Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Study on the performance of pervious concrete mixed with waste glass

powder
AoYang Li a, Hongxia Qiao a,b,⇑, Qiong Li a, Theogene Hakuzweyezu a, Bin Chen c
a
School of Civil Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
b
Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation in Civil Engineering of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, China
c
China Construction First Group The Fifth Construction Co. Ltd, Beijing, China

h i g h l i g h t s

In order to broaden the application range of waste glass, waste glass is ground into a powder to replace part of cement to prepare PC.

The effects of varying the WGP content and w/c on the mechanical properties, water permeability, and frost resistance of PC were analyzed.

A series of models was established to predict the effect of the w/c and WGP content on compressive strength and water permeability of PC using a non-
linear surface fitting method.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, pervious concrete (PC) was prepared by partially replacing the cement with waste glass
Received 3 March 2021 powder (WGP). The effects of varying the WGP content (0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%) and water-
Received in revised form 15 May 2021 cement ratio (w/c) (0.22, 0.24, 0.26, and 0.28) on the mechanical properties, water permeability, and frost
Accepted 14 June 2021
resistance of PC were analyzed. The results showed that the compressive strength of the PC initially
Available online 11 July 2021
increased and then decreased with the increasing w/c. With an increase in the WGP content, the com-
pressive strength decreased in the early stage (28 d), and slowly increased in the middle stage (56 d);
Keywords:
however, at the age of 112 d, this value first increased and then decreased. Similar trends were observed
Pervious concrete
Waste glass powder
for the splitting tensile and flexural strengths of the PC. The water permeability of the PC first increased
Mechanical property and then decreased with increasing w/c. With the increasing WGP content, the water permeability pre-
Water permeability sented a downward trend. In addition, it was observed that the increase in WGP content can improve the
Frost resistance freeze–thaw resistance of the PC. Based on the experimental data, a series of models was established to
predict the effect of the w/c and WGP content on compressive strength and water permeability of PC
using a non-linear surface fitting method. The proposed models showed good agreement with the exper-
imental results.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction was recycled [4]. The increasing accumulation of WG demands

Waste glass (WG) is a main component of municipal solid
waste. Generally, most of WG is contaminated, comprises mixtures
of different color glasses, and has a low commercial value. Further,
the treatment cost of WG is significantly high; consequently, only a
small proportion is recycled [1–2]. For instances, China produced
20.25 million tons of WG in 2017, however, only less than half of
this was recycled [3]. In 2013, more than 11.5 million tons of
WG were produced in the United States, of which less than 25%
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Civil Engineering, Lanzhou University of
Technology, Lanzhou, Gansu, China.
E-mail address: qiaohongxia@lut.edu.cn (H. Qiao).
more land, pollutes the environment, and requires wastes valuable
resources for its management. Therefore, there is an urgent need to
develop efficient and high-value recycling methods for WG [5].
Recently, several researchers have explored the application of
WG in concrete [6–12]. Grind WG into powder in place of a certain
amount of cement to prepare concrete is an effective means to
reuse WG. Al-Zubaid et al. [13] partially substituted cement with
waste glass powder (WGP) to prepare concrete and studied the
effects of substitution rates of 11%, 13%, and 15% on the mechanical
properties of concrete. The results indicated that the substitution
of 13% resulted in the maximum compressive and flexural
strengths. Safarizki et al. [14] investigated the compressive
strength of concrete by replacing sand with varying contents

