G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 1

Chapter 4 & 5 Notes

Types of Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Chemical Equations

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) law of conservation of matter: matter can neither be created nor
destroyed. This means balancing equations is his entire fault!!

1. Shows reactants and products

2. Shows physical states: (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g) gas, (aq) in aqueous solution
3. Spot balance
a. Ask: Are there any BrINClHOF elements? Make diatomic = 0 oxidation
state
b. Ask: Are there any elements in the free state? Put a 0 oxidation state
c. Write the oxidation numbers for all the elements and polyatomic ions and
balance each compound
d. Balance all elements except O and H
e. Balance oxygen atoms next and H last

Balance the chemical equations for the following:

a) iron + oxygen → iron(III) oxide

b) the combustion of methane

c) the combustion of B4H10 in oxygen to give B2O3(s) and water vapor

d) the reaction of carbon monoxide with hydrogen to give methyl alcohol

e) the combustion of octane

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Stoichiometry = calculating quantities of reactants that can be mixed to give you certain
quantities of products.
Steps in solving stoichiometry reactions (you can skip some steps)
Write a balanced equation
Put what is known and what you want to find out under the
appropriate compounds. (Be sure to put units!!!)
Use the correct conversion factors and molar ratio to convert from
one substance to another
Determine limiting factor if necessary

Mass to Mass Stoichiometry

Ex: Calculate the number of grams of ammonia produced by the reaction of 5.40g
of hydrogen with excess nitrogen.

Mass to Volume Stoichiometry

Ex: Assume you are at STP. How many liters of hydrogen gas will be produced
by the reaction of 6.54 g of zinc with hydrochloric acid?

Volume to Volume Stoichiometry

Nitrogen monoxide and oxygen gas combine to form the brown gas nitrogen dioxide. How
many milliliters of nitrogen dioxide are produced when 3.4 mL of oxygen reacts with an
excess of nitrogen monoxide? Assume conditions of STP

Limiting Reagents

(TRUST ME!! This concept is NO BIG DEAL--go make some cookies without the proper
amount of one ingredient—simply cut the recipe!)
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 3

A limiting reactant is a reactant completely consumed before the other reactants are consumed.
The reactants left over are said to be in excess

Ex.1 Suppose you put 4 liters of hydrogen and 1 liter of oxygen and ignite it, water will be
formed. The reaction can be summarized as:

2 H2 + O2  2 H 2 O

You only used 2 moles of hydrogen and you have 2 moles of hydrogen not reacting. Oxygen is
the limiting factor

Ex. 2 Sodium chloride is prepared by sodium metal and chlorine gas reacting. What will
occur when 6.70 mol of sodium reacts with 3.20 moles chlorine gas?
1. What is the limiting reactant?
2. How many moles of sodium chloride is produced?
3. How much of the excess remains?

[1] Write a balance equation and what is known and unknown

[2] Which reactant is limiting?

a. Start with one known reactant and relate to the other reactant.

b. Use the moles of ________________________________ because it is limiting

[3] Amount of excess is calculated by substituting amount used

Ex. 3 The production capacity for acrylonitrile in the United States is over 2 billion pounds
per year. Acrylonitrile, the building block for polyacrylonitrile fibers and a variety of plastics,
is produced from gaseous propylene, ammonia and oxygen. The formula is

Propylene ammonia oxygen acrylonitrile water

2 C 3H6 (g) + 2 NH 3 (g) + 3 O 2 (g)  2 C3H3N (g) + 6 H2O (g)

a. Assuming 100% yield, what mass of acrylonitrile can be produced from a mixture of
5.00 x 10 2 g of propylene, 5.00 x 10 2 g of ammonia, and 1.00 x 10 3 g of oxygen?

b. What mass of water is produced and what masses of which starting materials are left
in excess?

[1]
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 4

[2] Limiting Reagent =

[3]

Percent yield of a reaction and Percent Error of a reaction.

