Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

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Construction and Building Materials

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Evaluation of strength development in cemented dredged sediment

admixing recycled glass powder
Xinlei Zhang a, Desheng Li b, Lei Lang b, *
a
College of Transportation Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211869, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Using glass powder (GP) as Portland cement (PC) helper in dredged sediment (DS) stabilization can achieve the
Recycled glass powder double benefit of reducing PC dosage and recycling waste GP. This study evaluated the feasibility of using GP
Dredged sediment together with PC in improving the strength properties of DS. The effects of PC content, GP content, GP fineness
Stabilization
and curing age on the strength development of PC-GP stabilized DS (CGDS) were investigated via a series of
Strength development
Microstructure
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray
diffraction (XRD) tests were conducted to analyze the strength evolution micro-mechanisms inside CGDS. The
results showed that the UCS of CGDS increased monotonously with increasing PC content, and incorporating GP
led to the strength gain of CGDS regardless of PC content. The optimum GP content tended to increase with
increasing curing age and water content. The highest 28-day UCS of CGDS with water content of 50, 60 and 75%
were respectively achieved at GP content of 15, 15 and 20%. Improving GP fineness can obviously improve the
strength development of CGDS. The maximum strength growth rate (UCSgr) of CGDS with water content of 50, 60
and 75% were respectively achieved at PC content of 8, 8 and 10%, and increasing GP content and fineness
resulted in UCSgr improvement. The 28-day UCS of CGDS can be predicted via the known 7-day UCS using
proposed linear relation. The microstructural test results confirmed that incorporating suitable GP contributed to
the formation of dense cemented soil matrix inside CGDS. The 10% PC admixing 15–20% GP with 2000-mesh
number fineness is recommended to replace 15% PC for stabilizing DS containing 50–75% water content.

1. Introduction stabilization is an effective solution for improving the strength gain of

A significant volume of dredged sediments (DS) is dredged from
rivers and harbors annually worldwide to keep the river clear and
navigation safe [1-3]. The unsafe treatment and low recycling of waste
DS have proposed significant economic and environmental burdens. The
common disposal solutions including open space stockpiling and
offshore discards not only occupy large open space, but also pay serious
environmental costs [4-6]. Recycling waste DS into construction mate­
rials is an effective measure to relieve random disposal and engineering
soils shortage [7,8]. DS is usually characterized by poor engineering
properties such as high water content, low shear strength, and rich in
organic matter [9,10]. These physical and mechanical weaknesses make
DS difficult to be directly used in civil engineering construction without
any treatments. Drying methods such as natural and high-temperature
drying can improve the strength development of fresh DS, these inevi­
tably pay for significant time cost and energy consumption. Chemical
waste DS by incorporating binders [11-13].
Traditional binders such as Portland cement (PC) and lime are widely
used in soft soil stabilization because they can effectively improve the
mechanical properties of soft soils via hydration and pozzolanic re­
actions [14-17]. The cementitious products such as calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H) gels from hy­
dration and pozzolanic reactions were responsible for the strength gain
of stabilized soils [18,19]. However, PC contributes about 36% green­
house gases emissions associated with construction activities and 7–8%
CO2 emissions annually [1,20]. Furthermore, the production and use of
PC cause serious of non-renewable resources and energy consumptions
[21,22]. Specifically, one ton of CO2 is generated, together with 2.8 tons
of raw materials, 5000 MJ of energy and 120–160 kWh of electricity are
consumed for every ton of PC production [23,24]. These environmental
burdens encourage researchers to search for PC’s admixture or sub­
stitutes to control PC dosage in soft soil stabilization. Geopolymer or

* Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China.
E-mail address: langleijy@126.com (L. Lang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127996
Received 11 July 2021; Received in revised form 28 April 2022; Accepted 29 May 2022
Available online 1 June 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

Fig. 1. The DS sampling site.