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123997
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
(10%, 15%, 20%, and 30%) of WGP, and obtained a maximum com-
pressive strength when the WGP content was 15%. Du et al. [15]
performed a durability test of concrete with a high WGP content
(15%, 30%, 45%, 60%) and reported that all concrete containing
WGP exhibited excellent mechanical properties compared with
the control specimens (0% WGP content) at a one-year curing
age. The concrete with 15% WGP achieved the maximum strength,
which was approximately 27% higher than that of the control spec-
imens. Ling et al. [16] studied the effect of WG particle size
(600 lm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm and 5 mm) on the mechanical proper-
ties of concrete, and the results showed that increasing the coarse
particle content of WG resulted in a decreased flexural strength.
Similar results were reported by [17]. The smoother surface of
the coarser WG particles reduces the cohesion between the WG
particles and cement paste which reduces the flexural strength.
Khmiri et al. [18] studied the influence of smaller WGP particle
sizes (100–80 lm, 80–40 lm, less than40 lm, and less
than 20 lm) on the compressive strength of mortar by partially
replacing the cement with WGP. The pozzolanic activity was more
intense when the diameter was less than 20 lm, and the compres-
sive strength of the mortar reached its maximum. In addition, glass
contains a significant amount of silica, which can react with cal-
cium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) following cement hydration and pro-
duce numerous reaction products such as calcium silicate,
thereby accelerating the development of concrete performance in
the later stages [19–21]. Afshinnia et al. [4] observed that glass
powder (GP) has the characteristics of smooth surfaces and low
water absorption compared to cement and found that adding it
to concrete can enhance the workability of concrete.
The replacement of cement with WGP has a significant effect on
the workability and strength of concrete. The durability is also an
important index for evaluating the influence of WGP on concrete
performance. At present, research on the durability of concrete
containing WGP mainly focuses on the alkali-silica reaction and
resistance to sulfate attack, chloride ion penetration, and frost
resistance, etc. [22–27].
Matos et al. [28] reported that the chloride ion permeability of
mortar increased with increasing WGP content, and the mortar
with 10% WGP showed the highest resistance to external sulfate
erosion. Schwarz et al. [29] considered the effect of fine GP on con-
crete durability by replacing cement with 10% fine GP and con-
cluded that the addition of fine GP reduced the chloride ion
penetration and relieve harmful expansion caused by the alkali-
silica reaction. Patel et al. [30] studied the effect of waste fine GP
on the drying shrinkage of cement mortar, and the results showed
that the addition of WGP in the mortar did not absorb the free
water, thereby, slowing down the expansion of the mortar. For a
mortar with 20% WGP, the shrinkage or expansion only reached
up to 3%. Omran et al. [31] reported that, when the replacement
rate of GP was 10%, the dynamic elastic modulus of concrete after
300 freeze–thaw cycles was 60% higher than that specified in
ASTM C666 [32]. Furthermore, cracks were not observed on the
surfaces of the specimens. Du et al. [33] observed that the water
penetration resistance of concrete increased with increasing WGP
content owing to the high Ca(OH)2 concentration in the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) between the aggregate and cement paste. In
addition, the WGP is more prone to pozzolanic reaction at the
ITZ, which makes the microstructure of concrete denser. Compared
with plain concrete, the water penetration depth was reduced by
80% for concrete containing 60% WGP.
In summary, research on the partial replacement of cement
with WGP mainly focuses on the properties of ordinary concrete;
however, studies related to pervious concrete (PC) are limited. To
extend the application of WGP, in this study, the water-cement
ratio (w/c) and WGP content were selected as research variables
to investigate their influence on the mechanical properties, water
2
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
permeability, and frost resistance of PC. By the regression analysis
of date observed from this experiment, the relationships between
w/c and WGP content on the compressive strength and water per-
meability were established, respectively. The results presented in
this paper are significant for the effective reuse of WG in PC for
practical applications.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
Ordinary Portland cement with a grade of 42.5, based on Chi-
nese standard GB/T175-2007 [34], was employed in this study,
and its properties are listed in Table 1. The superplasticizer SBTÒ-
PRC (I) with a water reduction rate of 20% (as per the manufacturer
description), provided by Jiangsu Subote Co. Ltd., was used. The
coarse aggregates were single grade crushed stone with a size of
4.75–9.5 mm; the physical properties of the aggregate are shown
in Table 2. The WG was crushed, ground, and sieved to obtain
WGP with an average particle size of approximately 45 lm. The
appearance of WGP is shown in Fig. 1 (a), the scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) of WGP is shown in Fig. 1 (b) and main chemical
compositions are shown in Table 3.
2.2. Mix design
To study the effect of WGP content and w/c on the mechanical
properties, water permeability and frost resistance of PC, before
starting the test, a trial mixing of PC was conducted to select the
test ranges for the WGP content and w/c. The results showed that
when the amount and interval of WGP content was small, the
influence on each performance index of PC was not evident. In lit-
eratures [27,30,35–38], the value of glass powder interval was 5%;
consequently, the cement was replaced by WGP content ranging
from 10% to 25% at a constant interval of 5% (replace cement with
the same mass) in this study. When the w/c was greater than 0.3,
the fluidity of PC was high, and cement paste was non-uniformly
coated the aggregate. The pores on the lower surface of the speci-
men were blocked by cement paste, which affected the water per-
meability. By reducing the w/c, the mechanical properties and
water permeability were significantly enhanced [39–41]. Thus,
the selected w/c values were 0.22, 0.24, 0.26, and 0.28 in this test.
Generally, the porosity of PC is 15–35% [42–43]. According to the
Chinese standards CJJ/T253-2016 [44], the porosity of PC should
be greater than or equal to 10%. Based on existing literatures
[45–46], the target porosity was selected as 20% to balance the
mechanical properties and water permeability of PC. The mix pro-
portions are listed in Table 4.
2.3. Sample preparation
To improve the workability of freshly mixed PC, a step-by-step
feeding technology was employed as mentioned in the literature
[47–49]: First, aggregates were mixed with half of the water in
the mixer for 60 s. Then, the cementitious materials and superplas-
ticizer were added and mixed for 120 s. Next, the remaining water
was added to the mixture and mixed further for 120 s. Subse-
quently, the mixture was poured into the molds, and used a flat-
plate polisher to keep constant pressure and vibrate for 30 s, and
the smoothed the surface. To reduce water evaporation, the speci-
mens were covered with a plastic film, as shown in Fig. 2. The spec-
imens were demolded after 1 day and then cured in a curing
chamber (20 °C ± 2 °C, 95% relative humidity) for 28 days.
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997