Actual yield
Percent yield= ×100 %
Theoretical yield

| Actual yield−Theoretical yield|

Percent Error= ×100 %
Theoretical yield

OR

|Experimental value− Accepted value|

Percent Error= ×100 %
Accepted value

I. Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

A. Water = cools, moderates, sustains, transports, medium, dissolves. Solutions
usually refer to solutes mixed in water as the solvent. Why water?
1. Characteristics
a. Bent molecule
b. Bond angle is less than 105 degrees
c. Covalent bonds
d. Electrons are not shared equally and is called a polar covalent bond
(The sign δ (the Greek sign delta) shows the partial charge of the molecule. The sign
may be either δ + or δ -

B. Nature of aqueous solutions= depends upon solubility of the solute.

Remember Like Dissolves Like!! LEARN YOUR SOLUBILITY RULES Most ionic
substances dissolve, some nonionic substances dissolve also because of polar bonds like
ethanol) Arrhenius defined an acid as a substance that produced H ions in solution
and a base that produces OH ions in solution
1. Electrical conductivity is a good measure of ionization = Arrhenius said that
the conduction of electricity through a solution depends upon the number of ions
present.
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 5

a. Lacks ions = nonelectrolyte = does not conduct e.g. sugar

b. Completely ionized = strong electrolyte = use a single arrow
Salts,
Strong acids which are covalent compounds (sour, produce H ions in
solutions such as HCl, HBr, HI HN0 3, H2SO 4, HClO3 ,
HClO4),
Strong bases (group I and group II hydroxides of Ca, Sr, and Ba
dissociate in .01 M solutions or less)

Note: The Arrhenius definition of an acid and base applies only to aqueous
solutions and only to substances that produced OH - would be a base.
Bronsted and Lowry in 1900’s proposed:
a. An acid is a proton (H +) donor
b. A base is a proton acceptor

Ex: NH3 + H2O  NH 4+ + OH -

base acid conjugate conjugate
acid base
c. Medium or weak electrolytes = weak acids such as acetic
acid, and weak bases such as ammonia which dissolves in water to
form NH4+ Always use a double arrow

C. Composition of Solutions = depends upon the nature of the reaction

and the concentrations of the chemicals present (Use different units to express the
strength of a solution)
1. Concentration of solutions *** Learn***

Molarity (M) = # moles of solute / liter of solution

Molarity is defined in terms of volume of solution and this volume may vary with
the temperature very slightly

Something Extra for you future Dr’s and pharmacists

A very dilute solution is sometimes expressed in parts per million (ppm) So a solution
whose solute concentration is 1ppm contains 1 g solute for each million grams of solution
or 1 mg solute per kilogram of solution or 1 mg solute per 1 Liter of solution or 1
microgram/ ml solution

1ppm = 1mg solute/1kg solution = 1mg solute/ 1L solution = 1 μg solute/ mL solution

SAMPLE EXERCISE
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 6

Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 23.4 g of sodium sulfate, Na2SO4,
in enough water to form 125 mL of solution.

Solution:

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 5.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6, in

sufficient water to form exactly 100 mL of solution.

Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte

When an ionic compound dissolves, the relative concentrations of the ions introduced
into the solution depend on the chemical formula of the compound. For example, a 1.0 M
solution of NaCl is 1.0 M in Na+ ions and 1.0 M in Cl– ions. Similarly, a 1.0 M solution of
Na2SO4 is 2.0 M in Na+ ions and 1.0 M in SO42– ions. Notice that the concentration of an
electrolyte solution can be specified either in terms of the compound used to make the
solution (1.0 M Na2SO4) or in terms of the ions that the solution contains (2.0 M Na+ and
1.0 M SO42–).

SAMPLE EXERCISE
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 7

What are the molar concentrations of each of the ions present in a 0.025 M aqueous
solution of calcium nitrate?

Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume

The definition of molarity contains three quantities, molarity, moles solute, and liters of
solution. If we know any two of these, we can calculate the third. For example, if we
know the molarity of a solution, we can calculate the number of moles of solute in a
given volume. Thus, molarity is a conversion factor between volume of solution and
moles of solute.

