UNIT-3

Index Properties of soil

3.1 Introduction

The properties of soil which help to as sess its engineering behavior

& which assists in determining its classification accurately are termed as
index properties of soils. The index properties of a soil can be used for predicting
its engineering properties. Following are the list of index properties.

1. Water content

2. Specific gravity of soil particles

3. Field (or In-situ) density

4. Particle size distribution

5. Consistency limits & indices

➢ Determine of water content:

• Oven drying method: The over drying method is a standard
laboratory method for determining water content of a soil sample .
This is the most accurate method. The following step describe briefly
the oven drying method.

1.Take a clean container (or pan) & find the pan weight .

2. Take nearly 100 gms of wet sample (whose water content to be

determine) in the pan and weight the pan again.

3. Keep the soil with pan in oven for overnight maintaining temperature
104ᵒC.

4. After drying, cool the pan & find the weight of pan + dry soil.

Calculation,

Weight of empty pan = W 1

Weight of empty pan + wet soil = W 2

Weight of empty pan + dry = W 3

Then, Water content (W) = W w /W s *100%

(W 2 - W3/ W3-W1)* 100%

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
# Determination of specific gravity:

1.Pycnometer method: A pycnometer or constant volume method has

found to be most reliable for determination of specific gravity. Normally
about 200 gms of dry mass of sample & a 500cc constant volume bottle are
taken. The various steps to be followed for determination of specific gravity
G are as follow.

1. Find the mass of empty pycnometer say M 1 .

2. Fill pycnometer with about 200 gms of dry sample & taken its
weight say M 2 .

3. Add water in the pycnometer such that is half full of water. The air
in the soil sample is completely expelled by heating or suction. The
water is added to its full capacity & pycnometer is weighed & say M 3 .

4. Empty the pycnometer of all its contents & clean it . Next the
pycnometer is filled with water only & its weight is determined say
M4.

Calculation,

If mass of solid M s is subtracted from M 3 & replaced by the

mass of water equal to the volume of solid, the mass M 4 is obtained.

M 4 = M 3 -M S + V S *ρW

Or, M 4 = M 3 -M S + M S /ρs * ρW

Or, M 4 = M 3 -MS + MS/G …………………………(1)

Also, mass of dry soil (MS) = M2-M1

Putting value of MS in eqn: (1) we get,

M4 = M3-MS (G-1/G)

M4 = M3 – (M2-M1) * (G-1/G)

M3 – M4 = (M2-M1) * (G-1/G)

(M3 – M4)*G = (M2-M1) *G - (M2-M1)

G = (M2-M1)/ (M2-M1)-(M3-M4)

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
# Determination of field density:

(1).Core-cutter method: A standard core-cutter apparatus is used in this experiment

for taking out a sample from the ground. The various steps to be followed for
determination of field density are as follow:

- Find the mass of clean core-cutter (M1)

- Clean & level the ground where the density to be determined.
- Press the cylinder cutter into the ground soil to its full depth with the
help of steel rammer.
- Remove core-cutter from soil layer excavating the soil surrounding the
cutter.
- Find the mass of cutter with soil sample from field (M2)
Calculation,
Mass of soil (M) = M2-M1
Volume of soil (V) = volume of cutter = πd2/4 * H
Where H= 130mm
d= 100mm then,
density (𝜌) = M/V

# Particle Size Distribution: The particle size or grain size of soil (coarse grain) is
determined by sieve analysis.

(1). Sieve analysis: The soil sample to be analyzed is thoroughly dried,

suitable quantity of representative soil sample depending on soil type is taken. The
sample is sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve. The portion retained on the sieve
is the gravel fraction or plus 4.75 mm material. The soil passing through 4.75mm
sieve (-4.75mm fraction) is known as fine grained soil. The gravel fraction is sieved
through the set of coarse sieves manually or using a mechanical shaker.

Procedure:
(1) A number of sieves are arranged as shown in figure in descending order
from top to bottom.
(2) A known dry mass of sample is placed on top most sieve.
(3) The whole set of sieve is given a horizontal shaking about 10min.
(4) The amount of percentage of soil retained on each sieve is found out.
Percentage retain on a particular sieve= weight soil retained on the
sieve/total weight of soil sample * 100%
(5) The cumulative percentage retained of soil on each sieve is also found out.
Cumulative % retained = sum of % cumulative retained on all sieve of
larger size & the % retained on the particular size.
(6) Fineness modulus is found out by dividing sum of percentage cumulative
retained by 100. The result of sieve analysis can be tabulated as shown in
table below:
Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav
Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
Sieve Sieve Mas Percent Cumul Percentage
Designation size s of age ative % finer(N)
soil mass retaine
reta require d
ined d

4.75mm 4.75

2.00mm 2.00

1.00 mm 1.00

600µ 0.6

425µ 0.425

300µ 0.3

212 µ 0.212

150µ 0.150

75µ 0.075

# Use of particle distribution curve: The particle size distribution curve is obtained
by plotting percentage finer (N) as ordinate on natural scale against particles size
distribution. Based on the particle size, distribution soil may be described as well as
graded, poorly graded & uniformly graded. In a well graded soil there is good
representation of all particles size between maximum & minimum size in a poorly
graded soil there will be an excess or deficiency of one or more particle size. A soil is
said to be uniformly graded if most of the particles are nearly of the same size.

