Arab J Sci Eng (2014) 39:1701–1708

DOI 10.1007/s13369-013-0733-8

RESEARCH ARTICLE - CIVIL ENGINEERING

Fresh and Hardened Properties of Sustainable Concrete

Using Recycled Household Greywater
Maha Alqam · Ahmad Jamrah ·
Bayan Abd Al-Hafith · Razan Al-Zubi ·
Nawar Al-Shamari

Received: 5 May 2012 / Accepted: 10 July 2013 / Published online: 26 September 2013
© King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals 2013

Abstract This study investigates the production of sustain-

able concrete mixes using recycled household greywater.
Batches consisting of different mixes of cement pastes, mor-
tar specimens, and concrete specimens were produced and
tested for both fresh and hardened properties. The main vari-
able was the type of water used for mixing and curing. The
study showed that the use of greywater had little or no effect
on the setting times of cement pastes, while the average work-
ability of fresh concrete was slightly increased. The study
also showed that the compressive strength of sustainable con-
crete was within 90 % of the standard control mix. Generally
speaking, the combined results of compressive strength, split-
ting strength and drying shrinkage of the batches cured using
greywater and mixed with either potable or greywater were
within acceptable limits, provided that greywater conforms
to the limits imposed by the applicable Codes and Standards
typically imposed on potable water used in concrete.

Keywords Sustainable concrete · Greywater ·

Setting time · Workability · Compressive strength ·
Splitting strength · Drying shrinkage
M. Alqam (B) · A. Jamrah · B. Abd Al-Hafith · R. Al-Zubi ·
N. Al-Shamari
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Jordan,
Amman 11942, Jordan
e-mail: m.alqam@ju.edu.jo
1 Introduction
Water is a major ingredient in concrete production due to the
major role it plays in hydration of cement and workability
of fresh concrete [1]. Traditionally, potable water has been
exclusively used in the mixing and curing of concrete [1,
2]. Many attempts have been made to produce sustainable
concrete mixes using sea water under certain environmental
and exposure conditions [3–5].
The use of greywater in concrete production is allowed
based on its content of total solids, chlorides, and sulfates as
set by ASTM C1602. In fact, ASTM does not set any limits
regarding the amounts of oils present in the mixing water.
This finding is extremely significant to concrete production
industry due to the potential savings in the use of fresh water,
especially in countries with limited fresh water supplies.