Table 1
Physical properties of cement.

Materials Setting time(min) Compressive strength Flexural strength(MPa)

(MPa)
Initial setting Final setting 3d 28d 3d 28d
P.O 42.5 106 220 22.7 46.2 5.2 8.1
Specification requirements 45 600 17 42.5 3.5 6.5

Table 2
Physical properties of aggregate.

Particle size(mm) Needle sheet content (%) Sediment percentage (%) Apparent density (kg/m3) Bulk density (kg/m3) Void fraction(%)
4.75–9.5 4.7 0.26 2641 1492 43.62

(a) Appearance of WGP (b) SEM of WGP

Fig. 1. Waste glass powder.

Table 3
Chemical compositions of WGP.

Chemical composition SiO2 Na2O CaO MgO K2O Fe2O3 SO3 Al2O3
% 71.2 11.23 7.6 2.49 0.068 0.54 0.016 3.12

Table 4
Mix proportion.

Specimen (C-A-B) * WGP content (%) w/c Cement WGP Aggregate Water superplasticizer
(kg/m3)
C-0.22-0 0 0.22 458 0 1462 101 13
C-0.24-0 0 0.24 442 0 1462 106 12.6
C-0.26-0 0 0.26 427 0 1462 111 12.1
C-0.28–0 0 0.28 412 0 1462 115 11.7
C-0.22-0.10 10 0.22 412.2 45.8 1462 101 13
C-0.24-0.10 10 0.24 397.8 44.2 1462 106 12.6
C-0.26-0.10 10 0.26 384.3 42.7 1462 111 12.1
C-0.28-0.10 10 0.28 370.8 41.2 1462 115 11.7
C-0.22-0.15 15 0.22 389.3 68.7 1462 101 13
C-0.24-0.15 15 0.24 375.7 66.3 1462 106 12.6
C-0.26-0.15 15 0.26 362.9 64.1 1462 111 12.1
C-0.28-0.15 15 0.28 350.2 61.8 1462 115 11.7
C-0.22-0.20 20 0.22 366.4 91.6 1462 101 13
C-0.24-0.20 20 0.24 353.6 88.4 1462 106 12.6
C-0.26-0.20 20 0.26 341.6 85.4 1462 111 12.1
C-0.28-0.20 20 0.28 329.6 82.4 1462 115 11.7
C-0.22-0.25 25 0.22 343.5 114.5 1462 101 13
C-0.24-0.25 25 0.24 331.5 110.5 1462 106 12.6
C-0.26-0.25 25 0.26 320.2 106.8 1462 111 12.1
C-0.28-0.25 25 0.28 309 103 1462 115 11.7

*No. C-A-B, A indicates w/c, and B indicates WGP content.