In the case of coarse grained soil three particles size D10, D30 & D60 are obtained from
the particles size distribution curve. They represent particle size corresponding to N =
10%, 30% & 60% respectively.

D10 is referred to as effective size 10% by mass of the soil sample will be finer then
this size D10

➢ Uniformly Coefficient:- A measure of particles size range is given by coefficient

of uniformly (Cu) also known as uniformly coefficient which is defined as.
Cu = D60 / D10

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
 ➢ Coefficient of curvature: This term is also used to identify weather a soil is
uniform or well graded.
Cc= (D30)2/ D10 * D60

In well graded gravel Cu is greater than 4 and Cc is in between 1 & 3. In well

graded sand Cu is greater than 6 & Cc is in between 1 & 3

Example 3.4. The results of a sieve analysis of a soil are given below:
Total mass of sample = 900 gm.
Is sieve 20 10 4.7 2 1 0.6 425 212 150 75 Pan
mm m 5 mm mm mm µ µ µ µ
m mm
Mass of soil 35 40 80 150 150 140 115 55 35 25 75
retained (gm)
Draw the particle size distribution curve and hence determine the uniformity
coefficient and the coefficient of curvature.
Solution:
The calculations for percentage finer N than different size are shown
IS Sieve Mass retained (gm) Percentage Cumulative Percentage
(Mi) retained percentage Finer
Pi= Mi/M retained (N)
(Ci)= Ci-
1+Pi
20 mm 35 3.89 3.89 96.11
10 mm 40 4.44 8.33 91.67
4.75 mm 80 8.89 17.22 82.78
2 mm 150 16.67 33.89 66.11
1 mm 150 16.67 50.56 49.44
0.6 mm 140 15.56 66.11 33.89
425 µ 115 12.78 78.89 21.11
212 µ 55 6.11 85.00 15.00
150 µ 35 3.89 88.89 11.11
75 µ 25 2.78 91.67 8.33
Pan 75 8.33 100.00 0.00

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
 M=∑Mi = 900 gm
The particle size distribution
curve is shown in graph
below. D60 = 1.55 mm, D30 =
0.53mm, D10 = 0.115 mm
Uniformity Coefficient
(Cu) = D60/D10 = 1.55/0.115
= 13.48
Coefficient of curvature
(Cc) = (D30)2/ (D10 X D60)
= (0.53)2/ (1.55 X 0.115)
= 1.58

# Consistency of soil: Soil consistency is the strength with which soil material are
held together or the resistance of soils to deformation & rapture. Consistency is a
term used to indicate the degree of firmness of soil. It is mostly used for fine grained
soil (clay) for which the consistency is related to a large extent of water content.

Depending upon the water content a soil can have various state of consistency
i.e, liquid state, plastic state, semi-solid state & solid state.

The limiting water content at which a soil passes from one state of consistency
to another state is called consistency limit.

These are the following three types of consistency limit:

(1). Liquid limit (L.L): It is defined as the boundary of water between the liquid &
plastic state of the soils. At liquid limit, the soil possesses a small value of shear
strength. The liquid limit is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in liquid
state but has a small shearing strength against failure.

(2). Plastic Limit (P.L): It is defined as the boundary of water between plastic state &
semi-solid state of the soil. It is also defined as the minimum water content at which a
soil just being to cracks when rolled into a thread approximately 3mm in diameter.

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
(3) Shrinking Limit (S.L): It is defined as the boundary of water between the semi-
solid & solid state of the soil. It is also defined as the lowest water content at which
reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in the volume of a soil mass.

# Index:

(1). Plasticity Index (Ip or PI): Plasticity index is defined as the liquid limit minus
plastic limit.

Ip= L.L – P.L or, (WL - Wp)

(2) Liquidity Index (IL): Liquidity index is defined as the ratio of natural water content
minus plastic limit to plasticity.

IL= (W-Wp)/Ip

When soil mass is at plastic limit W=Wp & IL= 0, when soil mass is at liquid limit
W= WL & IL=1. When IL>1 then soil mass will be in liquid state when IL is negative, it
will be in semi-solid or solid state.

(3) Consistency Index: Consistency index is defined as the ratio of liquid limit minus
natural water content to the plasticity index.

