FC2: PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING

Question Bank: Sem I (F.Y.B.Ed. 2023 SVU)

Q Questions

Unit 1

1 What is learning? Explain the characteristics of Learning/अध्ययन म्हणजे काय?अध्ययनाचे कोणतीही पाच
वैशिष्ट्ये लिहा ?अध्ययन क्या है? अध्ययन की विशेषताओं की स्पष्ट किजीये
Learning in the simplest sense is the modification of behaviour as the result of experience.
Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a
result of experience (or) practice. Gates says that learning is a modification of behaviour through
experience. Crow and Crow are of the view that learning involves the acquisition of habits,
Knowledge and attitudes. Skinner includes learning both acquisition and retention. According to
Garry and Kingsley, learning is a process by which behaviour is originated (or) changed
through practice (or) training.
Characteristics:
Learning is a progressive change in behaviour: Learning brings a progressive change in
behaviour as the individual reacts to the situation which i.e. why learning is known as an
improvement.
Learning can be transferred: Transfer takes place in Learning but the amount of transfer may
vary. Transfer occurs when there is a similarity in content, and techniques. Ideals, procedure and
attitude. Transfer leads to economy in learning as it takes place from one field of study to another
and from a classroom situation to a life situation.
Learning is related all round development: Learning largely depends upon the activities of the
learner. It is said that no learning can take place where there is no self-activity. It is creative
experience of all Knowledge. Learning is related to all-around development.
Learning is motivated by adjustment: The individual has to adjust to neer the motive is the
curiosity to learn new things. E.g if a student is eager to solve a maths problem, they will pay
attention in class in order to learn how to solve it.
Goal: Learning is goal-directed activity. Behaviour does not just occur, it is caused by some
needs and is oriented towards a goal. E.g A child in need of water directs his behaviour in such a
way as to satisfy his thirst.
Exploration of the situation: the correct responses cannot be determined at once. They are
required to be thought over; the whole situation needs to be explored. E.g a student creating a
project might explore different methods to make it appealing and creative.
Repetition/Reinforcement: If the response is successful in satisfying the needs, that response is
reinforced and on subsequent occasions, an individual will tend to repeat it. E.g if starting to
study well before the exam helps the student gains better grades, they might repeat the same
behaviour.
 Insight: An insight is a sudden awareness or perception of the essential relationships in the
situation. It must be however noted that the insight does not come immediately upon the
presentation of a problem. It is preceded by implicit trial and error, a process which involves
thinking of possible moves, instead of actually making them. E.g In solving a puzzle or a
mathematical problem, we try to see the relationship between the various elements through
implicit trial and error.
Modification of behaviour: Learning of a particular moment in a learning environment brings
essential changes in the behaviour of an individual. These changes later on become part & parcel
of the learning behaviour. These learnt acts are retained for a longer time, depending upon the
nature of the learner. E.g learning values from school are retained with the student for a long time
and are applied in several other situations of life.
Adjustment: It is a process by which a living organism maintains a balance between its needs
and circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these needs.w environment.
Learning is universal in nature: All animals learn diff things. Man is a rational animal and
hence he learns more. Learning is continuous and not restricted to the childhood period. It goes
on with life. Death is the end of it.
Learning is never ending growth: We are always inspired to learn more and more. One
achievement leads to future incentive, pursuit and efforts.

2 Explain the process of learning with suitable examples/योग्य उदाहरणांसह अध्ययनाची प्रक्रिया स्पष्ट करा. अध्ययन
की प्रक्रिया को उपयुक्त उदाहरणों के साथ स्पष्ट किजीये
Learning is a process and knowing the various aspects of learning helps the teacher in ensuring &
making the learning effective.

1. Need: Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation. Unless the individual
has some unsatisfactory need or derives which causes him to act in an attempt to satisfy the
need, no learning will take place. When the need of the learner is strong, the learner sets
definite goals for the achievement of his needs & this makes learning more concrete.

E.g. A student, who wants to score a good grade, starts working right from the beginning.

Need should be made by the teacher by creating interest. The teacher should also help the child in
setting attainable goals for himself.

2. Readiness: Every child is not ready to learn at a particular time. The child needs physical &
mental maturity in order to learn. There should be a mental & physical willingness to learn.
We tend to pay less attention to this type of maturity. Many a time, we impose learning
situations on a child before he is ready.

E.g. Public speaking cannot be taught to I std. child.