3
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
(a) Surface smoothing
Fig. 2. Sample preparation process.
2.4. Test process
2.4.1. Porosity and permeability coefficient
The porosity of PC was tested according to the requirements of
CJJ/T253-2016 [44]. The permeability coefficient of PC was mea-
sured via the constant head method, according to CJJ/T135-2009
[50], as shown in Fig. 3. The sample size was
100 mm  100 mm  100 mm. The four sides of the specimens
were sealed with cement paste to ensure that water could only
flow from the upper and lower surfaces of the specimen in the
experiment, as shown in Fig. 4. The amount of water (Q) released
over 5 min was recorded with a measuring cylinder after stabiliz-
ing the water flow. The permeability coefficient was calculated
using Darcy’s law, as presented in Eq. (1). The average of three
specimens was reported as the test results.
QL
k¼
AHt
where k is the permeability coefficient (mm/s), Q is the amount
of water released within t seconds (mm3), L is the height of PC
(mm), A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen (mm2), H is
the water head (mm), t is the time (s).
Fig. 3. Permeability coefficient test instrument.
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
(b) Specimens covered with plastic film
2.4.2. Compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength
The compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and flexu-
ral strength were measured for PC with the curing age of 28 days,
56 days, and 112 days in accordance with Chinese standard GB/
T50081-2002 [51]. A microcomputer-controlled electro-hydraulic
servo compression machine with a maximum load capacity of
300 t was employed. The sample size for flexural strength testing
was 100 mm  100 mm  400 mm, and the three point loading
methods were adopted. Three test specimens were prepared for
each group, and the average value was considered to be the
strength of the group (the deviation between the individual and
average strengths should not exceed 15%).
2.4.3. Freeze-thaw
The freeze–thaw cycle test was tested following Chinese stan-
dard GB/T50082-2009 [52]. To obtain a more approximate simula-
tion of PC in the actual project environment, a slow freezing
ð1Þ
method was adopted. The size of the specimen was
100 mm  100 mm  100 mm, 3 pieces in each group and the
standard curing time was 28 days. After every 10 freeze–thaw
cycles, the dry mass and compressive strength of the saturated sur-
face of the test specimens were measured. When one of the follow-
ing situations occurs, the test was stopped: 1. The mass loss rate
reached 5%. 2. The compressive strength loss rate reached 25%. 3.
The freeze–thaw cycle was completed 100 times. The mass loss
rate and compressive strength loss rate were calculated according
to Eq. (2) and Eq. (3).
m0  mn
Dm ¼  100% ð2Þ
m0
Fig. 4. Surface plastering treatment of PC.
4
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
f c0  f cn
Df c ¼  100%
f c0
where 4m is the mass loss rate, m0 is the mass of the sample
before freeze–thaw (g), mn is the mass of the sample after n
freeze–thaw cycles (g), 4fc is the compressive strength loss rate,
fc0 is the compressive strength of the sample before freeze–thaw
(MPa), fcn is the compressive strength of the sample after n
freeze–thaw cycles (MPa).
3. Results and analysis
3.1. Analysis of mechanical properties
3.1.1. Compressive strength
The effect of the w/c and WGP content on the compressive
strength of PC at 28 days, 56 days, and 112 days are shown in
Fig. 5. It can be seen from the figure that with an increase in w/c,
the compressive strength of PC first increases and then decreases
for each testing age, and the w/c = 0.26 was the turning point.
For the PC at age of 28 days with a WGP of 20%, the compressive
strengths at w/c = 0.26 was 13.5% and 2.5% higher than those of
w/c = 0.22 and 0.28, respectively. This finding was attributed to
the fact that when the w/c was small, the cement paste exhibited
poor fluidity, difficultly in molding, insufficient compaction, and
(a) Compressive strength of PC at 28 days
(c) Compressive strength of PC at 112 days
Fig. 5. Compressive strength at various w/c and WGP content.
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
less contact surface between aggregates. This resulted in the
ð3Þ
decreased bond strength between aggregates leading to a low com-
pressive strength of PC [53]. However, increasing the w/c will
reduce the amount of cement, and the decrease of cohesiveness
caused by increasing the fluidity of cement paste will lead to the
deposition of cement paste at the bottom of the specimen. This