alkali-activated aluminosilicate waste can be completely used to replace

Table 1
PC in soil stabilization [25-28], and chemical activators such as sodium
Basic physical properties of DS used.
silicate (Na2SiO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) play significant role in
improving the strength gain of stabilized soils. Noting that chemical Parameters Values
activators may cause side effects in soil stabilization based on the Initial water content (%) 49.5
shortcomings of dry shrinkage, corrosive and possible poisonous nature Specific gravity 2.58
Liquid limit (%) 55.2
[29]. Furthermore, industrial waste with potential cementitious or
Plastic limit (%) 29.3
pozzolanic activity such as fly ash (FA) and steel slag powder (SSP) are Plasticity index (%) 25.9
commonly used to partially replace PC in soft soil stabilization. Zentar Optimum water content (%) 20.7
et al. [30] investigated the effect of using FA to assist PC in solidifying Maximum dry density (g/cm3) 1.65
marine sediments, and found that the addition of FA can improve the
strength and durability of cemented marine sediments. Horpibulsuk
et al. [14] evaluated the strength development of cemented saline clay Table 2
admixing FA and biomass ash, and they concluded that the addition of Chemical compositions of raw materials.
25% FA can reduced by 15.8% PC. Lang et al. [31] used waste SSP to Composition Content (%)
partially replace PC for stabilizing dredged sludge, and obtained that the DS PC GP
inclusion of 5–10% and 15–20% SSP to 15% PC can significantly
SiO2 65.45 21.60 74.25
improve the strength development of cemented sludge and humic acid- Al2O3 16.28 4.13 1.96
containing sludge. Yoobanpot et al. [32] studied the mechanical and Fe2O3 5.51 4.57 0.35
microstructural properties of cemented dredged sediments admixing fly CaO 3.90 64.44 10.88
Na2O 1.48 0.11 10.11
ash, and they confirmed that combination of 10% FA and PC can pro­
MgO 2.66 1.06 0.98
duced more cementitious products. K2O 3.00 0.56 –
In recent years, waste glasses generated from factories are difficulty Others 1.72 0.76 1.47
to be fully recycled [33]. China produced at least 1070 million tons of
waste glass, but its utilization rate is only 53.5% [33]. Similarly, only
28% and 70% of total glass were annually recycled in America and cementitious material for PC in DS stabilization are rarely reported.
Spain, respectively [34,35]. The significant amount of surplus waste Furthermore, the corresponding micro-mechanisms controlling the
glass proposes serious economic and environmental burdens. Reusing strength development of PC-GP stabilized DS (CGDS) are still unclear.
waste glass is an effective measure to achieve the economic and envi­ This study aims to investigate the strength development and asso­
ronmental benefits. The main chemical component of waste glass is ciated micro-mechanisms of CGDS. The influences of PC content, GP
silica (SiO2), and it has potential pozzolanic reactivity after grinding into content, GP fineness and curing age on strength development of CGDS
powder. However, glass powder (GP) can hardly hydrate by itself, and it were studied via a series of unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests.
usually used as precursor of geopolymers activated by various chemical Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction
activators [36]. The feasibility of recycling GP for preparing alkali- (XRD) tests were also performed to further clarify the microstructure
activated materials has been confirmed, and this solution effectively evolutions and the mineral composition changes inside CGDS. The key
improves its utilization rate [37-39]. The GP has been confirmed to findings in this study provide a reference for recycling GP and devel­
replace common precursors such as slag and fly ash for manufacturing oping an appropriate and eco-friendly binder formulation for DS
alkali-activated cementitious materials [35,40]. Furthermore, GP was stabilization.
also used in soil stabilization. Baldovino et al. [36,41,42] and Bilondi
et al. [43] conducted a series of experimental investigations to evaluate 2. Materials and methods
the recycling of GP in problematic soils improvement, and they
concluded that GP can be used as a sustainable binder to improve the 2.1. Raw materials
engineering properties of poor soils. However, to the best of authors’
knowledge, the investigations on using GP as a supplementary The used DS was dredged from a river dredging project in the campus
of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, as shown in Fig. 1, which is located in

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X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

tests. From XRD analysis, the main clay minerals including quartz,
kaolinite and illite were detected inside DS. The microstructure shown in
Fig. 3 illustrates the clay particles inside DS were irregular-shaped and
scattered. The particle size distribution of DS used is given in Fig. 4,
which was obtained by using a laser particle-size analyzer.
The binders including PC (42.5 grade) and GP were used, and they
were purchased from the local manufactures in Shanghai, China. Their
chemical compositions are given in Table 2, which were determined by
XRF tests. Based on the laser particle-size analyzer, the particle size
distribution of PC is shown in Fig. 4. The microstructure of GP,

Fig. 2. The XRD pattern of DS used.

the southwest of Shanghai, China. As per to Chinese national standard

GB/T 50123–2019 [44], The basic physical properties of DS were
determined and provided in Table 1. It should be noted that DS has
experienced a brief period of natural drying, and it still exhibited rela­
tively high water content. This further confirms the necessity of adopt­
ing stabilization treatment to quickly improve the strength enhancement
of DS. Table 2 gives the chemical composition of DS, which was analyzed
by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tests. Furthermore, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3
respectively provide the chemical minerals and microstructural
morphology of DS, which were detected by performing XRD and SEM Fig. 4. The particle size distributions of DS and PC.

Fig. 3. The microstructural morphology of DS from SEM test.