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For countries with limited water resources, the continuous
search for alternative water types used to produce sustain-
able concrete mixes remains a challenge. With the drastic
weather changes due to global warming and the significant
drop in yearly water fall and water accumulation in ground
and man-made reservoirs, countries such as Jordan has been
especially affected, resulting in further straining the limited
water resources. The reuse of polluted and/or treated water
in the mixing and/or curing of sustainable concrete mixes
has proved to be a significant cost saving measure in many
countries with limited water resources, as evident by various
studies [6,7].
Greywater, also known as grey wastewater, is simply char-
acterized as being “soapy” and is normally discharged from
outputs such as bathtubs, showers, washing basins, and wash-
ing machines, but not from toilets [8,9]. Wastewater that orig-
inates from toilets is typically referred to as black water. The
quality of greywater is generally lower than potable water
(i.e., drinking water), but is higher than black water. Jamrah
et al. [10] reported that the quantities of greywater generated
in the capital of Jordan, Amman, averaged 70 % of the total
potable water consumption in households. He further cited
that greywater originating from showers accounted for 24 %
of the total greywater generated in typical households. He
pointed out that this is only exceeded by greywater gener-
ated in sinks, which accounted for 35 % of the total greywa-
ter generated. Hodges [11], Eriksson et al. [12], and Jamrah
et al. [13] reported that greywater comprises 50 to 83 percent
of residential potable water.
The general practice of using greywater as an alternative
to fresh water has been investigated by Gual et al. [14] to flush
toilets in a hotel in Mallorca, Spain, where greywater efflu-
ents were discharged from showers and hand-washing basins.
In carrying out his investigation, Gual et al. [14] attempted to
pretreat greywater through the use of regulated chlorination
with sodium hypochlorite, and a two-step filtration process:
a nylon filter followed by a sand filter. The treated greywater
was then mixed with the osmosis reject and was chlorinated.
Similarly, March et al. [15] investigated the reuse of greywa-
ter for toilet flushing in a hotel in Palma Beach, Spain. The
authors reused greywater that originated from bathtubs and
hand-washing basins, and was treated using the conventional
treatment of filtration, sedimentation and disinfection.
Goddard [16] reported the reuse of greywater in the devel-
opment of the 236 apartment project in Melbourne, Australia,
known as the D’LUX Development. The developer adopted
a greywater supply network for all apartment toilets and
sub-surface garden irrigation system.
Nolde [17] reported the use of greywater in multi-story
buildings for over ten years in Berlin, Germany. He used grey-
water that originated from bathtubs, showers, hand washing
basins and washing machines, with the exception of waste-
water originating from kitchen sinks and toilets. Nolde [17]
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Arab J Sci Eng (2014) 39:1701–1708
reported using several greywater treatment stages, including
sedimentation filtration, biological treatment, clearing stage,
and a final UV disinfection stage.
Combined greywater and rainwater reuse has been investi-
gated recently as an alternative water resource with the objec-
tives of water savings. Kim et al. [18] investigated possi-
ble treatment methods applicable to greywater and rainwater
prior to reuse in office buildings in South Korea.
Su et al. [19] investigated the effect of wash water and
underground water on properties of mortar and sustainable
concrete. The wash water employed in the study originated
from mixer washout operations in a ready-mixed concrete
plant in central Taiwan. The concrete ingredients included
mixing water, cement, fine and coarse aggregates, superplas-
ticizer and mineral admixtures with different proportions.
The mortar ingredients had a mix proportion (weight ratio)
of 0.485: 1: 2.75. The study concluded that the type of water
used insignificantly affected the initial setting time of fresh
mortar, while the final setting time was similar for all types
of mixing water. In addition, the 7- and 28-day compressive
strength measurements of all mortar specimens were within
the acceptable 90 % limit specified by the ASTM. Su et al.
[19] concluded that: (a) the slump of concrete specimens
was similar irrespective of the type of water used; and (b)
the compressive strength measurements indicated that con-
crete mixed with wash and groundwater yielded higher com-
pressive strength than that mixed with potable water. This
increase in compressive strength attributed to the presence
of solid particles in wash water which may have contributed
to increasing the concrete strength.
Sandrolini and Franzoni [20] investigated the use of recy-
cled waste wash water obtained from a medium-size ready-
mixed concrete plant in Italy, in the mixing of concrete and
mortars. The concrete mix had a water/cement ratio of 0.57,
and included wash water, fine and coarse aggregates. The
study concluded that the compressive strength of concrete
and mortar specimens prepared with recycled water yielded
compressive strength results higher than 96 % of those pre-
pared with potable water (i.e. control specimens). In addition,
flexural strength measurements on concrete and mortar spec-
imens prepared with recycled water produced a mean 28-day
flexural strength higher than 90 % of those prepared with dis-
tilled water. Sandrolini and Franzoni [20] concluded that the
use of recycled water resulted in a slight reduction in the
water/cement ratio, and as a result, the workability of fresh
concrete. Their findings also revealed possible improvement
in durability due to the reduction in capillary water absorp-
tion of concrete and microporosity of mortar, which was
attributed to the fine-filler action resulting from fine solids
and the reduction in water/cement ratio.
Lobo and Mullings [21] reported the possible use of
water reused from concrete production operations in ready
mix plants. The study was intended to simulate a practical
Arab J Sci Eng (2014) 39:1701–1708 1703