SAMPLE EXERCISE

Calculation of the number of moles of HNO3 in 2.0 L of 0.200 M HNO3 solution

illustrates the conversion of volume to moles:

SAMPLE EXERCISE

To illustrate the conversion of moles to volume, let's calculate the volume of 0.30 M
HNO3 solution required to supply 2.0 mol of HNO3:

SAMPLE EXERCISE
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 8

How many grams of Na2SO4 are required to make 0.350 L of 0.500 M Na2SO4?

PRACTICE EXERCISE

(a) How many grams of Na2SO4 are there in 15 mL of 0.50 M Na2SO4? (b) How
many milliliters of 0.50 M Na2SO4 solution are required to supply 0.038 mol of this
salt?

Dilution
Solutions that are used routinely in the laboratory are often purchased or prepared
in concentrated form (called stock solutions). For example, hydrochloric acid, HCl, is
purchased as a 12 M solution (concentrated hydrochloric acid). Solutions of lower
concentrations can then be obtained by adding water, a process called dilution. (In
diluting a concentrated acid or base, the acid or base should be added to water and then
further diluted by adding more water. Adding water directly to concentrated acid or base
can cause spattering because of the intense heat generated.)

When solvent is added to dilute a solution, the number of moles of solute remains
unchanged. Because number of moles = M liters, we can write the following equation
for the dilution process:

(Initial molarity)(initial volume) = (final molarity)(final volume)

M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
The initial concentration (Mi) is that of the more concentrated stock solution, whereas the
final concentration (Mf) is that of the more dilute solution being prepared. Thus, Mi is
always larger than Mf. Because the volume of the solution increases upon dilution, Vf is
always larger than Vi.

SAMPLE EXERCISE
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 9

Suppose we wanted to prepare 250 mL of 0.10 M CuSO4 solution by diluting a stock

solution containing 1.0 M CuSO4.What volume of the stock solution do we need to use
and how would we prepare the solution?

SAMPLE EXERCISE

How many milliliters of 3.0M H2SO4 are required to make 450mL of 0.10 M H2SO4?

PRACTICE EXERCISE

(a) How many milliliters of 5.0M K2Cr2O7 solution must be diluted in order to prepare
250mL of 0.10M solution?

(b) If 10.0mL of a 10.0M stock solution of NaOH is diluted to 250.mL, what is the
concentration of the resulting solution?

Molality = Number of moles of solute per1kg of solvent. You will mass the
solvent. The volume will not vary with temperature. This is used to calculate
Colligative properties of matter

(Unfortunately we do not include the study of these properties in AP chemistry; you

should be aware that addition of a solute to a solvent lowers the freezing point and
raises the boiling point)
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Putting it all together! Please note problem may be wordy but do not panic!!! Take
it a little at a time!!!

The Space shuttle environmental control system handles excess CO2(which the
astronauts breathe out—it is 4% by mass of exhaled air) by reacting it with lithium
hydroxide, LiOH, pellets to form lithium carbonate, Li2CO3, and water. If there are 7
astronauts on board the shuttle, and each exhales 20 liters of air per minute, how long
could clean air be generated if there were 25,000 g of LiOH pellets available for each
shuttle mission? Assume the density of air is 0.0010 g/mL.
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 11

D. Types of Chemical Reactions = Describes the chemical reaction that is taking place in
a solution.
1. Precipitation reactions = the ions separate in water and form an insoluble
product this type of equation is known as precipitation reactions. A precipitate is an
insoluble solid formed by a reaction in solution. Example

Lead iodide is a very yellow product

The solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance that can be dissolved
in a given quantity of solvent. Only 1.2 10–3 mol of PbI2 dissolves in a liter of water at
25°C. In our discussions any substance with solubility of less than 0.01 mol/L will be
referred to as insoluble. In those cases the attraction between the oppositely charged ions
in the solid is too great for the water molecules to separate them to any significant extent,
and the substance remains largely undissolved.

a. Memorize all solubility rules = put on card and memorize!!!

