GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
This theory is used to describe the behavior of
gases. More specifically, it is used to explain
the macroscopic properties of a gas, such as
pressure and temperature, in terms of its
microscopic components, such as atoms. In
order to apply the kinetic model of gases, five
assumptions are made:
1. Gases are made up of particles with no
defined volume but with a defined mass. In
other words, their volume is miniscule
compared to the distance between
themselves and other molecules.
2. Gas particles undergo no intermolecular
attractions or repulsions. This assumption
implies that the particles possess no
potential energy and thus their total energy
is simply equal to their kinetic energies.
3. Gas particles are in continuous, random
motion.
4. Collisions between gas particles are
completely elastic. In other words, there is
loss or gain of kinetic energy when particles
collide.
5. The average kinetic energy is the same for
all gases at a given temperature,
regardless of the identity of the gas.
Furthermore, this kinetic energy is
proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular forces, often abbreviated to
IMF, are the attractive and repulsive forces
that arise between the molecules of a
substance. These forces mediate the
interactions between individual molecules of a
substance.
Van der Waals forces include attraction and
repulsions between atoms, molecules, and
surfaces, as well as other intermolecular forces.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTION
● It is the result when two dipolar molecules
interact with each other through space.
When this occurs, the partially negative
portion of one of the polar molecules is
attracted to the partially positive portion of
the second polar molecule.
ION-DIPOLE INTERACTION
● It is an attractive force that results from the
electrostatic attraction between a charge
ion (cation or anion) and a neutral
molecule that has a dipole.
LONDON DISPERSION FORCE
● It is the weakest intermolecular force.
● It is a temporary attractive force that results
when the electrons in two adjacent atoms
occupy positions that make the atoms form
temporary dipoles.
● This force is sometimes called an induced
dipole-induced dipole attraction.
HYDROGEN BONDING
● This bond is a special type of dipole-dipole
attraction that occurs when a hydrogen
atom bonded to a strongly electronegative
atom such as N, O, or F atom and another
very electronegative atom.
● These bonds are generally stronger than
ordinary dipole-dipole and dispersion
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

forces, but weaker than true covalent and

ionic bonds.

pH SCALE & INDICATORS

A pH indicator, also known as an acid-base

indicator, is a compound that changes color in
solution over a narrow pH range.

PHASE DIAGRAM

It is a graphical representation of the physical

states of a substance under different
conditions of temperature and pressure. A
typical phase diagram has pressure on the
y-axis and temperature on the x-axis.

pH AND pOH COMPUTATION

CALCULATING pH AND pOH

pH = - log (H3O+) : Acid

pOH = - log (OH-) : Base
pH + pOH = 14

Constant value of ion product (Kw): 1 × 10 -14

Examples:
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

1. Find the pH of a 0.0025 M HCl solution. The

The hydroxide ion concentration can be
HCl is a strong acid and is 100% ionized in
found from the pOH by the reverse
water. The hydronium ion concentration is
mathematical operation employed to find
0.0025 M.
the pOH.
pH = - log (0.0025)
pH = 2.60 [OH-] = 10-pOH

2. A solution has a hydroxide ion Example: What is the hydroxide ion

-9
concentration of 2.00 x 10 M. What is the concentration in a solution that has a pOH
pH of this solution? of 5.70?

pOH = - log (2.00 x 10-9) 5.70 = - log [OH-]

pOH = 8.7 -5.70 = log [OH-]
[OH-] = 10-5.70
pH + pOH = 14
= 2.00 x 10-6 M
pH + 8.7 = 14
pH = 14 – 8.7
pH = 5.3 BRØNSTED–LOWRY ACID–BASE THEORY

CALCULATING THE HYDRONIUM ION

Acids - donates protons
CONCENTRATION FROM PH
Bases - accepts protons
The hydronium ion concentration can be
found from the pH by the reverse of the
Conjugate acid - formed when a proton is
mathematical operation employed to find
the pH. added to a base
Conjugate base - formed when a proton is
[H3O+] = 10-pH removed from an acid

