Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Seawater cement paste: Effects of seawater and roles of water film

thickness and superplasticizer dosage
L.G. Li a,⇑, X.Q. Chen a, S.H. Chu b, Y. Ouyang a, A.K.H. Kwan b
a
Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
b
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

h i g h l i g h t s

The effects of SP on the properties of seawater or fresh-water pastes are similar.

Seawater would lead to lower workability/flowability, higher adhesiveness.

Seawater would reduce packing density and WFT, but slightly improve cube strength.

WFT and SP dosage are the governing factors for the fresh properties of seawater paste.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In some remote areas or islands, the shortage of freshwater inspires the consideration of using seawater
Received 28 April 2019 for making concrete. However, the use of seawater is not common and relatively little research has been
Received in revised form 6 August 2019 done on seawater concrete. In this research, the influences of seawater on the fresh and hardened prop-
Accepted 1 September 2019
erties of seawater cement paste were investigated and the concept of water film thickness (WFT) was
Available online 7 September 2019
extended to seawater cement paste. To compare the various properties of seawater and freshwater
cement pastes, and find out how the WFT affects the fresh properties of seawater cement paste, a series
Keywords:
of seawater and freshwater cement paste mixes with varying water to cement (W/C) ratio and superplas-
Seawater cement paste
Seawater concrete
ticizer (SP) dosage were made and tested. It was found that at the same SP dosage and W/C ratio, seawa-
Superplasticizer ter cement paste has lower workability and flowability, higher adhesiveness, lower packing density and
Water film thickness slightly higher cube strength than the freshwater cement paste. Lastly, statistical correlation analysis
revealed that the WFT and SP dosage are the key factors governing the fresh properties of seawater
cement paste. Hence, the WFT theory is proven to be applicable also to seawater cement paste.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction reinforced polymer bars to replace steel reinforcing bars [6–8]