enlarges the performance difference between the upper and lower
parts of the specimen, which has a negative effect on the overall
compressive strength. In addition, a reduced amount of cement
paste in the upper part of the specimen leads to fewer bonding
points between aggregates, which pose difficulty in forming a
skeleton, thereby resulting in low strength of cement after hydra-
tion. These factors have caused a decrease in the compressive
strength of PC. Therefore, there is an optimal w/c for PC.
With an increase in the WGP content, the compressive strength
of PC decreased at 28 days, increased slowly at 56 days, and first
increased and then decreased at 112 days, and the 20% WGP was
the turning point. After 112 days of curing, the compressive
strength of PC with a w/c = 0.26 and 20% WGP content was 9.8%
and 4% higher than that of 0% and 25% WGP, respectively. This is
because the early activity of WGP is low, and thus, it mainly has
a filling effect. The pozzolanic reaction and filling effect of WGP
enhanced the pore structure of PC, which resulted in a denser
microstructure and higher strength [54–55]. However, with high
WGP content, the decrease in cement paste content led to a
(b) Compressive strength of PC at 56 days
5
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
decrease in the cement hydration products. The advantages of
WGP cannot compensate for the decrease in hydration products
thereby negatively affecting the compressive strength of PC.
3.1.2. Split tensile strength
The effect of the w/c and WGP content on the splitting tensile
strength of PC at 28 days, 56 days, and 112 days are shown in
Fig. 6. It can be found that the influence of w/c and WGP on split-
ting tensile strength was similar to that of compressive strength.
As the w/c increased, the splitting tensile strength increased and
then decreased. For instance, at the age of 28 days, the splitting
tensile strength of PC containing 20% WGP content with w/
c = 0.26, was 11.4% and 2.8% higher than that of w/c = 0.22 and
0.28, respectively.
With an increase in the WGP content, the splitting tensile
strength of PC decreased at 28 days, increased slowly at 56 days,
but first increased and the decreased at 112 days, and the 20%
WGP was the turning point. For w/c = 0.26, the splitting tensile
strength of the PC at the age of 112 days with 20% WGP was
11.2% and 4.1% higher than that of 0% and 25% WGP, respectively.
3.1.3. Flexural strength
The effect of the w/c and WGP content on the flexural strength
of PC at 28 days, 56 days, and 112 days are shown in Fig. 7. The
flexural strength of PC first increases and then decreases with an
increase in w/c, and the w/c = 0.26 was the turning point. For the
specimens containing 20% WGP with w/c = 0.22 and 0.28, the flex-
(a) Splitting tensile strength of PC at 28 days
(c) Splitting tensile strength of PC at 112 days
Fig. 6. Split tensile strength at various w/c and WGP content.
6
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
ural strength at the age of 28 days was reduced by 25.1% and 8.6%
at 28 days, respectively, compared with that when w/c = 0.26. This
is because that the performance of the cement paste was enhanced
due to the higher w/c and the bonding between the aggregates was
strengthened, resulting in an increased the flexural strength. How-
ever, excess w/c is not conducive to wrapping the aggregate with
cement paste. It can easily cause uneven and weak cement paste
film thickness on the surface of the aggregate. The insufficient
mechanical bonding force between the aggregates leads to a
decrease in the flexural strength.
With an increase in the WGP content, the flexural strength of PC
gradually decreases at 28 days, increased slowly at 56 days, but
first increases and decreases at 112 days, and the 20% WGP was
the turning point. Compared with 20% WGP, when w/c = 0.26,
the flexural strengths of 0% and 25% WGP were reduced by 16%
and 3.7% at 112 days, respectively. The reason is that with an
increase in the curing period, a large amount of SiO2 and Al2O3
reacts with Ca(OH)2 to produce C-A-H and C-S-H gels, forming a
part of the microstructure with fine texture and less permeability
(shown in Eqs. (4) and (5)) [56]. This may lead to a good interlock-
ing between the aggregates, thereby keeping the aggregates
together and increasing the flexural performance of the specimen.
mCaðOHÞ2 þ SiO2 þ ðn  1Þ  H2 O ! mCaOSiO2  nH2 O ð4Þ
mCaðOHÞ2 þ Al2 O3 þ ðn  1Þ  H2 O ! mCaOAl2 O3  nH2 O ð5Þ
(b) Splitting tensile strength of PC at 56 days
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997