b. Types of equations you can write (Describing reactions you can solve =
remember we went over these types of chemical reactions) In writing chemical
equations for reactions in aqueous solution, it is often useful to indicate explicitly
whether the dissolved substances are present predominantly as ions or as molecules
1). Molecular equations= gives overall reaction. This is the
stoichiometric form but not necessarily the actual forms of the
reactants and products in solutions Do Lead II nitrate reacting with
potassium iodide

2). Complete Ionic equations= represents ions of all reactants and

products

3). Net ionic equations = Includes only solution components making a

change. Spectator ions are not included

c. Steps to solving stoichiometry of precipitation reactions

1). Identify the species present in the combined solutions and determine what
reaction occurs
2). Write the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction
3). Calculate the moles of reactants
4). Determine which reactant is limiting if necessary
5.) Calculate the moles of product as required
6.) Covert to grams or other units
(Note: To find the moles of a solution that you know the strength and the volume you
simply multiply molarity x #Liters = moles of solute)
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 12

LEARN VOLUME X MOLARITY = MOLES

Example:
If you have 35.0 mL of .300 M NaCl then you have .300mols NaCl/L x .0350 L
= .0105mol of NaCl)

SAMPLE EXERCISES

Example 1 Calculate the mass of Ag2S produced when 125.mL of .200 M Ag(NO3) is
added to excess Na2S.

Example 2 What mass of Fe(OH)3 is produced when 35.0 mL of .250M Fe(NO3)3

solution is mixed with 55.0 mL of .180 M KOH?

Example 3 An ore sample is to be analyzed for sulfur. As part of the procedure, the ore
is dissolved and the sulfur is converted to sulfate ion SO4-2. Barium nitrate is added,
which causes the sulfate ion to precipitate out as BaSO4. The original sample had a mass
of 3.187 g. The dried BaSO4 has a mass of 2.005 g. What is the percent of sulfur in the
original ore?
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 13

2. Acid Base Reactions = Remember Bronsted-Lowery definition at this point

An acid is a proton (H+) donor
A base is a proton (H+) acceptor

Know Strong acids = hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic, nitric, sulfuric, chloric and
perchloric acids

Strong bases = NH2-1, group I hydroxides and heavy group 2 ( calcium, strontium, and
barium hydroxide)

A H2O molecule acts as a proton donor (acid), and NH3 as a proton acceptor (base). Only a
fraction of the NH3 reacts with H2O; NH3 is a weak electrolyte and a weak base

Some Acid-Base Reactions have Gas Formation

There are many bases besides OH– that react with H+ to form molecular compounds.
Two of these that you might encounter in the laboratory are the sulfide ion and the
carbonate ion. Both of these anions react with acids to form gases that have low
solubilities in water. Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, the substance that gives rotten eggs their
foul odor, forms when an acid such as HCl(aq) reacts with a metal sulfide such as Na2S:

Molecular equation:

Net ionic equation:

Carbonates and bicarbonates react with acids to form CO2 gas. Reaction of CO32– or
HCO3– with an acid first gives carbonic acid, H2CO3. For example, when hydrochloric
acid is added to sodium bicarbonate, the following reaction occurs:
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 14

Carbonic acid is unstable; if present in solution in sufficient concentrations, it

decomposes to form CO2, which escapes from the solution as a gas:

The decomposition of H2CO3 into H2O and CO2 causes bubbles to form. The overall
reaction is summarized by the following equations:

Molecular equation:

A. STEPS IN SOLVING ACID BASE STOICHIOMETRY = SAME OLD SAME OLD

B. In lab, we use a process called titration to find strengths of acids or bases.

Titration is defined as = a measured volume of a solution of known concentration
( titrant) into a solution containing the substance being analyzed ( analyte)
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 15

Example 1 How many mL of .800 M NaOH solution is needed to just neutralize

40.00 mL of .600 M HCl solution?

Example 2 You wish to determine the molarity of a solution of sodium hydroxide.