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X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

Fig.5. The microstructure of GP from SEM test.

strength development of CGDS. The common PC content in stabilizing

Table 3
soft soils is above 20% [44], and the PC contents of 6, 8, 10 and 12%
The mix design of CGDS mixture.
were adopted to control and lessen the PC usage, and the GP was
Mixes PC GP GP fineness Water Curing admixed to partially replace PC. The prepared raw materials including
content content (MN) content age (day)
DS, PC and GP were mixed for 5 min under dry state using a bench-top
(%) (%) (%)
mixer. Afterwards, the certain mass of water was gradually added and
CGDS 6, 8, 10, 5, 10, 15, 800, 1000, 50, 60, 75 7, 28
blended for another 5 min until the homogenized mixture was obtained.
12 20 1500, 2000
Control 10 15 1500 – – Before sample preparation, the molds were cleaned and the inner wall
variable was brushed a little oil for subsequent easy demolding. The well-
CDS 10, 15 – – 50, 60, 75 7, 28 prepared mixture was gradually packed into the cylindrical PVC molds
with the size of 50 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height. Simulta­
neously, the vibration compaction process was performed to expel the
determined by SEM test was shown in Fig. 5. It could be found that the
air bubbles inside mixture to ensure the uniform compactness. After
GP particles were sharp angle-shaped. Furthermore, an amorphous
completing the preparation, the samples together with molds were
phase solid was detected by the X-ray diffractometer. Noting that four
sealed, and were demolded after 1–3 days of curing. Noting that the
types of GP with different particle fineness, i.e., 800-mesh number (MN),
removal time of sample was decided by its strength gain. The demolded
1000-MN, 1500-MN and 2000-MN were used, and the corresponding
samples were sealed again and cured in a standard curing room (≥95%
particle sizes were approximately 0.021 mm, 0.017 mm, 0.011 mm and
RH, 23 ± 3℃) until the designed curing age were achieved. Two parallel
0.0083 mm, so as to investigate the effects of GP fineness on the strength
samples for each mix were prepared, and the average was deemed to be
development of CGDS.
effective if the error was less than 10%.

2.2. Sample preparation

The fresh DS was firstly oven-dried under the temperature of 80℃,
then the dried DS was ground into powder and passed through the 2-mm
sieve. The drying and grinding processes were adopted to prepare the
homogeneous DS for follow-up sample preparation. Table 3 provides the
mix design of CGFD mixture, which was used to determine the certain
mass of raw materials including DS, PC and GP. In order to investigate
the influence of various factors on the strength development of CGDS,
the PC content of 10%, GP content of 15% and GP fineness of 1500-MN
were used as control variables. Furthermore, the PC-stabilized DS (CDS)
containing 10 and 15% PC alone was adopted as control group to make a
strength comparison between CGDS and CDS. The PC content, GP con­
tent and water content were all defined as the mass ratio of dry DS. Due
to the natural air-drying process, the water content of fresh DS was close
to 50% (see Table 1), thus the water content adopted in this study was
designed to be 50, 60 and 75%, i.e., the 1.0, 1.2 and 1.5 times of natural
water content, to evaluate the effect of varying water content on the
2.3. Testing methods
The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is mostly used to eval­
uate the mechanical indicator of stabilized soils [45-49], and thus UCS
tests were performed on CGDS samples as per to the standard provided
in ASTM D4219-08 [50]. The universal testing machine with a
maximum capacity of 30kN was used to carry the UCS tests. During the
loading process, the displacement-controlled mode together with the
loading rate of 1.0 mm/min was adopted until the sample was failed.
The maximum failure load per unit area was considered to be the UCS
value, and the final UCS result was equal to the average of two parallel
samples. The microstructural characteristic evolutions inside CGDS
samples were evaluated by conducting SEM and XRD tests on the typical
28-day samples after UCS tests. Before SEM testing, the failure samples
were trimmed into a thin sheet with the size of about 8–10 mm, and then
soaked in alcohol to prevent them from further hydration. Finally, the
samples were coated with gold so as to capture the high-quality images

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X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

Fig. 6. The UCS of CGDS versus PC content under water content of (a) 50%, (b) 60% and (c) 75%.

from SEM testing. The XRD tests were conducted to investigate the
crystalline phase changes inside samples. The failure samples were 3.0
w=50% w=60% w=75%
grounded to powder, which needed to pass through the 0.075-mm sieve.
Then, the Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer was used to identify
2.5
the crystalline phase evolutions under the scanning rate of 8◦ /min from
5◦ -75◦ (2θ).
Strength growth multiple (GMC)

2.0
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Effect of PC content 1.5