(a) Flexural strength of PC at 28 days (b) Flexural strength of PC at 56 days

(c) Flexural strength of PC at 112 days

Fig. 7. Flexural strength at various w/c and WGP content.

Fig. 8. Relationship between compressive and split tensile strength of PC.

Fig. 9. Relationship between compressive and flexural strength of PC.

mechanical properties of PC. The evolution law between different

3.2. Relevance of mechanical properties
The relationships between the compressive strength and the
splitting tensile and flexural strengths of PC are shown in Figs. 8
and 9. The fitting results were as follows, R2 = 0.9316 and
R2 = 0.9576, respectively. This shows that the linear equations
established between compressive, split tensile, and flexural
strengths possess high accuracy and good linear relationships.
These linear equations are more reliable for describing the
7
mechanical properties is better evaluated or tested, which can pro-
vide an effective reference for the development of the mechanical
properties of PC.
3.3. Analysis of water permeability
Because the main function of the PC is to infiltrate water into
the ground, porosity and permeability are important indices for
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997

characterizing the water permeability of PC [57]. In this study, the 3.4. Analysis of mechanical properties and water permeability
porosity and water permeability coefficient of PC with different w/
c and WGP contents were considered. Figs. 12 and 13 show the relationship between the compressive
The effect of w/c on water permeability is shown in Fig. 10. It strength, permeability coefficient and porosity of the PC. Through
can be observed that the water permeability first increases and regression analyses of the experimental data, two fitting relation
then decreases with an increase in w/c. The w/c plays an important
role in the workability and fluidity of the cement paste. When the
w/c is relatively small, the viscous cement paste causes pore block-
age, which adversely affects to the formation of effective pores
[58]. However, excessive w/c leads to poor cohesion in cement
paste. During casting, the cement paste easily flows to the bottom
of the specimen under the action of gravity and external forces,
leading to bottom sealing, and the water permeability of the spec-
imen decreases.
It can be seen from Fig. 11 that an increase in the WGP content
reduces the water permeability of the PC. Compared with 25%
WGP, the porosity and permeation coefficient of PC containing
0% WGP decreased by 25.3% and 24%, respectively. This can be
attributed to the smooth and dense surface of the WGP, and the
fluidity of the cement paste increases with increasing of WGP con-
tent, which blocks some holes inside the PC. In addition, the ‘‘vol-
canic ash effect” of the WGP optimizes the microporous structure
[59], increasing the density of the PC and reducing water perme-
ability. However, the test results showed that when the WGP con-
tent was 25%, the permeability coefficient and the porosity were
1.72 mm/s and 14.7%, respectively, which still met the minimum
requirements of the specification. Fig. 12. Relationship between porosity and compressive strength.

Fig. 10. Influence of w/c on water permeability.

Fig. 13. Relationship between porosity and permeability coefficient.

Fig. 11. Influence of WGP content on water permeability. Fig. 14. Changes of strength and water permeability under w/c.

8
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
(a) WGP (0%) (b) WGP (10%)
(d) WGP (20%)
Fig. 15. Apparent morphology of PC in each group.
curves were obtained having R2 = 0.9742 and 0.9449, which
showed good agreement. It was observed that the compressive
strength decreased with an increase in porosity. This phenomenon
shows that the porosity had a negative impact on the strength of
PC mixes. As shown in Fig. 14, considering both the compressive
strength and permeability of the mix, it is observed that the
mechanical properties and water permeability show the optimal
results when w/c = 0.26 and WGP content = 20%.
Fig. 16. The relationship between curves of mass loss rate and freeze–thaw cycles.
9
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
(c) WGP (15%)
(e) WGP (25%)
3.5. Analysis of frost resistance of PC
3.5.1. Appearance analysis
As shown in Fig. 15 (a), the aggregate leaked and fell off from a
large area, and significant cracks appeared after 70 freeze–thaw
cycles, indicating that the specimen was destroyed. The freeze–
thaw cycle test was stopped. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, the sur-
face aggregates of specimens in Fig. 15 (b) and (c) fell off, but no
cracks were produced, and the surface aggregates of specimens
Fig. 17. The relationship between curves of compressive strength loss rate and
freeze–thaw cycles.
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
in Fig. 15 (d) and (e) were slightly peeled off and remained rela-
tively intact. Although the mass and compressive strength loss
rates of specimens in Fig. 15 (b)–(e) did not meet the damage stan-
dard required by the specification, the specified freeze–thaw cycles
were completed.
3.5.2. Mass loss rate and compressive strength loss rate
Fig. 16 shows the mass loss rate curve of PC under freeze–thaw
cycles. It can be seen that the quality of PC experiences two differ-
ent stages in the freeze–thaw cycle. In the first stage, the mass-loss
rate was negative during 0–20 freeze–thaw cycles, indicating that
the mass of each specimen was increasing. This was because of the
low temperature, which resulted in freezing the pore water inside
the PC, as shown in Fig. 15 (a). In the second stage, the mass-loss
(a) WGP (0%)
(c) WGP (15%)
(e) WGP (25%)
Fig. 18. SEM images of PC after freeze–thaw cycles.
10
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
rate changed from negative to positive during 20–100 freeze–thaw
cycles, indicating that the mass of each specimen started to
decrease. The reason was that PC produced temperature stresses
during freeze–thaw cycles [60]. Increases in temperature stress
causes higher damage and cracking on the surface or inside the
specimen and local spalling of the cement mortar and aggregate
resulting in gradual mass loss.
Fig. 17 shows the compressive strength loss rate curve of PC
under freeze–thaw cycles. It can be seen that with an increase in
the number of freeze–thaw cycles, the compressive strength loss
rate curves of each group of specimens increased, while the com-
pressive strength gradually decreased. This is due to the existence
of relatively weak bonds between the aggregate and cement paste
of PC. The pore water of the specimen was frozen and expanded
(b) WGP (10%)
(d) WGP (20%)
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997