To do this you titrate a 25.00 mL aliquot( means part of your sample), which had 3
drops of phenolphthalein indicator added so that it is pink, with .1067 M HCl. The
sample turns clear (indicating that the NaOH has been precisely neutralized by the
HCl solution) after the addition of 42.95 mL of HCl. Calculate the molarity of the
NaOH solution.
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 16

SAMPLE EXERCISE FOR YOU TO TRY

The quantity of Cl– in a water supply is determined by titrating the sample with Ag+:

(a) How many grams of chloride ion are in a sample of the water if 20.2 mL of 0.100 M Ag+ is
required to react with all the chloride in the sample?

(b) If the sample has a mass of 10.0 g, what percent Cl– does it contain?

Example 3 Calculating the Molar Mass of an Acid with Titration

Remember the molar mass of a substance = mass in grams of one mole of a

substance (molecular weight).

You want to determine the molar mass of an unknown acid. The acid contains one
acidic hydrogen per molecule. You mass out a 2.879 g sample of the pure acid and dissolve
it along with 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator (clear in acidic solution and pink in basic
range) in distilled water. The sample is titrated with .1704 M NaOH. The pink endpoint is
reached after the addition of 42.55 mL of the base. Calculate the molar mass of the acid.
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 17

3. Oxidation Reduction Reactions=one or more electrons are transferred (called redox)

In precipitation reactions cations and anions come together to form an insoluble
ionic compound. In neutralization reactions H+ ions and OH– ions come together to form
H2O molecules. Ions may also participate in a third kind of reaction. The ions can transfer
electrons between the ions present in solution, producing an oxidation-reduction reaction

Have you ever noticed corrosion at the terminals of an automobile battery? What we call
corrosion is the conversion of a metal into a metal compound by a reaction between the
metal and some substance in its environment.

When a metal undergoes corrosion, it loses electrons and forms cations.

For example, calcium is vigorously attacked by acids to form calcium ions, Ca2+:

How can we tell if one metal oxidizes or reduces another?

The Activity Series

Can we predict whether a certain metal will be oxidized either by an acid or by a
particular salt? This question is of practical importance as well as chemical interest. For
example, it would be unwise to store a solution of nickel nitrate in an iron container
because the solution would dissolve the container. When a metal is oxidized, it appears to
be eaten away as it reacts to form various compounds. Extensive oxidation can lead to the
failure of metal machinery parts or the deterioration of metal structures.

Different metals vary in the ease with which they are oxidized. For example, zinc metal is
oxidized by aqueous solutions of copper (II), but silver metal is not. We conclude that
zinc loses electrons more readily than does silver; that is, zinc is easier to oxidize than
silver.

A list of metals arranged in order of decreasing ease of oxidation or increasing reduction

table is called an activity series. The reduction table gives the activity series in aqueous
solution for many of the most common metals.
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 18

Look at your AP Reduction Table. The lithium ion wants to lose or oxidize the easiest
and the fluoride ion does not want to lose or oxidize. The table is arranged in increasing
reduction potential.

Hydrogen is also included in the table. The metals at the top of the table are most easily
reduced. Notice that the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are at the bottom. They
are called the active metals.

You work the problems the same way as the other 2 types of problems except you use the net
ionic equation! You can even titrate redox equations to find and unknown concentration of a
reducing agent or oxidizing agent. This has many applications from measuring the iron content
in drinking water to quantifying vitamin C in fruits and vegetables

Problem example: Whew a long one!!!!!

Calcium ion is necessary for the clotting of blood and many other physiological processes. To
measure the Ca2+concentration in a 1.00 mL of human blood, Na2C2O4 solution is added, which
precipitates the calcium ion as calcium oxalate. The solid dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid will
release oxalate ions, and a 2.05 mL of 4.88 x 10-4 M KMnO4 is required to reach the endpoint.
The balanced equation is:

2KMnO4(aq) + 5CaC2O4(s) + 8H2SO4(aq)  2MnSO4(aq) + K2SO4(aq) + 5CaSO4(s) + 10CO2(g) + 8 H2O(l)

Calculate the amount (mol) of Ca2+ in 1.00 mL of blood and the number of mg of calcium
ions per 100 mL of blood. (The normal amount of calcium ions in 100 mL of blood 9.0-11.5
mg/100 mL)
G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 19