situation to the reuse of recycled water slurry. The first phase
of their study was to quantify the basic effects of using recy-
cled water on fresh and hardened concrete properties. They
concluded that using recycled water with a solid content at
or less than the ASTM C 94 set limit should comply with
the mixing water criteria for strength and setting time in the
standard. However, they noticed that recycled water aged to
7 days seemed to have marginally detrimental effects. At the
higher solids content, 4-h-old slurries had a minimal effect on
the setting time and water demand of the concrete mixtures.
Setting time and strength for these batches were similar to
control.
The use of household greywater in sustainable concrete
production is a subject that has not received enough attention
by researchers in this field. In addition, very little literature is
available about the use of non-fresh water in concrete produc-
tion. The advantages are numerous and include water con-
servation in countries with limited water resources, and the
production of environmentally-friendly concrete mixes. The
objective of this study is to investigate the potential of grey-
water reuse for concrete production, with special emphasis on
household greywater. The greywater employed in this study
originated from showers in typical households in Amman.
2 Experimental Program
2.1 Materials
Ten greywater samples were collected from random house-
hold showers over a period of 5 weeks. The household grey-
water samples were analyzed for various physical, chemical,
and biological quality parameters. Samples were collected on
a bi-weekly basis, and were stored at a temperature of 4 ◦ C for
5 h to allow for settlement of solids prior to use and analysis.
Care was taken to maintain the quality of the collected sam-
ples by following the applicable procedures regarding storage
time and method of analysis in accordance with the standard
methods for the examination of water and wastewater [22].
Greywater household and control (i.e., potable water) sam-
ples were analyzed for pH, solids, electrical conductivity,
alkalinity, chloride, sulfate, biochemical and chemical oxy-
gen demands, and FOG (fat, oil and grease). The average of
two samples was reported as per Table 1.
Table 1 indicates that the durability of concrete produced
with greywater will not be adversely affected due to chlo-
rides and sulfates, as levels of those constituents are within
the limits specified by ASTM C1602 for mixing water. Fur-
thermore, the Table shows that content of the total solids is
within the ASTM C1602 limits.
Both coarse and fine aggregates were used in the mix. The
coarse aggregates were crushed limestone comprised of two
maximum aggregate sizes of 19 and 12.5 mm. The fine aggre-
gates consisted of crushed limestone with a maximum size
of 4.75 mm and standard sand. The quality and grading of
aggregates and standard sand used were in compliance with
ASTM C 33 and ASTM C 778 requirements. Unit weight
was measured for the aggregates according to ASTM C 29/
C29M, while percent absorption and saturated surface dry
(SSD) specific gravity were measured according to ASTM
C 127 and ASTM C 128. Results are shown in Table 2. In
addition, the particle size distribution of each source of these
aggregates is shown in Fig. 1. The sieve analysis was con-
ducted following the procedure described in ASTM C 136.
The type of cement used in this study consisted of local
Type I Pozzolanic Portland cement made by inter-grinding

Table 1 Quality parameters of water samples

Parameter Unit Results Limits (ASTM C1602)

Potable water Greywater

Average Range

pH unit less 7.8 7.3 7.0–7.7 –

Total solids mg/l 442 980 755–1,253 50,000
Dissolved solids mg/l 403 840 670–1,040 –
Suspended solids mg/l – 140 85–213 –
Electrical conductivity (EC) (dS/m) 0.63 0.89 0.81–0.97 –
Alkalinity mg/l CaCO3 222 135 110–165 –
Chloride mg/l 172 265 155–390 1,000
Sulfate mg/l – 95 70–135 3,000
BOD5 mg O2 /l – 100 88–145 –
COD mg O2 /l – 640 426–750 –
FOG mg/l – 152 120–205 –

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Table 2 Physical properties of

Property Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate
aggregates
19 mm aggregates 12.5 mm aggregates 4.75 mm aggregates Standard sand

Unit weight (kN/m3 ) 13.9 14.5 16.2 16.7

% Absorption 3.5 3.9 5.3 1.6
Specific gravity (SSD) 2.67 2.65 2.64 2.62

Fig. 1 Particle size distribution

for coarse and fine aggregates

Table 3 Composition of cement

and pozzolan Chemical composition Cement percent by weight Pozzolan percent by weight