As the most-used construction material all over the world, con-
crete demands more than two billion tons of freshwater for pro-
duction annually [1]. Moreover, in some remote areas, there is no
freshwater at all, causing major difficulties in concrete production.
Using seawater as a substitute of freshwater to produce concrete
may be an alternative, especially in coastal regions or small islands
[2,3]. However, due to its high chloride content, seawater may
intensify the corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete [4,5].
To overcome the steel corrosion problem, limiting the use of sea-
water to only non-reinforced plain concrete such as concrete block
seawalls or adding only non-corrosive reinforcement such as fiber
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ligu@gdut.edu.cn (L.G. Li).
could be feasible solutions.
In addition to the influences on the mechanical properties
[9–12], seawater also affects the fresh properties. Ghorab et al.
[13] found that the initial and final setting times of the seawater
concrete tested were 25% and 22% shorter than those of ordinary
concrete. Similarly, Katano et al. [14] observed that the use of sea-
water decreased the initial and final setting times of concrete by 90
and 135 min, respectively. Yu et al. [15] studied the effects of using
seawater on the fluidity of potassium magnesium phosphate
cement paste (note: not Portland cement paste). Younis et al.
[16] pointed out that the workability of concrete prepared with
seawater could be lower than that of concrete made with freshwa-
ter. Likewise, Wang et al. [17] demonstrated that the viscosity and
yield stress of seawater cement paste could be higher than those of
freshwater cement paste. Overall, systematic research on the fresh
properties of seawater mortar/paste is still lacking.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.116862
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862
Throughout the years, numerous attempts were made to iden-
tify the main factors that govern the fresh properties of freshwater
concrete, mortar and paste. Unquestionably, the water content is
the most important of all [18,19], for the obvious reason that water
lubricates the solid particles in the concrete, mortar or paste. Other
than the water content, two major factors that would also signifi-
cantly affect the fresh properties are the packing density [20–23]
and total surface area [24,25] of the solid particles. Generally, at
a given water content, a particle system with a higher packing den-
sity would have less inter-particle voids to be filled with water,
leaving more excess water to form water films on the particle sur-
faces for lubrication. On the other hand, at a given excess water
content, a particle system with a larger total surface area would
thin down the thickness of the water films on the particle surfaces.
In order to evaluate the intricate interactive mechanism of the
above three factors, i.e. the water content, packing density and
total surface area, a fundamental parameter - water film thickness
(WFT), defined as the ratio of the excess water to the total surface
area of the solid particles, has been introduced. It has been found in
a number of previous studies that the fresh properties of paste [26–
29], mortar [30–33] and concrete [34–37] are all highly correlated
to the WFT. However, the WFT theory has so far been applied only
to cementitious materials made with freshwater. Whether the WFT
theory is applicable also to cementitious materials made with sea-
water still needs to be scrupulously investigated.
Meanwhile, the chemical admixture, superplasticizer (SP), which
can disperse the solid particles, especially the fine solid particles, in
the concrete mixture to avoid agglomeration, has inevitably become
a necessary ingredient in modern concrete production [38–41]. It
can substantially improve the workability of the fresh concrete at
a given water/cement (W/C) ratio [42,43] or enhance the mechanical
properties of the hardened concrete by lowering the W/C ratio with-
out loss of workability [44–48]. Somehow, there is still little research
on the compatibility between SP and seawater, and the performance
of SP in seawater concrete, mortar and paste.
In this study, to compare the differences in fresh properties
between seawater cement paste and freshwater cement paste, and
investigate how the WFT and the SP dosage would together influ-
ence the fresh properties of seawater cement paste, a number of sea-
water and freshwater cement paste mixes with varying W/C ratio
and SP dosage were tested for their fresh properties, including the
slump, spread, flow rate, adhesion and packing density. Their com-
pressive strengths were also measured for reference, although the
research was mainly on the fresh properties. Lastly, statistical anal-
ysis was carried out to reveal the relations between the various fresh
properties of seawater cement paste and the WFT and SP dosage.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials
The cement applied was an ordinary Portland cement complying with BS EN
197-1: 2011 [49] and of strength grade 52.5 N. The specific gravity of the cement
was measured using a pyknometer in accordance with BS EN 196-6: 2018 [50] as
3.112, and the grading curve of the cement was measured using a laser diffraction
particle size analyzer as presented in Fig. 1. From the grading curve, the mean par-
ticle size of the cement was calculated as 18.8 mm. Moreover, based on the grading
curve and the assumption that the cement grains are angular in shape like dodec-
ahedrons having a specific surface area equal to 1.26 times that of spherical parti-
cles of the same size, the specific surface area of the cement was determined by
numerical integration of the surface areas in the various size fractions each with
a narrow size range within the overall size range of 0.1–1000 mm of the cement
as 1.953  106 m2/m3.
To assess the effects of water type, seawater (SW) and freshwater (FW) were
used in the study. The SW was collected from the Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong.
It has a specific gravity, as measured by a hydrometer, of 1.028 at 23 °C, and a sus-
pended solids content, as measured by drying, of 4.8 mg/L. The other properties of
the SW, as provided by the Environmental Protection Department of Hong Kong
Government, are listed in Table 1. On the other hand, the FW was just tap water
100
80
Cumulative passing (%)
60
Cement
40
20
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Particle size ( m)
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of cement.
supplied by the local government. Its specific gravity was measured using a
hydrometer as 0.998 at 23 °C. For comparison, the chemical element contents of
the SW and FW were tested by a third-party accredited chemical testing laboratory
using standard chemical tests, as listed in Table 2, where it is evident that the Na, K,
Ca, Mg, S and Cl contents of the SW are much higher than those of the FW.
The superplasticizer (SP) added was a commonly used polycarboxylate-based
SP obtained from the local market. Its specific gravity, measured using a hydrome-
ter, and solid content, measured by drying, were 1.030 and 20%, respectively. These
results agreed well with the data provided by the manufacturer of the SP.
2.2. Mix design
First of all, a total of 25 seawater paste mixes with different SP dosages and W/C
ratios were tested. The SP dosage (by mass of cement) varied from 0.0% to 2.0% with
intervals of 0.5% and the W/C ratio ranged from 0.25 to 0.45 with intervals of 0.05.
Then, to compare the effects of water type on fresh and hardened properties,
another 10 freshwater paste mixes were made for testing. For the freshwater mixes,
the SP dosage was varied from 0.0% to 2.0% in increments of 0.5%, whereas the W/C
ratios were set at 0.25 or 0.35. During mixing, the water and cement were first
added together for initial mixing and then the SP was added to form a paste.
For identification, each cement paste mix is denoted by a serial code in the for-
mat of X-Y-Z, in which SWP (seawater paste) or FWP (freshwater paste) is placed at
the position of X, the SP dosage at Y and the W/C ratio at Z. The identification codes
are presented in the first columns of Tables 3 and 4.
2.3. Testing methods
A mini-conical slump flow test [51] was adopted to measure the workability of
the cement paste mixtures. The mini cone has a base diameter of 100 mm, a top
diameter of 70 mm and a height of 60 mm. After filling the cement paste into the
cone and lifting the cone, the reduction in height of the paste was measured as
the slump, and the difference between the average diameter of the spread-out patty
and the base diameter of the cone was calculated as the spread [52]. The slump and
spread results so obtained were the workability measures under static condition.
The Marsh cone test stipulated in BS EN 445: 2007 [53] was applied to measure
the flowability of the cement paste mixtures. To conduct the test, the cement paste
was filled into the Marsh cone and then allowed to flow through the bottom open-
ing. The 300 ml volume of the paste sample in the Marsh cone divided by the mea-
sured time for the paste sample to flow out from the Marsh cone was taken as the
flow rate [54]. The flow rate result so obtained was the flowability measure under
dynamic condition.
The stone rod adhesion test developed by Li and Kwan [52] was used to quantify
the adhesiveness of the cement paste mixtures. This test was developed specifically
to measure the adhesion between cement paste and rock surfaces, which is not
quite the same as the cohesion of the cement paste itself. To conduct the test, stone
rods were first immersed into the cement paste and then slowly pulled out, and the
mass of cement paste adhered onto the stone rods was then weighed. The adhesion
was calculated as the mass of paste adhering onto the stone rods divided by the
total surface area of stone rods immersed into the paste [52].
After the above tests, from each batch of cement paste mixture, three cubes of
size 70.7 mm were cast, which were demoulded at 1 day after casting and then
transferred to a curing chamber for curing up to the age of 28 days. Lastly, cube
compression tests were conducted. The average strength of three cubes was taken
as the 28-day cube strength of the cement paste.
 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862 3