The water content and PC dosage are the key factors influencing
mechanical properties of cemented soils [51]. Fig. 6 presents the effect
of PC content on the strength development of CGDS with 50, 60 and 75%
water content. It can be seen that the UCS of CGDS increased monoto­
nously with increasing PC content. This is attributed to that with
increasing PC content, the hydration products especially CSH gel inside
CGDS increased and thus improved its UCS. Under the water content of
50 and 60%, the 7- and 28-day UCS of CGDS containing 8% PC were
higher than that of CDS with 10% PC. This indicates that 8% PC together
with 15% GP can be used to replace 10% PC in stabilizing DS with 50
and 60% water content. However, as the water content increased to
75%, the 7- and 28-day UCS of CGDS with 8% PC and 15% GP were
lower than that of CDS with 10% PC. Furthermore, compared with CDS
containing 10% PC alone, the inclusion of 15% GP can significantly
improve its 28-day UCS. The 28-day UCS of CDS with 50, 60 and 75%
water content were respectively improved by 43.6, 38.2 and 41.5% by
adding 15% GP. However, there was no obvious improvement in 7-day
UCS of CDS with addition of 15% GP. This may be attributed to that after
7 days of curing, the amount of Ca(OH)2 produced by PC hydration was
limited, and provided insufficient Ca(OH)2 for SiO2 from GP to produce
1.0
0.5
0.0
6 8 10 12
PC content (%)
Fig. 7. The strength growth multiple in UCS versus PC content under different
water contents.
CSH gel. With the curing age increasing to 28 days, the amount of Ca
(OH)2 was significantly improved, and reacted with SiO2 from GP to
produce more CSH gels, thus effectively enhanced the strength devel­
opment of CGDS. With PC content increasing to 12%, the 7- and 28-day
UCS of CGDS under three water contents were all higher than that of
CDS with 15% PC. Specifically, the 28-day UCS of CGDS at 50, 60 and
75% water content were respectively 18.6, 50.8 and 15.3% higher than

5
X. Zhang et al.
Fig. 8. Relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS with PC content
of 6–12%.
that of CDS with 15% PC alone. Thus, the binder combination of 12% PC
and 15% GP can be used to replace 15% PC in DS stabilization, which
can achieve higher strength gaining.
The effect of PC content on the strength development of CGDS was
also evaluated by the strength growth multiple (GM) under different
water contents, as shown in Fig. 7. The GMC (The GM influenced by PC
content, similarly hereinafter) was calculated by the following equation.
Fig. 9. The UCS of CGDS versus GP content under water content of (a) 50%, (b) 60% and (c) 75%.
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Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996
UCS28d
GMC = (1)
UCS7d
where GMC is the strength growth multiple influenced by PC content,
and UCS7d and UCS28d represent the 7- and 28-day UCS of CGDS,
respectively. It could be seen that the GMC generally increased with the
increase of water content, but which seemingly less affected by the PC
content. In general, the GMC of CGDS with 60 and 75% water content
were larger than 2.0, except for the case of 10% PC at 60% water con­
tent. For CGDS with 75% water content, the GMC achieved the
maximum at the PC of 10%. Combined with the results shown in Fig. 6,
the 10% PC admixing 15% GP was further confirmed to be an ideal
substitute for 15% PC in stabilizing DS with 50–75% water content.
It could be observed from Fig. 6 that the 7- and 28-day UCS
enhancement of CGDS with PC content were similar, even if they were in
different water contents. Regardless of other influencing factors, the
relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d was linearly fitted, as shown in
Fig. 8, which was presented in the following formula.
UCS28d = 1.55UCS7d + 60.44, R2 = 0.97 (2)
It should be explained that the UCS28d and UCS7d in above formula
were pure value without units (Similarly hereafter). The formula (2)
together with the high coefficient of correlation (R2＞0.95) confirms
that a linear relation was existed between UCS28d and UCS7d inside
CGDS. By using formula (2), the 28-day UCS of CGDS can be effectively
evaluated by the known 7-day UCS.
3.2. Effect of GP content
The effects of GP content on the strength development of CGDS
under three water contents were given in Fig. 9. For CGDS with 50%
water content, as shown in Fig. 9 (a), the 7- and 28-day UCS increased at
X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

3.5
w=50%
3.0 w=60%
w=75%
Strength growth multiple (GMG)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
5 10 15 20
GP content (%)