SiO2 22.6 44.8

Al2 O3 5.3 13.4
Fe2 O3 5.1 14.1
CaO 56.8 12.3
MgO 3.2 9.4
SO3 2.1 0.3
K2 O 0.9 1.4
Loss on ignition 1.9 1.2

fine natural pozzolan with Portland cement, and was in con-
formance with ASTM C 150 and ASTM C 618 requirements.
The percent of pozzolan used in the cement averaged 18 %
(by weight). Neville [1] reported that a pozzolan is a siliceous
or siliceous and aluminous material that possesses little or no
cementing property. However, and in the presence of mois-
ture, fine pozzolan reacts with lime released by the Portland
cement particles to form compounds with cementitious prop-
erties. The chemical compositions of Portland cement and
pozzolan are shown in Table 3.
2.2 Mix Proportions
A cement paste consisting of 650 g of cement and a percent-
age of water required for normal consistency, as described
in ASTM C 187, was prepared in accordance with ASTM C
305. The w/c ratio used for the cement paste was 0.31.
A batch of 1,500 g of standard sand and 750 g of cement
were mixed with water, as described in ASTM C 305, to
produce mortar mixes with an average flow value of 110 ± 5.
The flow was determined following the procedure described
in ASTM C 14. The w/c ratio used for the mortar mix was
0.56.
A mix proportion was designed according to the ACI
211.1-91 [23] method for normal weight aggregate concrete
with a w/c ratio of 0.61. The following proportions were used
in one cubic meter of concrete: 350 kg of cement, 213 kg of
water, 527 kg of the 19 mm coarse aggregate, 527 kg of
the 12.5 mm coarse aggregate, 350 kg of the 4.74 mm fine
aggregate, and 350 kg of the standard sand.

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Arab J Sci Eng (2014) 39:1701–1708
Fig. 2 Experimental program
setup
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Phase 1 – PP Phase 2 – PG
(Control Mix); MIXING -
MIXING - Potable Potable water
water CURING –
CURING – Potable Greywater
water
2.3 Test Methods
For the purpose of achieving the objectives of this study, a
program consisting of four phases of testing was carried out
as shown in Fig. 2. All phases included the testing of cement
pastes (with the exception of curing), mortar specimens, and
concrete specimens. The only difference between the differ-
ent phases was the type of mixing and curing waters used
(i.e., potable vs. greywater). The average daily room temper-
ature was 24 ◦ C and the average daily relative humidity was
50 %.
The first phase of experiments utilized potable water for
both mixing and curing stages (PP). The second phase uti-
lized potable water for mixing and greywater for curing
(PG), while the third phase utilized greywater for mixing and
potable water for curing (GP). For the fourth phase, greywa-
ter was used for both mixing and curing (GG).
Four cement paste samples were prepared with potable
water and four other samples were prepared with house-
hold greywater. The temperature of the mixing water was
23 ◦ C. Tests for initial and final setting times were carried
out according to ASTM C 191 by means of the Vicat needle.
Four mortar prisms with a 25-mm square cross-section and
285 mm in length were prepared and tested for each phase of
the experimental program, molded and cured in accordance
with ASTM C 192/C 192M. The specimens were moist-cured
in the molds for 24 h then removed and water-cured for 48 h.
The length change due to drying shrinkage was measured at
7, 14, 21 and 28 days for each specimen according to ASTM
C 596.
Three concrete specimens of 150-mm cubes were pre-
pared and cured according to BS EN 12390-1:2000 and BS
EN 12390-2:2000. The cubes were then tested for compres-
sive strength at 7, 14, 28 and 60 days according to BS EN
12390-3:2002 for each phase. In addition, three concrete
specimens of 75-mm diameter and 150-mm length cylinders
were prepared and cured according to ASTM C 192/C 192M.
The cylinders were then tested for splitting tensile strength
at 7, and 28 days according to ASTM C 496/C 496M for
each phase. All cubes and cylinders were moist-cured in the
molds for 24 h then removed and water-cured at 24 ◦ C until
tested. Slump tests to monitor the Workability of fresh con-
1705
Phase 3 – GP Phase 4 – GG
MIXING - MIXING -
Greywater Greywater
CURING – CURING –
Potable water Greywater
crete for each mix were carried out according to ASTM C
143 requirements.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Fresh Properties
3.1.1 Setting Times
An average of four samples was taken to measure initial and
final setting times of cement pastes. Results indicate that the
average initial setting time of cement pastes prepared using
potable and greywater was, respectively, 165 and 140 min. In
addition, the average final setting time of cement pastes pre-
pared with potable and greywater water was, respectively,
450 and 440 min. The slight difference observed can be
regarded as being negligible, and illustrates that the use
of greywater has minimal effect on the final setting times
of cement. The negligible effect of greywater on setting
time suggests that its use in lieu of using potable water is
acceptable.
3.1.2 Workability
Slump tests were used to measure the workability of the fresh
concrete mixes for each phase using the average of six sam-
ples that were within 5 mm from the reported average. Results
indicate that average workability of fresh concrete prepared
with potable water was 65 mm, while the ones prepared with
greywater was slightly increased to 70 mm. The reported
slight increase in slump results may be explained by the pres-
ence of household detergents in greywater. Detergents tend
to decrease the surface tension of water, which leads to an
increase in the amount of water relative to the total surface
of solids.
3.2 Hardened Properties
3.2.1 Compressive Strength
Figure 3 shows the compressive strength of concrete as a
function of age for each phase. The figure presents the aver-
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1706 Arab J Sci Eng (2014) 39:1701–1708