Table 1
Properties of seawater in Victoria Harbour.

pH Salinity Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) Total nitrogen (mg/L) Total phosphorus (mg/L) Silica (as SiO2) (mg/L)
7.8 30.1 5.7 0.78 0.08 1.27

Table 2
Element contents in seawater and freshwater.

Water type Na (mg/L) K (mg/L) Ca (mg/L) Mg (mg/L) S (mg/L) Cl (mg/L)

Seawater 21,700 417 579 1040 3840 33,400
Freshwater 12.70 2.51 29.70 3.87 4.49 8.29

Table 3
Test results of paste mixes.

Mix no. Slump (mm) Spread (mm) Flow rate (ml/s) Adhesion (g/cm2) Cube strength (MPa)
SWP-0.0-0.25 0 0 0.0 0.023 111.7
SWP-0.0-0.30 11 3 0.0 0.085 100.0
SWP-0.0-0.35 19 12 0.0 0.102 90.8
SWP-0.0-0.40 20 26 0.3 0.073 82.5
SWP-0.0-0.45 36 75 9.1 0.040 69.3
SWP-0.5-0.25 10 8 0.0 0.039 116.2
SWP-0.5-0.30 40 78 0.7 0.091 109.4
SWP-0.5-0.35 50 134 4.6 0.072 95.0
SWP-0.5-0.40 54 211 23.1 0.043 84.9
SWP-0.5-0.45 54 245 42.9 0.021 75.3
SWP-1.0-0.25 46 119 0.0 0.067 126.6
SWP-1.0-0.30 51 274 5.9 0.054 112.3
SWP-1.0-0.35 54 340 9.1 0.037 100.7
SWP-1.0-0.40 55 342 27.3 0.016 85.3
SWP-1.0-0.45 55 405 50.0 0.012 78.2
SWP-1.5-0.25 53 218 0.6 0.058 131.8
SWP-1.5-0.30 55 384 7.1 0.036 113.2
SWP-1.5-0.35 55 394 16.7 0.018 103.4
SWP-1.5-0.40 56 437 37.5 0.015 87.1
SWP-1.5-0.45 56 443 60.0 0.012 84.1
SWP-2.0-0.25 55 351 3.2 0.043 132.5
SWP-2.0-0.30 56 433 8.3 0.019 115.9
SWP-2.0-0.35 56 480 18.8 0.016 105.5
SWP-2.0-0.40 56 502 42.9 0.014 94.1
SWP-2.0-0.45 57 563 75.0 0.006 90.6
FWP-0.0-0.25 0 0 0.0 0.014 110.1
FWP-0.0-0.35 17 10 0.0 0.062 89.0
FWP-0.5-0.25 21 17 0.0 0.027 110.9
FWP-0.5-0.35 54 244 17.7 0.030 90.2
FWP-1.0-0.25 54 295 5.3 0.047 119.0
FWP-1.0-0.35 55 385 18.8 0.021 96.8
FWP-1.5-0.25 56 430 7.3 0.025 122.2
FWP-1.5-0.35 56 440 23.1 0.015 99.1
FWP-2.0-0.25 57 472 9.7 0.019 123.0
FWP-2.0-0.35 57 533 27.3 0.016 100.6