Fig. 10. The strength growth multiple versus GP content under different water
contents during the curing process. Fig. 11. Relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS with GP content
of 5–20%.
first and then decreased with increasing GP content, and achieved the
maximum at the GP content of 10 and 15%, respectively. The optimum development of CGDS.
7- and 28-day UCS of CGDS exhibited respectively 41.4 and 43.6% The relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS with 10% PC
higher than that of CDS with 10% PC alone. Especially, the optimum 28- and 5–20% GP was fitted and shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen that a
day UCS of CGDS even exceeded that of CDS with 15% PC alone. With reasonable linear relation was achieved, which can be exhibited using
increasing water content to 60%, as shown in Fig. 9 (b), the 7- and 28- the following formula.
day UCS of CGDS respectively increased to the peak at the GP content of
10 and 15%, and then decreased with the continuous increase of GP UCS28d = 1.31UCS7d + 92.39, R2 = 0.91 (3)
content. The optimum 7- and 28-day UCS of CGDS were respectively Noting that the UCS28d and UCS7d are the pure values without unit.
similar to and higher than that of CDS with 15% PC. For CGDS with 75% Combined with the formula (2), the slope in formula (2) (1.55) is larger
water content, as provided in Fig. 9 (c), it could be observed that the 7- than that in formula (3) (1.31), indicating that the influence of changing
day UCS of CGDS increased at first and then decreased with increasing GP content on the strength development of CGDS was less than changing
GP content, and achieved the maximum at the GP content of 15%. While PC content. Based on the high coefficient of correlation, the 28-day UCS
the 28-day UCS of CGDS increased monotonously with increasing GP of CGDS containing 10% PC and 5–20% GP can be evaluated by using
content. Furthermore, the optimum 7-day UCS of CGDS just exceeded the formula (3) and known 7-day UCS.
that of CDS with 10% PC alone, but the optimum 28-day UCS of CGDS
was greater than that of CDS with 15% PC alone, indicating that the
3.3. Effect of GP fineness
optimum GP content inside CGDS was affected by curing age evolution.
This was attributed to that the amount of Ca(OH)2 produced increased
Fig. 12 presents the effect of GP fineness on the strength development
with curing age evolution.
of CGDS, and the maximum UCS was achieved at the GP fineness of
It should be noted that excessive GP inclusion played the side-effects
2000-MN. This indicates that the UCS increased with increasing GP
on the strength enhancement of CGDS. This was due to that excessive GP
fineness, regardless of water content influences. The finer the GP par­
was not involved in producing cementitious gels, and weakened the
ticles were, the larger the specific surface area together with surface
bonding ability between soil particles and cementitious gels. Further­
energy were. Thus, increasing GP fineness accelerated its activity and
more, it could be observed from Fig. 10 that the optimum GP content
contributed to the pozzolanic reactions inside CGDS. Furthermore, with
tended to increase with the increase of curing age. With the evolution of
the increase in GP fineness, the filling effect of GP was also improved.
curing age, the amount of Ca(OH)2 produced by PC hydration was
These two aspects were mainly responsible for the strength gain of
gradually increased, which reacted with SiO2 from GP and then pro­
CGDS. Comprehensive consideration of three water contents, when GP
duced more cementitious gels. Similarly, the optimum GP content was
fineness exceeded 1500-MN, the 7- and 28-day UCS of CGDS were
also increased with increasing water content. The higher water content
respectively higher than that of CDS with 10% PC alone. Under the
led to more micro-pores inside CGDS, and more GP related CSH gels
water content of 50%, as shown in Fig. 12 (a), the 7- and 28-day UCS of
were needed to fill these micro-pores.
CGDS were higher than that of CDS with 10% PC, regardless of GP
Fig. 10 presents the strength growth multiple (GMG) versus GP
fineness. However, with increasing water content to 60 and 75%, the 28-
content under different water contents during the curing process. It was
day UCS of CGDS containing 800-MN GP was lower than that of CDS
observed that for CGDS with 50 and 60% water content, GMG was larger
with 10% PC. This implies that the addition of 800-MN GP to CDS
than 1.5 but lower than 2.0. With increasing water content to 75%, the
conversely weakened its strength development. Therefore, as the PC’s
GMG was larger than 2.0 and even larger than 3.0 especially at GP
admixture, the finer GP is necessary for stabilizing DS, especially for
content of 20%. These observations indicate that when water content
high-water content DS.
was relatively low, the increase in 7-day strength was obvious, resulting
The strength growth multiple (GMF) of UCS versus GP fineness under
in the smaller strength difference. With increasing water content to 75%,
three water contents during the curing process was given in Fig. 13. It
the 7-day strength gain was poor, leading to the larger strength differ­
can be seen that the GMF was between 1.5 and 2.0 under the water
ence. In general, GMG increased with the increase of GP content, indi­
content of 50 and 60%. With increasing water content to 75%, the GMF
cating that increasing GP content was good for the later strength
was more than 2.0. Furthermore, under the water content of 75%, the

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X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

Fig. 12. Effect of GP fineness on the UCS of CGDS with water content of (a) 50%, (b) 60% and (c) 75%.