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
 Ic = (WL-W)/Ip

When soil is at liquid W= WL& Ic= 0

When soil is at plastic limit W=Wp & Ic= 1

(4) Flow Index: Flow index is the slope of flow curve obtained by plotting water
content as ordinate on natural scale against number of blows as abscissa on
logarithmic scale.

IF = (W1-W2)/ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (N2/N1)

Where, W1= Water content corresponding to number of blows N1

W2= Water content corresponding to number of blows N2

(5).Toughness Index: It is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to flow index.

IT = IP/IF

Numericals
Q) A sample of soil with liquid limit of 72.8% was found to have a liquidity index of 1.21 &
water content of 81.3%. What is its plastic limit & plasticity index?
Solution:
Given that;
Liquid limit (LL) = 72.8%
Liquidity index (IL) = 1.21
Water content (W) = 81.3%
We have,
Plasticity index (IP) = L.L- P.L
Or, IP = 72.8 - P.L
Also,

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
 𝒘−𝑷.𝑳
Liquidity index (IL) =
𝑰𝑷
𝟖𝟏.𝟑−𝑷.𝑳
1.21 =
𝟕𝟐.𝟖−𝐏.𝐋
or, P.L = 32.324 %
And,
Plasticity Index (Ip) = 72.8 - 32.324
= 40.48 %

Q) The liquid limit of clay soil is 57% & its plasticity index is 16%.
a) In what state of consistency is this material at a water content of 45%
b) What is the plastic limit of soil?
c) The void ratio of this soil at the minimum volume reached on shrinkage is 0.86. What is
the shrinkage limit of soil if its grain's specific gravity is 2.68?

Solution,

Given that;

Liquid limit (L.L) = 57%

Plasticity index (IP) = 16%

We have,

IP = L.L – P.L

Or, 16 = 57 – P.L

Therefore,

PL = 57 – 16 = 41%

Thus, at a water content of 45% the soil is in the plastic state of consistency.

Void ratio at minimum volume = 0.86

Since, at shrinkage limit, the volume is minimum & soil is saturated. Thus,

Sr * e = w * G

Or, w = e/G

= 0.86/2.68

Therefore, Shrinkage limit of soil (SL) = 32.1%

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
Q) The laboratory test on soil gave the following results:-
Wn = 24%, WL =62% , WP = 28%
Percentage of particles less than 2𝜇 = 23%
a) Liquidity Index b) consistency & nature of
soil.
Here,
Plasticity index (IP) = WL - WP
= (62-28)% = 34%
Liquidity index (IL) = (Wn – WP)/IP
= -0.12

Since IL is negative, the consistency of the

soil is very stiff to extremely stiff (semi-
solid state)

Q) Two soil samples, S & S, are tested in the laboratory for the consistency limit. The
data available is as follows:
Soil S1 S2
plastic limit (wp) 19% 21%
Liquid limit (Ww) 39% 61%
Flow Index (It) 10 5
Natural water consent (W) = 40%
a) Which soil is more plastic?
b) Which soil is better foundation material when remolded?
c) Which soil has better strength as a function of water content?
d) Which soil has better strength at the plastic limit?
Solutions
a) Plasticity index (Ip):-
For soil S1 For soil S2
Ip = WL – WP IP = WL – WP
IP = 20% IP = 40%
Thus, soil S2 is more plastic.
b) Consistency index (Ic):-
For soil S1 For soil S2
IC = (WL-w)/IP IC = (WL-w)/IP
IC = (39 – 40)/20 IC = (61 – 40)/40
IC = -0.05 IC = 0.525

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
Since, consistency index of Soil S1 is negative it will become Sherry on remolding,
therefore soil S2 is likely to be a better foundation materials on remolding.
c) Flow index (If):-
For soil S1 For soil S2
If = 10 If = 5
Since, the flow index of soil S2 is smaller than S1, soil S2 has better strength as a
functions of water content.
d) Toughness index (IT):-

For soil S1 For soil S2

IT = IP/If IT = IP/If

IT = 20/10 = 2 IT = 40/5 = 8

Since, toughness index is greater for soil S2. So, it has better strength at plastic limit.