A wet packing test established by the authors’ research group [55,56] was
employed to determine the packing density of the cement. In this test, the packing
density of the cement was obtained as the maximum solid concentration (/max) of
the cement paste samples. To find out /max, 6–8 samples of cement paste with dif-
ferent W/C ratios and given SP dosages were produced, starting at a relatively low
W/C ratio and successively increasing the W/C ratio until the solid concentration
had reached a maximum value and then decreased. More details of the test proce-
dures can be found in the papers by the authors’ research group [55,56].
3. Determination of WFT
The water film thickness (WFT) in a cement paste was calcu-
lated following the steps below. Step 1: The minimum voids ratio
(umin), defined as the ratio of minimum voids volume (occurring
when the solid concentration was maximum) to cement volume,
was calculated as umin = (1  /max)//max. Step 2: The water ratio
(uw) was calculated from the water and cement contents as the
water/cement ratio by volume. Step 3: The excess water ratio
(uw0 ), defined as the ratio of excess water volume to cement vol-
ume, was calculated as uw0 = uw  umin. Step 4: The specific surface
area of cement (Ac), defined as the surface area per solid volume
ratio, was calculate from the particle size distribution. Step 5:
The WFT, having the physical meaning of the average thickness
of water films coating the cement grains, was calculated as
WFT = uw0 /Ac.
4. Experimental results
4.1. Slump and spread
The entries in the second and third columns of Table 3 are
the slump and spread results of the paste samples. The varia-
tions of the slump and spread of the SW paste with the SP
4 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862

Table 4
Packing density and WFT results of paste mixes.

Mix no. Packing density Water ratio Excess water ratio Specific surface area (m2/m3) Water film thickness (lm)
SWP-0.0-0.25 0.547 0.757 0.071 1,953,000 0.037
SWP-0.0-0.30 0.908 0.080 0.041
SWP-0.0-0.35 1.060 0.231 0.118
SWP-0.0-0.40 1.211 0.383 0.196
SWP-0.0-0.45 1.362 0.534 0.273
SWP-0.5-0.25 0.559 0.757 0.032 1,953,000 0.016
SWP-0.5-0.30 0.908 0.119 0.061
SWP-0.5-0.35 1.060 0.271 0.139
SWP-0.5-0.40 1.211 0.422 0.216
SWP-0.5-0.45 1.362 0.573 0.294
SWP-1.0-0.25 0.578 0.757 0.027 1,953,000 0.014
SWP-1.0-0.30 0.908 0.178 0.091
SWP-1.0-0.35 1.060 0.329 0.169
SWP-1.0-0.40 1.211 0.481 0.246
SWP-1.0-0.45 1.362 0.632 0.324
SWP-1.5-0.25 0.593 0.757 0.070 1,953,000 0.036
SWP-1.5-0.30 0.908 0.222 0.114
SWP-1.5-0.35 1.060 0.373 0.191
SWP-1.5-0.40 1.211 0.525 0.269
SWP-1.5-0.45 1.362 0.676 0.346
SWP-2.0-0.25 0.598 0.757 0.085 1,953,000 0.043
SWP-2.0-0.30 0.908 0.236 0.121
SWP-2.0-0.35 1.060 0.387 0.198
SWP-2.0-0.40 1.211 0.539 0.276
SWP-2.0-0.45 1.362 0.690 0.353
FWP-0.0-0.25 0.556 0.778 0.021 1,953,000 0.011
FWP-0.0-0.35 1.089 0.291 0.149
FWP-0.5-0.25 0.567 0.778 0.014 1,953,000 0.007
FWP-0.5-0.35 1.089 0.326 0.167
FWP-1.0-0.25 0.586 0.778 0.072 1,953,000 0.037
FWP-1.00.35 1.089 0.383 0.196
FWP-1.5-0.25 0.596 0.778 0.100 1,953,000 0.051
FWP-1.5-0.35 1.089 0.411 0.211
FWP-2.0-0.25 0.607 0.778 0.131 1,953,000 0.067
FWP-2.0-0.35 1.089 0.442 0.226