owing to the low temperature, causing the micro-cracks to expand. (112 d) are shown in Fig. 19. It can be seen that the overall trend
After multiple freeze–thaw cycles, the damage was high, and the of compressive strength first increases and then decreases with
compressive strength was significantly reduced. an increase in w/c and WGP content. When w/c = 0.26 and WGP
It can be seen from Figs. 15–17 that WGP, as a part of the content = 20%, the PC achieved the highest compressive strength
cement substitute, can improve the frost resistance of PC, which and the best performance.
is consistent with the conclusions in references [61–63]. WGP According to the experiment results, the equation for predicting
can produce C-S-H gel and other products, which can fill the pores the compressive strength of PC was established and analyzed by
inside the PC, prevent water from entering the pores, and reduce the fitting, as shown in Eq. (6). The parameter estimation of the
the negative effect caused by low temperature. compressive strength model is shown in Table 5. It can be seen
from the table that the correlations of all coefficients are greater
3.5.3. SEM analysis than 0.96, indicating that the regression coefficient of the equation
Fig. 18 shows the SEM images of the PC in each group after com- is significant. To analyze the accuracy of this regression equation,
pletion of the freeze–thaw cycle test, zoomed at a multiple of 3000.
It can be seen that the composition and morphology of the hydra-
tion products of PC were enhanced by the addition of WGP. Com- Table 5
pared with Fig. 15 (a)–(e), the hydration product of the reference Regression equation coefficient of compressive strength.
specimen (WGP 0%) was mainly Ca(OH)2 and ettringite, while the Variables Coefficient Standard error t-stat Relevance
amount of C-S-H gel was less. Initially, there were several pores
Z0 82.515 19.963 4.133 0.99994
in the specimen, which can easily induce micro-cracks. The exis- w/c 799.586 159.847 5.002 0.99999
tence of these micro-cracks causes surface cracking in the speci- WGP/c 0.336 0.173 1.943 0.99798
men. However, after adding WGP, the hydration products of the w/c  w/c 1502.795 318.951 4.711 0.99996
specimen were relatively rich because of the pozzolanic reaction. WGP/c  WGP/c 0.004 0.002 1.927 0.96247
w/c  WGP/c 0.574 0.663 0.866 0.99782
In addition, with an increase in WGP content, the contents of C-
S-H, C-A-H, and other gels generated by the reaction of Ca(OH)2
with SiO2 and Al2O3 increased. The specimen’s internal structure
was relatively dense, thereby reducing the number and width of
micro-cracks and improving the ability of the specimen to resist
freeze–thaw damage. This was in consistent with the macroscopic
test results indicating that the freezing resistance of PC can be
enhanced by adding WGP.

4. Statistical analysis of test results

To more accurately describe the relationship between the w/c

and WGP content and PC various properties, this study uses a non-
linear surface fitting analysis to predict the water permeability and
compressive strength of PC. The WGP content and w/c were taken
to be independent variables, and the compressive strength and
water permeability were considered as dependent variables.

4.1. Statistical analysis of compressive strength

The contour plot and nonlinear surface model fitting diagram of

Fig. 20. Correlation between the test and prediction compressive strengths.
the w/c and WGP content against the compressive strength of PC

(a) Contour map of w/c and WGP content against (b) Curved surface model fitting diagram of w/c and WGP
compressive strength content against compressive strength
Fig. 19. Statistical analysis of compressive strength of PC.

11
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997

(a) Contour map of w/c and WGP content against porosity (b) Curved surface model fitting diagram of w/c and WGP
content against porosity

Fig. 21. Statistical analysis of porosity of PC.