Fig. 3 Compressive strength of

32.5
32.0

32.0
31.0

31.0
Compressive strength (MPa)
concrete as a function of age for 35.0

28.0

28.0
27.0

27.0
26.0
each phase 30.0

25.0
24.5

24.0
23.0
22.0

21.5
25.0 PP
20.0
PG
15.0
GP
10.0
GG
5.0
0.0
7 days 14 days 28 days 60 days
Age (days)

Splitting strength (MPa)

age test result for the three specimens, with each sample being 3.00

2.40

2.35

2.20
1.95
within 3 % of the reported average value. The figure shows 2.50

1.60
that the compressive strength and strength development of 2.00 PP

1.20

concrete are not adversely affected by the use of greywater
in concrete production.
Figure 3 shows that the compressive strengths of the PG
phase at 7, 14, 28 and 60 days were, respectively, 11, 8, 18,
and 5 % higher than the compressive strengths of the control
phase. This indicated that an average of almost 10 % strength
gain can be achieved by merely curing the normal concrete
(made with potable water) with reused greywater.
For the GP and GG phases, the study showed that the
compressive strength of concrete was not adversely affected
by the use of greywater in the concrete mix, irrespective of
the type of water used for curing. Here, it is noted that the
strength of the concrete samples mixed using greywater was
within the 90 % acceptance criterion of compressive strength
of the standard mix as outlined by BS EN 1008:2002 and
ASTM C1602, and in some instances, was up to 17 % higher
as shown in Fig. 3 for the GG specimens tested at 14 days.
In fact, and since greywater contains quantities of soap and
other effluent substance, soap (and the bubbles it creates)
acts as an air entrainment agent, which one would expect to
cause an adverse effect on compressive strength. However,
the current study shows that since the compressive strength
was within the acceptable limits set by BS EN and ASTM,
the presence of soap as an air entraining agent is insignificant
in comparison to the total volume of greywater used.
Referring to Fig. 3, the PG and GG phases showed that the
use of greywater for curing resulted in the 7, 14, and 28-day
compressive strengths to be (on average) 10 % higher than
that of the PP phase when either potable water or greywater
was used for mixing.
As evident by Fig. 3, the tests showed that as concrete
ages up to 60 days, the effect of using greywater in concrete
mixes diminishes, and the measured compressive strengths
converge to within 2 % of the PP phase.
1.15
1.20
PG
1.50
GP
1.00 GG
0.50
0.00
7 days 28 days
Age (days)
Fig. 4 Splitting strength of concrete as a function of age for each phase
3.2.2 Splitting Strength
The splitting tensile strength test makes use of a cylinder
specimen subjected to a load to cause splitting of the speci-
men. Figure 4 shows the average value of the splitting tensile
tests of three samples as a function of age for each phase.
The three samples were within 2 % of the reported average
value.
As per Fig. 4, the splitting tensile strength at 7 days
was almost unchanged for the PG and GP phases, but was
36 % higher for the GG phase when compared to the PP
phase. However, this difference reduced to within 92 %
of the control phase when the splitting tensile strength
was tested at 28 days, suggesting a temporary early ten-
sile strength gain for concrete mixes cured and mixed using
greywater.
Figure 4 also shows that the use of greywater in concrete
production results in a splitting strength higher than 90 %
of splitting strength of the control mix when used for curing
that follows mixing with either potable or greywater. This
suggests that the effects of the chemicals present in greywater
(such as soap, effluent substances, etc.) are temporary and
will diminish with time.