dosage and W/C ratio are illustrated in Figs. 2(a) and 3(a),
respectively. It is noted that increasing the W/C ratio usually
increased the slump and spread of the SW paste, at rates
depending on the SP dosage. Such results are expected because
a higher W/C ratio would lead to an increase in water content
and thus a higher workability. On the other hand, as the SP
dosage increased, the slump increased with a pattern of dimin-
ishing return, which means the slump first increased at a faster
rate with the SP dosage and then increased at a slower and
slower rate with the SP dosage. However, as the SP dosage
increased, the spread kept on increasing with the SP dosage at
a fairly steady but gradually decreasing rate.
To reveal the effect of water type on the workability of paste,
the slump and spread results of both the SW paste and FW paste
are plotted together against the SP dosage in Figs. 2(b) and 3(b),
respectively. Comparing the respective workability results of the
SW paste and FW paste, it is evident that whilst the workability
of the SW paste and FW paste varied with the SP dosage and
W/C ratio in similar ways, the slump and spread of the SW paste
were in general slightly lower than those of the FW paste.
Hence, the use of SW instead of FW would slightly decrease
the slump and spread of the cement paste formed. Similar obser-
vations had been made by other researchers [14,16], and had
been attributed by other researchers to the acceleration of
cement hydration induced by SW [17,57,58] and higher viscosity
of SW [59,60]. It is suggested herein that the presence of sus-
pended solids in the SW might also have adversely affected
the workability of the paste.
4.2. Flow rate
The entries in the fourth column of Table 3 are the flow rate
results of the paste samples. To illustrate how the flow rate of
the SW paste varied with the SP dosage and W/C ratio, the flow
rate results are plotted in Fig. 4(a). From the figure, it can be
observed that, at the same SP dosage, the flow rate always
increased with the W/C ratio. Such observed results are reasonable,
since the increase of W/C ratio would generally lead to more water
for enhancing the flowability. On the other hand, regardless of the
W/C ratio, the flow rate increased steadily with the SP dosage up to
a SP dosage of at least 2.0%.
To assess the effect of water type on the flowability of paste, the
flow rate results of both the SW paste and FW paste are plotted
together against the SP dosage in Fig. 4(b). Comparing the respec-
tive flowability results of the SW paste and FW paste, it is evident
that whilst the flowability of the SW paste and FW paste varied
with the SP dosage and W/C ratio in similar ways, the flow rate
of the SW paste was always lower than that of the FW paste.
Hence, the use of SW instead of FW would decrease the flow rate.
The reasons for the lower flowability of the SW paste are quite pos-
sibly the same as those for the lower workability of the SW paste,
as mentioned in the previous section.
4.3. Adhesion
The test results of adhesion are summarized in the fifth column
of Table 3. To display how the adhesion of the SW paste varied with
 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862 5

60 800
SW: W/C=0.25
SW: W/C=0.30
50 SW: W/C=0.35
600 SW: W/C=0.40
SW: W/C=0.45
40

Spread (mm)
Slump (mm)

30 400

20
SW: W/C=0.25
osa
SW: W/C=0.30 200
10 SW: W/C=0.35
SW: W/C=0.40
SW: W/C=0.45
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

SP dosage (%) SP dosage (%)

(a) (a)
60 800
SW: W/C=0.25
SW: W/C=0.35
50
FW: W/C=0.25
600 FW: W/C=0.35
40
Spread (mm)
Slump (mm)

30 400

20
osa
SW: W/C=0.25 200
10 SW: W/C=0.35
FW: W/C=0.25
FW: W/C=0.35
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

SP dosage (%) SP dosage (%)

(b) (b)
Fig. 2. Slump versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste. Fig. 3. Spread versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste.

the SP dosage and W/C ratio, the adhesion is plotted against the SP
dosage for different W/C ratios in Fig. 5(a). From the figure, an
interesting phenomena is observed. At a relatively low W/C ratio
of 0.25 or 0.30, the adhesion varied in such a way that initially
the adhesion increased as the SP dosage and/or W/C ratio
increased, and then decreased as the SP dosage and/or W/C ratio
further increased. At a relatively high W/C ratio of 0.35 to 0.45,
the adhesion gradually decreased as the SP dosage and/or W/C
ratio increased. The above phenomena imply that the seawater
and SP added may have positive or negative effects on the adhe-
siveness and there exists optimum water content and SP dosage
for maximum adhesiveness, which would be further analysed later.
For the purpose of evaluating the effect of water type on the
adhesion of paste, the adhesion results of the SW paste and FW
paste are plotted together against the SP dosage in Fig. 5(b). Com-
paring the respective adhesion results of the SW paste and FW
paste, it is evident that whilst the adhesion of the SW paste and
FW paste varied with the SP dosage and W/C ratio in similar ways,
the adhesion of the SW paste was somewhat higher than that of
the FW paste. The reasons for the higher adhesiveness of the SW
paste are quite possibly the same as those for the lower workabil-
ity and flowability of the SW paste, as mentioned in the previous
sections.
4.4. Cube strength
The entries in the last column of Table 3 are the cube strength
results of the paste samples. To show how the cube strength of
the SW paste varied with the SP dosage and W/C ratio, the cube
strength is plotted in Fig. 6(a). As expected, the cube strength
decreased as the W/C ratio increased, indicating that even when
SW is used in place of FW, the W/C ratio is still the main factor gov-
erning the cube strength, as has been reported by other researchers
[61,62]. Meanwhile, regardless of the W/C ratio, the cube strength
also increased as the SP dosage increased implying that the SP has
positive effect on the strength of SW paste. Such improvement of
strength may be attributed to the effective dispersion of the
cement grains by the SP to enable more uniform and thorough
mixing and better compaction of the paste [63,64].
To illustrate how the water type influences the cube strength of
paste, the cube strength results of the SW paste and FW paste are
plotted together against the SP dosage in Fig. 6(b). Comparing the
respective strength results of the SW paste and FW paste, it is evi-
dent that whilst the strength of the SW paste and FW paste varied
with the SP dosage and W/C ratio in similar ways, the strength of
the SW paste was in general slightly higher than that of the FW
paste. Such phenomenon has also been observed by other
6 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862