(a) Contour map of w/c and WGP content against (b) Curved surface model fitting diagram of w/c and WGP
permeability coefficient content against permeability coefficient
Fig. 22. Statistical analysis of permeability coefficient of PC.

the predicted compressive strength and the measured compressive seen from the tables that the fitting effect was remarkable. Similar
strength were fitted, as shown in Fig. 20. The R2 was 0.951, which to the compressive strength, to find the deviation between the pre-
indicates that the proposed equation has a high degree of accuracy dicted and experimental values, the predicted and measured
and shows a good fit.
Table 6
Z C ¼ 82:52 þ 799:59w=c þ 0:34WGP=c  1502:8ðw=cÞ2 Regression equation coefficient of porosity.
 0:004ðWGP=cÞ2  0:58w=c  WGP=c ð6Þ Variables Coefficient Standard error t-stat Relevance

where Zc is the compressive strength of PC, c is the mass of Z0 94.200 21.616 4.358 0.99996
cement, WGP/c is the WGP content. w/c 928.796 173.076 5.366 0.99998
WGP/c 0.467 0.187 2.498 0.99796
w/c  w/c 1906.253 345.346 5.520 0.99896
WGP/c  WGP/c 0.003 0.002 1.215 0.96247
4.2. Statistical analysis of water permeability
w/c  WGP/c 0.998 0.718 1.391 0.99887

Figs. 21 and 22 show the contour plot and nonlinear surface

model fit diagram of the w/c and WGP content on the porosity
and permeability coefficient of PC. It can be seen that the overall Table 7
Regression equation coefficient of permeability coefficient.
trend of porosity and permeability coefficient first increases and
then decreases with an increase in w/c. However, this value Variables Coefficient Standard error t-stat Relevance
decreased with an increase in WGP content. The development Z0 26.047 3.097 8.411 0.99992
trend was in good agreement with the experimental results. w/c 227.321 24.795 9.168 0.99993
The equation for predicting water permeability was also estab- WGP/c 0.048 0.027 1.777 0.99792
lished and analyzed by fitting the experimental results, as shown w/c  w/c 457.200 49.474 9.241 0.99996
WGP/c  WGP/c 0.0001 0.00029 0.335 0.96287
in Eqs.7 and 8. The parameter estimation of the porosity and per- w/c  WGP/c 0.115 0.103 1.119 0.99762
meability coefficient model is shown in Tables 6 and 7. It can be
12
A. Li, H. Qiao, Q. Li et al.
Fig. 23. Correlation of test porosity and prediction porosity.
Fig. 24. Correlation of test permeability coefficient and predicted permeability
coefficient.
results were fitted, as shown in Figs. 23 and 24. The R2 was 0.958
and 0.965, respectively, which demonstrated that the regression
equation of the porosity and permeability coefficient has a high
correlation.
Z P ¼ 94:2 þ 928:8w=c  0:47WGP=c  1906:3ðw=cÞ2
þ 0:003ðWGP=cÞ2 þ 0:998w=c  WGP=c
Z Pc ¼ 26:05 þ 227:32w=c  0:05WGP=c  457:2ðw=cÞ2
þ 0:0001ðWGP=cÞ2 þ 0:115w=c  WGP=c
where Zp is the porosity of PC, ZPc is the permeability coefficient
of PC.
5. Conclusion
The main objective of this study was to investigate PC contain-
ing WGP. Through experiments and regression analyses, the influ-
ence of the w/c and WGP content on the mechanical properties,
water permeability, and frost resistance of PC was discussed. The
main conclusions are as follows:
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 123997
1) With an increase in w/c, the compressive, splitting tensile,
and flexural strengths, porosity, and permeability coefficient
of PC first increased and then decreased. Experimental
results showed that the performance of PC was optimum
when w/c = 0.26.
2) For early ages of curing, the compressive, splitting tensile,
and flexural strengths decreased with an increase in the
WGP content. However, as the age of the PC increased, these
strengths first increased and then decreased with an
increase in WGP content. The experimental study showed
that when the WGP content was 20%, optimum strengths
were obtained.
3) WGP showed a certain negative effect on the water perme-
ability of the PC. Increasing the WGP content resulted in
reduced porosity and permeability coefficient of PC. How-
ever, each mixing proportion met the minimum range
required by the specification.
4) Freeze-thaw cycle tests showed that WGP was beneficial to
the frost resistance of PC; the frost resistance increased with
an increase in WGP content.
5) This study employed the nonlinear surface fitting analysis
method to establish regression equations for the w/c and
WGP content versus the compressive strength and water
permeability of PC. The established regression equations
exhibited a high accuracy, shown by the curve-fitting.
Through the regression equations, the compressive strength
and water permeability of PC were predicted and were have
highly correlated with the experimental results.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
AoYang Li: Writing - original draft, Methodology, Investigation,
Writing - review & editing. Hongxia Qiao: Conceptualization, Val-
idation, Formal analysis. Qiong Li: Conceptualization, Validation,
Formal analysis. Theogene Hakuzweyezu: Supervision, Data cura-
tion. Bin Chen: Supervision, Data curation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51468039,
51868044).
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