Q) An oven- dried Soil Sample having a mass of 195gms was put inside a
Pycnometer which was then completely filled with distilled water. The mass of the
Pycnometer with soil & water was found to be 1584 gm. The mass of the Pycnometer
filled with alone was 1465gms. Calculate the specific gravity of soil solids.
Solution,
Here,
Mass of empty Pycnometer = (M1)
Mass of solid (Ms) = 195gms
Mass of pycnometer + Soil + water (M3) = 1584gms
Mass of pycnometer + Water (M2) = 1465gms
We have,
G= MS/Ms - (M3 - M4)
G = 195 /195 - (1584-1465)
= 2.57
Q) A 1000 cc core cutter weighing 946.80gms was used to find out the in-situ unit
weight of an embankment. The weight of the core cutter filled with soil was noted to
be 2770.60gm. Laboratory tests on the sample indicate a water content of 10.45% &
specific gravity of Solid is 2.65. Determine the bulk unit weight, dry unit weight, void
ratio & degree of saturation of the sample. If the embankment becomes saturated due
to rains, calculate the water content & the saturated unit weight. (Assume there is no
volume change in sample on saturation). Use phase diagram.
Solution,
Given that;
Volume of cutter = 1000 c.c.
Empty weight of cutter = 946.80gm
Weight of cutter + soil = 2770.6gm

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
 Specific gravity (G) = 2.65
Here,
Weight of solid (WS) = W/(1+w) = (2770.6 – 946.8)/(1 + 0.105)
= 1823.8/1.1045 = 1651.2gm.
Ww = W - Ws
= 1823.8 – 1051.2 = 172.6gm.
Vs = WS/𝛾𝑆 = WS/G*𝛾𝑊 = 1651.2/2.65*1 = 623.094 c.c.
VW = WW/𝛾𝑊 = 172.6/1 = 172.6 c.c.
And, VV = V – VS = 1000 – 623.1 = 376.9 c.c.
All these values are shown in phase diagram. The required ratios can now be
calculated by their basic definitions.
Bulk unit weight (𝛾) = W/V = 1823.8/1000 =
1.82gm/c.c
Dry unit weight (𝛾𝑑 ) = WS/V = 1651.2/1000 =
1.65gm/c.c
Void ratio (e) = VV/Vs = 376.9/628.1 = 0.61
Degree of saturation (Sr) = VW/VV =
172.6/376.3 = 0.458 = 45.8%

When embankment get saturated due to rains then soil becomes fully saturated,
i.e., Sr =1
and, Volume of voids = Volume of water
i.e., VV = VW = 376.9 c.c.
and, WW = VW/𝜌𝑊 = 376.9/1 = 376.9gm.
Now,
Water content (w) = WW/WS = 376.9/1651.2 = 0.2282 = 22.82%
And,
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = Wsat/V = (1651.2+376.3)/1000 = 2.02 gm/c.c.
Q) The following index properties were determined for the two soils X & Y.
Property X Y
Liquid limit (%) 62 34
Plastic limit (%) 26 19
Water content (%) 38 25
Specific gravity (G) 2.72 2.67
Degree of 100 100
saturation (%)

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
Determine a Which of this soil,
(i) Contains more clay particles.
(ii) Has a greater wet density.
(iii) Has a greater dry density.
(iv) Has a greater void ratio.
Give reasons in your answer
Solution,
(i) For soil X For soil Y
Plasticity index (Ip) = L.L – P.L Plasticity index (Ip) = L.L – P.L
(IP) = 62 – 26 = 36% (IP) = 34 – 19 = 15%
= 0.36 = 0.15
Since, (IP)X > (IP)Y, so, soil X contains more clay particles.
(ii) For soil X For soil Y
(1+𝑤) (1+𝑤)
Wet density (𝛾)= *G𝛾𝑊 Wet density (𝛾)= *G𝛾𝑊
(1+𝑒) (1+𝑒)
1+0.38 1+0.25
(𝛾) = 0.38∗2.72 *2.72*1 (𝛾) = 0.25∗2.67 *2.67*1
1+ 1+
1 1

(𝛾) = 1.85gm/cm3 (𝛾) = 2gm/cm3

Hence, soil Y has greater wet density
(iii) For soil X For soil Y
𝛾 𝛾
Dry density (𝛾𝑑 )= Dry density (𝛾𝑑 )=
(1+𝑤) (1+𝑤)
1.85 2
(𝛾𝑑 )= (𝛾𝑑 )=
(1+0.38) (1+0.25)

= 1.34gm/c.c = 1.6gm/c.c
Hence, soil Y has the greater dry density.
(iv) For soil X For soil Y
e = w*G/Sr e = w*G/Sr
e = 0.38*2.72/1 e = 0.25*2.67/1
e = 1.034 e = 0.67
Hence, soil X has the greater void ratio.

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan
# Use of particle distribution curve: The particle size distribution curve is obtained by
plotting percentage finer (N) as ordinate on natural scale against particles size distribution.
Based on the particle size, distribution soil may be described as well as graded, poorly graded
& uniformly graded. In a well graded soil there is good representation of all particles size
between maximum & minimum size in a poorly graded soil there will be an excess or
deficiency of one or more particle size. A soil is said to be uniformly graded if most of the
particles are nearly of the same size.

Er. Shatrudhan Prasad Yadav

Constructor Instructor
LTS, Lahan