80 0.12
SW: W/C=0.25 SW: W/C=0.25
SW: W/C=0.30 SW: W/C=0.30
SW: W/C=0.35 SW: W/C=0.35
60 SW: W/C=0.40 SW: W/C=0.40

Adhension (g/cm2)
SW: W/C=0.45 SW: W/C=0.45
0.08
Flow rate (ml/s)

40

0.04

20

0.00
0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
SP dosage (%)
SP dosage (%)
(a) (a)
0.12
80
SW: W/C=0.25
SW: W/C=0.25
SW: W/C=0.35
SW: W/C=0.35
FW: W/C=0.25
FW: W/C=0.25 FW: W/C=0.35
60 FW: W/C=0.35
Adhension (g/cm2)
0.08
Flow rate (ml/s)

40

0.04

20

0.00
0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
SP dosage (%)
SP dosage (%)
(b)
(b)
Fig. 5. Adhesion versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste.
Fig. 4. Flow rate versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste.

researchers [17,62,65,66]. Hence, at least in this particular case, the
use of SW instead of FW has no negative effect on the compressive
strength.
4.5. Packing density
The packing density results of the SW and FW paste samples are
tabulated in the second column of Table 4 and plotted in Fig. 7. It is
obvious from the figure that the packing density of the SW or FW
paste gradually increased as the SP dosage increased. For instance,
increasing the SP dosage from 0.0% to 2.0% increased the packing
density of the SW paste from 0.547 to 0.598 and the packing den-
sity of the FW paste from 0.556 to 0.607. This indicates that the SP
has beneficial effect not only on the packing density of FW paste as
revealed in previous studies [56,67,68], but also the packing den-
sity of SW paste. On the other hand, it is evident that at a given
SP dosage, the packing density of the SW paste was slightly lower
than that of the FW paste. Hence, the use of SW instead of FW has
slight adverse effect on the packing density of the cement paste.
The higher viscosity of the SW [59,60] and the presence of sus-
pended solids in the SW are both possible reasons for the lower
packing density of the SW paste.
5. WFT results
The WFT of each paste sample was calculated from the respec-
tive packing density, water ratio and specific surface area results of
the paste sample. As reported in the previous section, the packing
density was measured by the wet packing method, which was, for
the first time ever, applied to cement paste made of seawater in
this research. Then, the water ratio and excess water ratio results
were calculated, as tabulated in the third and fourth columns of
Table 4. Obviously, a higher W/C ratio had led to larger water ratio
and excess water ratio. Meanwhile, a higher packing density had
led to an increase of the excess water ratio because the voids ratio
was lowered. It should be noted that negative values of excess
water ratios mean there was insufficient water to fill up the voids
between the solid particles. On the other hand, since the only
cementitious material used in this study was cement, the specific
surface areas of all the paste samples (listed in the fifth column
of Table 4) were the same and equal to 1.953  106 m2/m3.
The entries in the last column of Table 4 are the WFT results,
which are plotted against the SP dosage for different W/C ratios
in Fig. 8. Fig. 8(a) presents how the WFT of the SW paste varied
with the SP dosage and W/C ratio. As expected, the WFT increased
with both the SP dosage and the W/C ratio, due to the combined
effects of the corresponding changes in the packing density and
 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862 7

140 that of the FW paste. This was due to the lower packing density of
the SW paste compared to that of the FW paste. Such decrease in
120 WFT should have certain adversely effects on the workability and
flowability of the paste.
Cube strength (MPa)

100
6. Combined effects of WFT and SP dosage
80
It is envisaged that as for the usual case of FW cement paste, the
60 fresh properties of SW cement paste are also governed mainly by
the WFT and SP dosage. For extending the concept of WFT to SW
40 SW: W/C=0.25 cement paste, the combined effects of the WFT and SP dosage on
SW: W/C=0.30
SW cement paste are studied below.
SW: W/C=0.35
20 SW: W/C=0.40
SW: W/C=0.45 6.1. Effects on slump and spread
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 The slump and spread of the SW paste are plotted against the
SP dosage (%) WFT for different SP dosages in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. As
(a) the WFT increased, both the slump and spread increased with a
pattern of diminishing return. Overall, there are good correlations
140 between the slump and WFT and between the spread and WFT,
and the WFT is therefore a major factor affecting the workability
120 of SW paste. On the other hand, at a given WFT, the slump and
spread both became higher at a higher SP dosage. Therefore, the
Cube strength (MPa)