Example: What is the hydronium ion

*Note: Hydrogen +1 charge
concentration in a solution that has a pH of
8.34?
Example 1:
8.34 = - log [H3O+] HCl(g) + H₂O(l)→Cl⁻(aq) + H₃O⁺(aq)
+
- 8.34 = log [H3O ]
[H3O+] = 10-8.34 HCl is an acid because it donates a proton
-9
= 4.57 x 10 M to the water solvent.
Water is a base in the above reaction
CALCULATING THE HYDROXIDE ION because it accepts a proton from the acid.
CONCENTRATION FROM POH
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter
Cl⁻ is the conjugate base
H₃O⁺ is the conjugate acid
Example 2:
In a reaction between HCl and NH3:
HCl(g) + NH3( g) → NH₄Cl(s)
HCl is an acid because it donates its proton
to NH3
NH3 is a base because it accepts a proton
HESS’s LAW
- This law states that regardless of the
multiple stages or steps of a reaction,
the total enthalpy change for the
reaction is the sum of all changes. This
law is a manifestation that enthalpy is a
state function.
The heat of any reaction ΔH∘f for a specific
reaction is equal to the sum of the heats of
reaction for any set of reactions which in sum
are equivalent to the overall reaction.
Example 1:
Calculate the enthalpy for this reaction:
4NH3 + 3O3 → 2N2 + 6H2O ΔH° = -233 kJ
Given the following thermochemical
equations:
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 = -92 kJ
H2O → H2 + 1/2O2 = +286 kJ
Solution:
2(NH3 → N2 + 3H2) = 2 (92 kJ)
6 (H2 +1/2O2 → H2O) = 6(-286 kJ)
Add and cancel:
4NH3 → 2N2 + 6H2 = 184 kJ
6H2 + 3O2 → 6H2O = -1716 kJ
—---------------------------------------
4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O = -1532 kJ
Example 2:
Calculate the enthalpy for this reaction:
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

6C + 6H2 + 3O2 → C6H12O6

or
Given the following thermochemical
equations: mass percent = (grams of solute / grams of
solution) x 100
C + O2 → CO2 -393.51 kJ
H2 + 1/2O2 → H2O -285.83 kJ Example 1:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O -2803.02 kJ Mass of solute: 18g
Mass of solution: 24g
Solution:
% = mass of solute/mass of solution x 100%
6 (C + O2 → CO2) = 6 (-393.51 kJ) 6(-393.51) % = 18/24 x 100%
6 (H2 +1/2O2 → H2O) = 6(-285.83 kJ) 6(-285.83) % = 75%
6CO2 + 6H2O → C2H12O6 + 6O2 -2803.02
Example 2:
Add and cancel: What is the percentage by mass of a solution
6C + 6O2 → 6CO2 made by dissolving 0.49g of potassium sulfate
6H2 +3O2 → 6H2O in 12.70g of water?
6CO2 + 6H2O → C2H12O6 + 6O2
—--------------------------------------------- Mass of solute: 0.49g of potassium sulfate
6C + 6H2 +3O2 → C6H12O6 Mass of solvent: 12.70g water

-2361.06 kJ To find the mass of solution, just add solute and

-1714.98 kJ solvent (grams).
2803.02 kJ
—------------- Mass of solution: 13.19g
-1273.03 kJ
% = mass of solute/mass of solution x 100%

CONCENTRATION % = 0.49/13.19 x 100%

% = 3.7% K2SO4

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE BY MASS

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME
Formula:
Formula:
mass percent = (grams of solute / grams of
volume percent = { volume of solute / volume
solute plus solvent) x 100
of solution} x 100%
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

Example 1: 0.515/98.085
How many HNO3 is needed to prepare 250mL = 0.0053 mol
of solution with 4% solution? Molarity = 0.00525 mol / 1 L
= 5.25 x 10⁻³ M
Concentration Percentage: 4%
Volume of solution: 250mL CALCULATING MOLALITY
Volume of solute: {volume of solute / volume of Molality = moles of solute / mass of solvent (kg)
solution} x 100%
Example 1:
{4% x 250mL} x 100%
Calculate the molality of a solution of 13.5g of
= 10mL HNO3 Nitric Acid
KF dissolved in 250. g of water.