4.0
w=50%
3.5 w=60%
w=75%
3.0
Strength growth multiple GMF

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
GP fineness (MN)

Fig.13. The strength growth multiple versus GP fineness under different water Fig. 14. Relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS with GP fineness of
contents during the curing process. 800–2000 MN.

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X. Zhang et al.
Fig. 15. The UCS growth rate of CGDS versus (a) PC content, (b) GP content and (c) GP fineness.
GMF increased with increasing the GP fineness, and exceeded 3.0 at the
GP fineness of 2000-MN. Therefore, the finer GP is necessary for
achieving higher later strength enhancement of CGDS with high water
content.
Under the GP fineness of 800～2000-MN, the relationship between
UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS containing 10% PC and 15% GP was fitted,
as given in Fig. 14. A linear relation with relative high coefficient of
correlation (R2) was achieved and presented using the following fitting
formula.
UCS28d = 1.35UCS7d + 88.27, R2 = 0.85 (4)
Clearly, the slope of formula (4) is 1.35, which is larger than that in
formula (3) (1.31), but lower than that in formula (2) (1.55). This may
indicate that PC content exhibited the best acting efficiency in
improving strength development of CGDS, followed by GP fineness and
GP content, respectively. The formula (4) can be used to predict the 28-
day UCS of CGDS cemented by 10% PC and 15% GP with 800～2000-
MN, via the known 7-day UCS.
3.4. Effect of curing age
The curing time is the key factor affecting the strength development
of cemented soils [52]. Thus, the strength growth rate (UCSgr) was used
to exhibit the effect of curing time on the strength development of CGDS,
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Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996
with the consideration of PC content, GP content and GP fineness. The 7-
and 28-day UCS were the most commonly used strength indicator in
representing the strength level of cemented soils. The definition of UCSgr
was given via the following formula.
UCS28d -UCS7d
UCSgr = (5)
UCS7d
Where UCSgr represents the strength growth rate of CGDS during the
curing process; UCS7d and UCS28d respectively exhibit the 7- and 28-day
UCS of CGDS.
Fig. 15 provides the UCSgr development of CGDS versus PC content,
GP content and GP fineness. The effect of PC content on the UCSgr of
CGDS is shown in Fig. 15 (a), and it could be observed that the UCSgr
increased at first and then decreased with increasing PC content. The
maximum UCSgr of 0.94, 1.08 and 1.55 were respectively achieved at 8,
8 and 10% PC, under the water content of 50, 60 and 75%. Thus, the
UCSgr caused by PC content tended to increase with increasing water
content. Furthermore, it was also seen that increasing PC content alone
cannot effectively improve the UCSgr of CGDS. Fig. 15 (b) presents the
UCSgr evolution versus GP content, indicating that the UCSgr of CGDS
generally increased with increasing GP content, and reached the
maximum at 20% GP under both three water contents. This observation
implies that increasing GP content contributed to the UCSgr enhance­
ment of CGDS. The maximum UCSgr at 20% GP were respectively 1.08,
X. Zhang et al.
Fig. 16. Relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS.
0.90 and 2.21 under the water content of 50, 60 and 75%. The effect of
GP fineness on the UCSgr of CGDS is given in Fig. 15 (c). When the water
content was 50 and 60%, the UCSgr increased at first and decreased
slightly, and both achieved the maximum of 0.84 and 0.76 at the GP
fineness of 1500-MN. With increasing water content to 75%, the UCSgr
increased continuously with increasing GP fineness until reaching the
maximum value of 2.66. Based on the comprehensive consideration of
optimum UCS and UCSgr, the binder formulation of 10% PC and 20% GP
with fineness of 2000-MN was suggested to replace 15% PC for stabi­
lizing DS with high water content. This can not only control the PC
dosage, but also maximize the consumption of waste GP.
The relationship between UCS28d and UCS7d of CGDS is provided in
Fig. 16. It could be observed that a linear relation existed between
2 Theta (Degree)
Fig. 17. Typical XRD patterns of 28-day CGDS with (a) 12% PC and 15% 1500-MN GP, (b) 10% PC and 15% 1500-MN GP, (c) 10% PC and 20% 1500-MN GP, and (d)
10% PC and 15% 1000-MN GP under the water content of 50%.
10
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996
UCS28d and UCS7d, regardless of PC content, GP content, GP fineness and
water content. The fitted formula together with relative high coefficient
of correlation (R2＞0.9) was shown as follows.
UCS28d = 1.41UCS7d + 78.62, R2 = 0.91 (6)
Interestingly, the slope of formula (6) (1.41) is very close to the
average of formula (2) (1.55), formula (3) (1.31) and formula (4) (1.35),
i.e.,1.41 ≈ 1.55+1.31+1.35
3
. Compared with formulas (2)-(4) established
under specific condition, the applicability of formula (6) is more
extensive. Thus, the 28-day UCS of CGDS can be effectively predicted by
the known 7-day UCS using the formula (6).
3.5. XRD analysis
The XRD tests were conducted to investigate the crystalline phase
evolutions inside typical 28-day CGDS samples. Fig. 17 shows the typical
XRD patterns of 28-day CGDS with different binder formulations. It
could be observed that quartz (Q), kaolinite (K) and illite (I) were
detected in all XRD patterns presented, indicating the stability of min­
eral compositions inside DS used, which was hardly changed by chem­
ical stabilization action. Similar observations were also observed by Yi
et al. [53] and Yu et al. [54]. Furthermore, the main hydration products
of PC including calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium aluminate hy­
drate (CAH) and calcium hydroxide (CH), were also detected in all XRD
patterns. This implies that the hydration products inside CGDS were
similar to that of PC, which were mainly responsible for the strength
development of CGDS. For CGDS containing 12% PC and 15% GP with
1500-MN fineness, as shown in Fig. 17 (a), apart from CSH, CAH and CH,
the ettringite (E) was also detected. Commonly, the produce of ettringite
inside stabilized soils may lead to the expansive crack, but for CGDS with
relative high water content, the ettringite can fill micro-pores and bond
soil particles together, contributing to the formation of denser cemented
soil matrix. Compared with Fig. 17 (a), with PC content decreasing to
10%, the XRD pattern of CGDS is shown in Fig. 17 (b), it was clear that
the peak intensity of CSH was obviously reduced. This indicates that the
amount of CSH gels was reduced with decreasing PC content. Noting
X. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996