100

0.4
80

60 0.3

40 0.2
SW: W/C=0.25
WFT ( m)

SW: W/C=0.35
20 FW: W/C=0.25
0.1
FW: W/C=0.35
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0
SW: W/C=0.25
SP dosage (%) SW: W/C=0.30
-0.1 SW: W/C=0.35
(b) SW: W/C=0.40
SW: W/C=0.45
Fig. 6. Cube strength versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste.
-0.2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

0.65 SP dosage (%)

(a)
0.4
Packing density

0.60
0.3

0.2
WFT ( m)

0.55
0.1

SW paste
FW paste
0.0
0.50 SW: W/C=0.25
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.1 SW: W/C=0.35
FW: W/C=0.25
SP dosage (%) FW: W/C=0.35
Fig. 7. Packing density versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste.
-0.2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
SP dosage (%)
water ratio. On the other hand, Fig. 8(b) displays how the water (b)
type affected the WFT. Evidently, at all combinations of SP dosage
and W/C ratio, the WFT of the SW paste was slightly smaller than Fig. 8. WFT versus SP dosage for SW paste and FW paste.
8 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862

60 100
SP dosage
SP=0.0%
(%)
2.0 SP=0.0% SP=0.5%
50 SP=1.0% SP dosage (%)
1.5 SP=0.5% 80
1.0 SP=1.0% SP=1.5% 2.0

Flow rate (ml/s)

SP=1.5% SP=2.0%
40 0.5 1.5
Slump (mm)

SP=2.0% y = a ebx1
60 1.0
a = 2.1 + 0.7x2 - e-13x2
30 0.5
0.0 b = 8.75
x1 = WFT ( m)
y = a (1 - e-b(x1 + c)) 40
x2 = SP dosage (%)
20 a = 54 + 1.5x2
R2 = 0.970
b = 8.1(x2 + 0.27) + 7.6(x2 + 0.27)2
0.0
c = 0.04 20
10 x1 = WFT ( m)
x2 = SP dosage (%)
R2 = 0.971
0 0
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
WFT ( m) WFT ( m)

Fig. 9. Slump versus WFT. Fig. 11. Flow rate versus WFT.

800 0.12
SP=0.0% SP dosage (%) y = a (b + f1(x1) e f2(x1))
y = a (1 - e-b(x1 + c)) SP=0.5% a = 0.03 - 0.007x2; b = 0.2
a = 350 + 85x2 SP=1.0% 0.0 f1(x1) = 3.9 + 116x1 + 714x12
b = 4.9(x2 + 0.1) + 0.56(x2 + 0.1)2 SP=1.5% f2(x1) = (-0.7 + 0.14x2 - 0.01x22)
600 c = 0.04
Adhesion (g/cm2)

SP=2.0% + (x2 - 14)(0.4x2 + 0.9)x1

x1 = WFT ( m) SP dosage (%) 0.5
Spread (mm)

0.08 x1 = WFT ( m)
2.0
x2 = SP dosage (%) x2 = SP dosage (%)
1.5
R2 = 0.978 1.0
R2 = 0.964
400 1.0
1.5

0.5 0.04 2.0

SP=0.0%
200 SP=0.5%
SP=1.0%
SP=1.5%
0.0 SP=2.0%
0 0.00
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

WFT ( m) WFT ( m)

Fig. 10. Spread versus WFT. Fig. 12. Adhesion versus WFT.

