish the learner characteristics and design features as factors that determines the

effectiveness of distance learning as predicted by student’s perceptual (satisfaction),

cognitive (knowledge construct), and affective dimension (motivation).

Perceptual Dimension (Satisfaction)

The first predictor is student’s perceptual dimension, through student’s

satisfaction. The perceptual dimension identifies the ways individuals assimilate

information. It includes a biological response of the body to an external stimulus. This

includes factors such as speech, movement, and any of the five senses.

This predictor will measure how satisfied are the students with the instructional

design that is given to them. Song et al. (2004) examined the factors of online
 6

effectiveness and concluded that time management was crucial for successful online

learning thus, technical problems were also a challenge by online learners. In support

with this, the study of Naaj et. Al. (2012) indicated that technology and learner

interaction, among other factors, influenced learner satisfaction.

Cognitive Dimension (Information Processing)

Cognitive process includes the storage and retrieval of information in the brain.

Information-processing habits represent the learner’s typical ways of perceiving,

thinking, problem solving, and remembering (Flannery, 1993). These relate to the

structure of the MDL program and the nature of materials and media used in

instructional delivery of this study.

Affective Dimension (Motivation)

The affective dimension encompasses aspects of personality that relate to

attention, emotion, and valuing. The social setting in which potential students prefer to

learn is one component of the affective dimension; example, whether students prefer to

work with a partner, alone, or in a group is part of the affective dimension. It is important

to examine this social factor in DL environments where communication process is

mediated and social climates are created differently from the traditional setting.

Moreover, So and Brush (2008) argued that in DL environments, the importance of

students’ self-motivation and self-management increases because there is less in class

time and more emphasis on self-regulated learning. Hence, this provides motivation

among the researchers in conducting this study as way validating this gap of literature.
 7

Predictors of Modular Learning Effectiveness

Researchers have dealt with success factors for DL effectiveness in view of

learner’s characteristics and design features. In this study, the researchers seek to

establish that the learner’s characteristics and the design features of the learning

modalities would predict the effectiveness with regards to their learning dimensions. Dick

and Carrey (1990) explained that traditional instruction typically involves teachers,

students, and textbooks. The text contains information that is to be mastered and

teachers are responsible for teaching the material. Teaching is generally interpreted as

pouring the content from the book into the head of the students and that contemporary

view of instruction is a systematic process which every component (teacher, student,

material, learning environment) is crucial to successful learning.

In a distance learning environment, the set-up of a face-to-face learning is

different especially in the learning activities. A study by Marriot et al. (2004) showed that

learners expressing their preference for the face-to-face due better social interaction and

communication engagement.

For the cognitive dimension, students will be able to develop study skills, and

could process information from materials or resources provided to them. Effective

distance learning will require students to be able to initiate, discover, and accomplish the

process of knowledge construction. A study conducted by Rahman (2011), indicated that

learners were able to use some steps to construct meaning through distance learning by

accomplishing assignments, activities, and games.

 8

Conceptual Model of the Present Study

The conceptual model of this study as reflected in figure 1 depicts on how the

researchers gather, analyze, and interpreted the data in this study using Kintu et al.

(2017) model on Blended Learning Effectiveness.

Learner’s characteristics in this study referred to the following profile variables

such as age and grade level.

For the Design Features include instructional design, support/interaction, and

technical aspect of modular learning modality.

The network of the Learner’s Characteristics and the Design Features will

compliment to the outcome of student’s learning as main predictor of the Distance

Learning effectiveness.

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study