EXTRA STUFF TO HELP IN LAB AND LATER ON IN COLLEGE

How to Prepare Solutions **** Learn Well*****

1. Molarity Solutions = # mols of solute/ liter of solution

a. Determine the mass in grams of one mole of solute desired

b. Mass out the amount of solute on the balance (use weigh paper)
c. Dissolve the measured quantity of solute in somewhat less than one liter of solvent
d. Once the solution is uniform, add more pure solvent to solution, while stirring, to
bring the final volume to one liter

Ex. 1 You want to make up 40 mL of a 2M NaCl for 20 students.

a. Calculate = 40mL/student x 20 = 800 mL total of solution
Hint: Make up somewhat more for mistakes - so make up 1 L

b. 2 moles of NaCl = 2 x 58.5 g NaCl = 117 g of NaCl. Weigh out 117 g of NaCl
and put in 1 liter beaker or graduated cylinder
c. Add about 500-700 mL of water to 1 liter and stir with rod or magnetic stirrer.
d. Add water to bring to final vol. of 1 liter and stir.
e. Pour in container and label 2M NaCl, date and makers name

Ex. 2 You want to prepare 250mL of 0.2M copper(II) sulfate and you have only
copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.
a. Calculate
0.250 liters x 0.2M x 249.6 g/mol CuSO 4  5 H 2O = 12.4g or solute
(Notice you use the weight of the 5 waters in your formula weight). Weigh out on
balance and put in measuring device. Uses weigh paper.
b. Add water to container of about 150mL and stir
c. Finish vol. of solvent to 250mL and stir
d. Label, date, name

Molarity from stock solutions

a. Mconc x Vconc = Mdilute x Vdilute

Make sure to consult your sheet on molarities from companies.

ALWAYS ADD ACID TO WATER !!!!

Ex. 1 You have a 12M sol of HCl and you want to make a 1.5L o a 0.1M sol of HCl

M1 x V1 = M 2 x V2
V 1 = M2 x V 2 / M1
= 0.1M x 1.5L / 12M
= 0.0125L = 12.5 mL of concentrated 12M HCl

Pour about 1 liter of water in a container that can hold 1.5L

G Hunt AP Chemistry Chapter 4 & 5 20

Measure out 12.5mL of 12M HCl in graduated cylinder

Carefully and slowly pour conc. HCl into container of water.
WORK UNDER FUME HOOD
Stir with stirring rod or stirrer
Add water to container to bring to final volume of 1.5L, Stir, Pour into container,
Label and date

2. Percent Solutions
a. Weight -volume percent (w/V) = weight of solute in grams divided by the
volume of solution in milliters times 100. Used mainly when the solute is a solid like
phenolphthalein since the weight is easily obtainable

Ex. A 20 % cupric sulfate pentahydrate solution contains 20g of cupric sulfate

pentahydrate 100mL of solution. You want to make 450mL of such a solution
a. Calculate
% w/V = wt of solute in g / vol in mL x vol of solution mL x 100
wt of solute in g = [ % w/V x vol sol ] x 100
= [ 20g x 450mL] / 100
= 90 g cupric sulfate pentahydrate
b. Weigh out 90g of solute and put in 500mL device
c. Add about 300 mL water and stir
d. Add water to 450mL mark, stir, put in container and label

b. Volume percent (v/v) = [volume of solute / volume of sol] x 100

Ex. You want to make 1L of a 50 % methyl alcohol solution. A 50% sol contains
50mL of alcohol per 100mL of sol. or 500mL per 1000mL
a. Calculate
Vol of solute = [ %vol x vol of sol (mL) ] / 100
= [50 x 1000] /100
= 500 mL of methyl alcohol

b. Add about 400mL water to a container

c. Measure out 500mL of methyl alcohol in cylinder
d. Pour, stir, add water to 1000mL, stir, pour in container, label

c Weight Percent (w/w) = [weight of solute / weight of solution] x 100