CALCULATING MOLARITY m = mol of solute/kg solvent

Molarity = moles of solute/liters of solution m = (13.5g)(1 mol KF/ 58.1) / 0.250 kg
Moles = molarity x liters m = 0.929 m
Liters = moles/molarity
CALCULATING MOLE FRACTION
X solute = moles of solute/total moles of
Example 1:
solution
0.444 mol of CoCl2 in 0.654 L of solution
X solvent = moles of solvent/total moles of
Molarity = 0.444 mol/0.654 L solution
= 0.679 M
Where: X solute + X solvent = 1
Example 2:
Example 1:
7.0 × 10−3 mol of I2 in 100.0 mL of solution
Find the mole fraction of water in a sol. when
13.8g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 132mL
Molarity = 7.0 × 10−3 mol/ 0.1 L of water.
= 0.07 M
Molar mass of H2O - 18.02 g/mol
Example 3: 132mL (1 mol/18.02) = 7.325 mol

0.515 g of H2SO4 in 1.00 L of solution

Molar mass of NaCl = 58.443 g/mol
Find molar mass to convert g to mol:
13.8 (1 mol/58.443) = 0.236 mol
H - 2 X 1.01 = 2.02
S - 1 x 32.065 = 32.065 Moles of Solution = 7.325 + 0.236 = 7.561
O - 4 x 16 = 64 XNaCl = 0.236/7.561
Total: 98.085 g/mol = 0.031 mol
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

XH2O = 7.325/7.561 STOICHIOMETRY

= 0.969 mol

✅ 0.031 + 0.969 = 1 - The study of the quantitative

relationships or ratios between two or
more substances undergoing a physical
CALCULATING PARTS PER MILLION change or chemical change. Given a
ppm = grams solute/grams solution x 10⁶
chemical reaction, stoichiometry tells us
what quantity of each reactant we
Example 1:
A 123.0 g sample of water is found to contain need in order to get enough of our
0.015 g of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). What desired product.
is the concentration in ppm?
Dimensional analysis is a strategy used for
ppm = 0.015g/123 + 0.015 x 10⁶
performing stoichiometric calculations. It is
= 121.936 ppm
used to convert from one set of units to

CALCULATING PERCENT COMPOSITION another.

(mass of element/molecular mass) x 100

Mole conversions using dimensional analysis

use the idea that an equality such as 1 meter =
100 centimeters can be expressed as two
fractions called unit conversions that are
equivalent to each other and equivalent to 1.
For the equality 1 m = 100 cm, the conversion
factors are 1 m/100 cm or 100 cm/1 m.

Before applying this computation, always

remember to balance the chemical equation
first. Make certain you have the same number
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

of each type of atom on both the reactants
and products side of the arrow in the equation.
To make it easier for us to solve using
dimensional analysis, convert any mass values
in the problem into moles. Use the molar mass
to do this.
Example 1: (Mass-mass)
Metallic iron reacts with oxygen gas to
produce iron(III) oxide. Given that 64.0 g of
oxygen gas is present, determine how many
grams of iron react.
Fe + O2 ---> Fe2O3
Balance the given chemical equation.
4Fe + 3O2 ---> 2Fe2O3
Put the known quantity in the first numerator:
2 mol O2 x 4 mol Fe / 3 mol O2 = 2.667 mol Fe
Place the value that will change 'mol Fe' to 'g
Fe':
2.667 mol Fe x 55.845 g Fe / 1 mol Fe = 148.93 g
Fe or 149 g Fe will react with oxygen gas to
produce iron (III) oxide.
Example 2: (Moles-mass)
1.50 mol of KClO3 decomposes. How many
grams of O2 will be produced?
KClO3 ---> KCl + O2
Balance the given chemical equation.
2KClO3 ---> 2KCl + 3O2
Put the known quantity in the first numerator:

Divide the mass by the molar mass of oxygen

gas:
Create the molar ratio between O2 and
KClO3:

64.0 g O2 x 1 mol O2 / 32.0 g O2 = 2 mol O2

Create the molar ratio between O2 and Fe: 1.5 mol KCl03 x 3 mol O2 / 2 mol KClO3 = 2.25
mol O2
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester: 3rd Quarter

Place the value that will change 'mol O2' to 'g

O2':

2.25 mol O2 x 32 g O2 / 1 mol O2 = 72 g O2 will

be produced.