Fig. 18. Typical microstructure images of 28-day CGDS with (a) 10% PC-15% 1500-MN GP-50% w, (b) 12% PC-15% 1500-MN GP-50% w, (c) 10% PC-15% 1500-MN
GP-60% w, (d) 10% PC-10% 1500-MN GP-50% w, (e) 10% PC-20% 1500-MN GP-50% w, (f) 10% PC-15% 1000-MN GP-50% w, and (g) 10% PC-15% 2000-MN GP-
50%w.

that the peak of ettringite was absent in Fig. 17 (b), this may be
attributed to that the amount of ettringite produced was too insufficient
to be clearly detected. For CGDS with 10% PC and 20% GP with 1500-
MN fineness, as shown in Fig. 17 (c), compared with XRD pattern of
CGDS given in Fig. 17 (b), the peak intensity of CH, together with the
peak intensity and number of CSH were all decreased. This observation
indicates that excessive GP incorporation inhibited the PC hydration to
some degree, and led to the reduction of CSH and CH. This
microstructural observation is in agreement with the strength evolution
caused by GP content variation. The XRD pattern of CGDS with 10% PC
and 15% GP with 1000-MN fineness is provided in Fig. 17 (d), the peak
intensity of CSH was too weak to be clearly detected, confirming that the
finer the GP fineness was, the higher the activity of GP was. The crys­
talline phase evolutions inside CGDS caused by GP incorporation proved
the results of UCS tests, and the appropriate GP with fineness as fine as
possible is recommended to be used as PC admixture.