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Arab J Sci Eng (2014) 39:1701–1708
Fig. 5 Drying shrinkage of
concrete as a function of age for
each phase
3.2.3 Drying Shrinkage
Figure 5 shows the drying shrinkage results of the mortar
samples as a function of age for each phase. In general, the
effect of using greywater on the drying shrinkage test results
showed a gradual reduction in the measurement of the total
length change. The reduction was more pronounced when
greywater was used in the mix (i.e., the GP and GG phases),
with the GG phase showing the largest percent reduction in
drying shrinkage, as evident in Fig. 5. The average length
change for the GG mixes was approximately 34 % of that
measured for the control mixes at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days.
However, the use of greywater for curing that follows mixing
with potable water (i.e., the PG phase) resulted in length
changes that are comparable to the standard control mix.
4 Conclusions
In this study, the use of household greywater as an alterna-
tive water source for the production of sustainable concrete
mixes was investigated. Test results of compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength and drying shrinkage were found
acceptable when greywater was used for mixing and curing,
provided that the limits set by the relevant Codes and speci-
fications for mixing water in concrete are adhered to.
The following conclusions were reached:
1. The effect of greywater was insignificant on the setting
times of cement pastes, while slightly increasing the aver-
age workability of fresh concrete in comparison to the
control mix. Such results suggest that the use of greywa-
ter has potential cost savings related to the reduced use
of superplasticizers.
2. For the GP and GG phases, the study showed that
the compressive strength of concrete was not adversely
affected by the use of greywater in the concrete mix, irre-
spective of the type of water used for curing. Here, it is
noted that the compressive strength of the GP phase tested
1707
at 7 days was within 98 % of the compressive strength
of the standard control phase, and in some instances, was
up to 17 % higher for the GG phase tested at 14 days.
3. For the PG and GG phases, the use of greywater for curing
resulted in the 7, 14, and 28-day compressive strengths
to be (on average) 10 % higher than that of the control
mix when either potable water or greywater was used for
mixing.
4. The tests showed that as concrete ages up to 60 days,
the effect of chemicals present in greywater on the com-
pressive strength diminishes, rendering the results to be
around 98 % of the control phase.
5. The splitting tensile strength at 7 days was almost
unchanged for the PG and GP mixes, but was 36 %
higher for the GG phase when compared to the con-
trol phase. However, the difference converged to approx-
imately 92 % of the control mix when the splitting tensile
strength was tested at 28 days, suggesting the diminishing
effect of chemicals present in greywater with time.
6. The use of greywater has the potential of reducing dry-
ing shrinkage in concrete mixes since the average length
change for the GG mixes was approximately 34 % of that
measured for the control mixes at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days.
The reduction was more pronounced in the GP and GG
phases, with the GG phase showing the largest percent
reduction in drying shrinkage.
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