SP dosage also has a direct and positive effect on the workability of
SW paste. To quantify the combined effects of the WFT and SP
dosage on the workability of SW paste, the best-fit curves for the
slump-WFT and the spread-WFT relations at different SP dosages
are derived through multi-variable regression analysis and their
mathematical formulas are presented in the figures. Very high R2
values, i.e. 0.971 for the slump-WFT-SP model and 0.978 for the
spread-WFT-SP model, have been achieved. Therefore, it is con-
cluded that the WFT and SP dosage are the key factors governing
the workability of SW paste.
6.2. Effects on flow rate
The flow rate of the SW paste is plotted against the WFT for dif-
ferent SP dosages in Fig. 11. It is seen that the flow rate increased
with the WFT at a gradually increasing rate. On the whole, there is
good correlation between the flow rate and the WFT, and thus the
WFT should be a major factor influencing the flowability of SW
paste. Meanwhile, at the same WFT, a higher SP dosage generally
led to a higher flow rate. Therefore, the SP dosage has a direct
and beneficial effect on the flowability of SW paste. To evaluate
the combined effects of the WFT and SP dosage on the flowability
of SW paste, the best-fit curves for the flow rate-WFT relation at
different SP dosages are derived through multi-variable regression
analysis, and the mathematical formula for the best-fit curves is
presented in the figure. A very high R2 value of 0.970 has been
achieved, showing that the WFT and SP dosage are the key factors
governing the flowability of SW paste.
6.3. Effects on adhesiveness
The adhesion of the SW paste is plotted against the WFT for dif-
ferent SP dosages in Fig. 12. It is shown that when the WFT was rel-
atively small or even negative, the adhesion was rather low, and as
the WFT increased, the adhesion soon reached a certain peak value
depending on the SP dosage. After reaching the peak value, the
adhesion dropped as the WFT continued to increase. The explana-
tion is that when the WFT was small, the paste was too dry to stick
onto the stone surfaces; but as the WFT increased, the paste soon
gained enough water to form effective adhesion onto the stone sur-
faces. However, when the WFT further increased, the excess water
lubricated the paste-stone interface and reduced the adhesiveness
and viscosity there, causing the paste to slip downwards under
gravity. On the other hand, apart from WFT, the adhesion also var-
ied with the SP dosage. Generally, at a given WFT, increasing the SP
dosage decreased the adhesion. This was because the SP decreased
the surface tension of the water in the paste, making the paste
 L.G. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 229 (2019) 116862
easier to slip downwards. To quantify the combined effects of the
WFT and SP dosage on the adhesiveness of SW paste, the best-fit
curves for the adhesion-WFT relation at different SP dosages are
derived through multi-variable regression analysis and plotted in
the figure where their mathematical formula is also printed. A very
good R2 value of 0.964 has been obtained, implying that the WFT
and SP dosage are the key factors governing the adhesiveness of
SW paste.
7. Conclusions
In total, 25 seawater (SW) paste mixes and 10 freshwater (FW)
paste mixes were tested for evaluating their slump, spread, flow
rate, adhesion, cube strength and packing density. The major con-
clusions from the study, which are strictly applicable only to the
type of SP used, are as follows.
(i) Regarding the fresh and hardened properties of SW paste,
the W/C ratio has positive effects on the workability/flowa-
bility, positive and negative effect on the adhesiveness when
the W/C ratio is lower and higher than the optimum for
maximum adhesiveness respectively, and negative effect
on the cube strength. Basically, the effects of the W/C ratio
on the fresh and hardened properties of SW paste are similar
to those on the respective properties of FW paste.
(ii) Adding more SP would substantially improve the workabil-
ity/flowability, enhance the cube strength and packing den-
sity, but reduce the adhesiveness of SW and FW pastes.
Overall, the effects of the SP on the properties of SW paste
are similar to those on the respective properties of FW paste.
Hence, the SP used in this study performs equally well
whether SW or FW is used for paste production and is there-
fore compatible with SW.
(iii) Without changing the W/C ratio and SP dosage, the use of
SW instead of FW would lead to lower workability/flowabil-
ity, higher adhesiveness, lower packing density and smaller
WFT, but slightly higher cube strength. The possible causes
of such effects of SW deserve further in-depth investigations.
Apart from the faster cement hydration induced by SW and
higher viscosity of SW as postulated by other researchers, it
is suggested herein that the presence of suspended solids in
the SW might also be a possible cause.
(iv) As for FW paste, the WFT has major effects on the workabil-
ity, flowability and adhesiveness of SW paste. Basically, a
larger WFT would lead to higher workability/flowability,
but there exists an optimum WFT for maximum
adhesiveness.
(v) The slump, spread, flow rate and adhesion of SW paste have
been correlated to the WFT and SP dosage through multi-
variable regression analysis. The very high R2 values of all
higher than 0.96 achieved by the regression analysis indicate
that the WFT and SP dosage are both the governing factors
for the fresh properties of SW paste.
Last but not least, this study proved that the water film thick-
ness theory can also be applied to SW paste or, in other words,
may be extended to SW paste. More research on applying this the-
ory to SW paste/mortar/concrete is recommended.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
9
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the financial supports from the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project Nos.
51608131 and 51808134), Colleges Innovation Project of Guang-
dong Province (Project No. 2017KTSCX061), Pearl River S&T Nova
Program of Guangzhou (Project No. 201906010064) and Hong
Kong Research Grants Council – Theme-based Research
Scheme (Project No. T22-502/18-R).
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