11
X. Zhang et al.
3.6. SEM analysis
Fig. 18 presents the typical microstructural images of 28-day CGDS,
which were taken at 5000x magnification based on SEM tests. It should
be explained that the abbreviation “10% PC-15% 1500-MN GP-50% w”
given in Fig. 18 (a) signifies the CGDS containing 10% PC and 15% GP
with 1500-MN fineness under 50% water content, and others followed
the same rule. As shown in Fig. 18 (a), the cemented soil particles
together with micro-pores were clearly observed. The soil particles were
wrapped by CSH gels and the micro-pores among soil particles were
filled with CSH gels to some extent. With increasing PC content to 12%,
as given in Fig. 18 (b), the microstructure presented inside CGDS was
denser and large micro-pores were disappeared. The gel-like CSH gel
filled the micro-crack, contributing to the formation of denser cemented
soil matrix. These microstructural evolutions caused by increasing PC
content were responsible for the strength enhancing of CGDS. Compared
with Fig. 18 (a), with increasing water content to 60%, the micro­
structure of CGDS was shown in Fig. 18 (c), the large micro-pores and
weak-cemented soil particles was obviously observed. The increase of
water content enlarged spacing between soil particles and formed
obvious micro-pores between soil particles. Furthermore, the large
cemented soil matrix was also seen, which supported the strength
enhancing of CGDS. Fig. 18 (d) gives the microstructure of CGDS con­
taining 10% PC and 10% GP with 1500-MN fineness, it could be seen
that the needle-like CSH gel embedded soil particles and formed weak
cementation, but the obvious cemented soil matrix was not formed.
Compared with microstructure shown in Fig. 18 (a), the decrease of GP
content exhibited insignificant effect on the microstructural compact­
ness inside CGDS. With increasing GP content to 20%, the microstruc­
ture of CGDS was given in Fig. 18 (e), large micro-pores were clearly
found and weak cementation was found between soil particles, although
the cemented soil matrix was also formed. This confirmed that excessive
GP incorporation played the role of impurity inside CGDS and weakened
the existing cementation between soil particles, resulting in the decrease
of cementation-compactness. Fig. 18 (f) shows the microstructure of
CGDS containing 10% PC and 15% GP with 1000-MN fineness, it could
be seen that the micro-cracks and gel-like CSH gels were clearly
observed. However, the large cemented soil matrix was not formed.
Combined with microstructure provided in Fig. 18 (a), decreasing the
GP fineness to 1000-MN weakened the formation of more cementitious
products. Compared with microstructure shown in Fig. 18 (a), with GP
fineness increasing to 2000-MN, the microstructure was provided in
Fig. 18 (g), more hydration products were attached to the surface of soil
particles, and formed the compact cemented soil matrix. Furthermore,
the gel-like CSH and the cemented link were clearly observed, indicating
the increase of GP fineness can effectively enhance the cementation-
compactness structure inside CGDS.
4. Conclusions
This study evaluated the feasibility of using recycled glass powder
(GP) as Portland cement (PC) admixture for stabilizing dredged sedi­
ment (DS). The effects of PC content, GP content, GP fineness and curing
time on the strength development of PC-GP-stabilized DS (CGDS) were
systematically investigated by conducting a series of UCS tests. Addi­
tionally, the micro-mechanisms affecting strength evolution of CGDS
were analyzed by performing XRD and SEM tests. The main conclusions
were summarized as follows.
(1) The UCS of CGDS was monotonously increased with increasing
PC content, which was also effectively increased by the incorporation of
GP. The strength contribution of GP to CGDS depended on PC hydration
to some degree. The strength growth multiple caused by PC content
generally increased with increasing water content, but was little affected
by the PC content.
(2) The optimum GP content inside CGDS was affected by the curing
age evolution, and the amount of Ca(OH)2 produced with curing age was
12
Construction and Building Materials 342 (2022) 127996
responsible for this observation. The excessive GP incorporation
decreased the strength development of CGDS, this was attributed to that
excessive GP played the role of impurity, and weakened the bonding
between cemented soil particles. Increasing GP content improved the
strength growth multiple of CGDS.
(3) The UCS of CGDS increased with increasing GP fineness. The finer
the GP fineness was, the larger specific area and higher surface energy of
GP particles were, this contributed to the higher reaction activity and
better filling effect inside CGDS. The strength growth multiple was in
range of 1.5～2.0 at water content of 50 and 60%, and exceeded 2.0 at
the water content of 75%, confirming that finer GP was necessary for
improving the strength development of CGDS with high water content.
(4) The strength growth rate (UCSgr) of CGDS increased at first and
then decreased with increasing PC content. For water content of 50, 60
and 75%, the maximum UCSgr of 0.94, 1.08 and 1.55 were respectively
achieved at PC content of 8, 8 and 10%. Furthermore, the UCSgr tended
to increase with increasing GP content and fineness. Based on the op­
timum UCS and UCSgr, the 10% PC admixing 15–20% GP with 2000-MN
fineness was recommended to replace 15% PC for stabilizing DS con­
taining 50–75% water content. The linear relation was existed between
7-day UCS and 28-day UCS of CGDS, and the 28-day UCS can be pre­
dicted via the known 7-day UCS.
(5) The XRD results indicated that the cementitious products CSH
and CAH gels were mainly responsible for the strength gaining of CGDS.
The SEM results revealed that adding suitable GP contributed to the
formation of dense cemented soil matrix inside CGDS. The excessive GP
addition weakened the bonding between cemented soil particles and
formed some micro-cracks inside CGDS.
With the scope of this study, it could be recommended that in
practical engineering, the dry jet mixing method can be adopted to
introduce the powdered binder suggested into DS with 50–75% water
content to form CGDS with improved strength. The CGDS can be used as
filling materials or recycled engineering soils.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xinlei Zhang: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – original draft.
Desheng Li: Data curation, Methodology. Lei Lang: Conceptualization,
Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Founda­
tion of China (No.52108324), and the Excellent Doctoral Dissertation
Cultivation Fund of Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
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