3. Situation: Learning depends on the situation provided at school & at home. In school, the
learning environment should be conducive or congenial. The teacher’s attitude should be
 encouraging & the teacher should use suitable teaching methods & techniques. The type of
situation provided by the teacher contributes towards the speed & quality of learning. E.g.
Special methods can be provided depending on the age of the child. In K.G. classes, training is
generally given by the play-way method.
4. Interaction: The child with his needs & goals learns to interact in a learning situation.
Interaction is a process of responding to a situation and getting feedback from it. The
interaction may be in the form of observations, emotional reactions, verbal reactions or
physical reactions. A teacher should find ways & means to involve the students in the learning
activity/process.
5. Exploration of the situation: Exploration is the way the learner explores/interprets the stimuli
in the environment. The correct responses cannot be determined at once. They require to be
thought over; i.e. the whole situation needs to be explored. After trial & error, the learner
comes to the right solution.
6. Perception: Perception is to give some meaning to what you are seeing. Sensing + Meaning =
Perception. Each one perceives the environment differently. As a teacher, one wants the class
to perceive uniformly, so the teacher should use visual aids, diagrams, etc. Because of the
individual differences among the students, each student perceives whatever is taught,
differently, so teachers should cater to the need of every individual.
7. Response: Response is the actual outcome of the learner. It is the outcome of interaction,
exploration & perception of the situation. He may give a trial by the direct attack to overcome
the barrier in his way.
8. Reinforcement: If the response is successful in the action, in satisfying the need, that response
is reinforced and on subsequent occasions, the individual will tend to repeat it.
9. Integration: Learning implies the selection & organization of correct responses. The last step
of the learning process consists in integrating the successful responses of the individual’s
previous learning so that it becomes part of a new functional whole.

3 “Learning is a process by which behaviour is originated through practice”. Justify with

reference to the process of learning." "अध्ययन ही एक प्रक्रिया आहे ज्याद्वारे वर्तनाची उत्पत्ती सरावाने होते." अध्ययनच्या
प्रक्रियेच्या संदर्भात समर्थन करा./अध्ययनएक ऐसी प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा अभ्यास के माध्यम से व्यवहार की उत्पत्ति होती है।" अध्ययन की प्रक्रिया
के संदर्भ में औचित्य सिद्ध कीजिए।

4 Illustrate the steps of Learning/अध्ययनाच्या पायऱ्या उधाहरणासहित स्पष्ट कर./सीखने के सोपानोक का वर्णन करें
Learning is a process and knowing the various aspects of learning helps the teacher in ensuring &
making the learning effective.

Need: Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation. Unless the individual has
some unsatisfactory need or derives which causes him to act in an attempt to satisfy the need, no
learning will take place. When the need of the learner is strong, the learner sets definite goals for
the achievement of his needs & this makes learning more concrete.

E.g. A student, who wants to score a good grade, starts working right from the beginning.
 Need should be made by the teacher by creating interest. The teacher should also help the child in
setting attainable goals for himself.

1. Readiness: Every child is not ready to learn at a particular time. The child needs physical &
mental maturity in order to learn. There should be a mental & physical willingness to learn.
We tend to pay less attention to this type of maturity. Many a time, we impose learning
situations on a child before he is ready.

E.g. Public speaking cannot be taught to I std. child.

2. Situation: Learning depends on the situation provided at school & at home. In school, the
learning environment should be conducive or congenial. The teacher’s attitude should be
encouraging & the teacher should use suitable teaching methods & techniques. The type of
situation provided by the teacher contributes towards the speed & quality of learning. E.g.
Special methods can be provided depending on the age of the child. In K.G. classes, training is
generally given by the play-way method.
3. Interaction: The child with his needs & goals learns to interact in a learning situation.
Interaction is a process of responding to a situation and getting feedback from it. The
interaction may be in the form of observations, emotional reactions, verbal reactions or
physical reactions. A teacher should find ways & means to involve the students in the learning
activity/process.
4. Exploration of the situation: Exploration is the way the learner explores/interprets the stimuli
in the environment. The correct responses cannot be determined at once. They require to be
thought over; i.e. the whole situation needs to be explored. After trial & error, the learner
comes to the right solution.
5. Perception: Perception is to give some meaning to what you are seeing. Sensing + Meaning =
Perception. Each one perceives the environment differently. As a teacher, one wants the class
to perceive uniformly, so the teacher should use visual aids, diagrams, etc. Because of the
individual differences among the students, each student perceives whatever is taught,
differently, so teachers should cater to the need of every individual.
6. Response: Response is the actual outcome of the learner. It is the outcome of interaction,
exploration & perception of the situation. He may give a trial by the direct attack to overcome
the barrier in his way.
7. Reinforcement: If the response is successful in the action, in satisfying the need, that response
is reinforced and on subsequent occasions, the individual will tend to repeat it.
8. Integration: Learning implies the selection & organization of correct responses. The last step
of the learning process consists in integrating the successful responses of the individual’s
previous learning so that it becomes part of a new functional whole.

5 Explain characteristics of Learning with examples /अध्ययनाची कोणतीही पाच वैशिष्ट्ये लिहा./अधिगम की
विशेषताओं को उदाहरण सहित समझाइए
Characteristics:
Learning is a progressive change in behaviour: Learning brings a progressive change in
behaviour as the individual reacts to the situation which i.e. why learning is known as an
improvement.
Learning can be transferred: Transfer takes place in Learning but the amount of transfer may
vary. Transfer occurs when there is a similarity in content, and techniques. Ideals, procedure and
attitude. Transfer leads to economy in learning as it takes place from one field of study to another
and from a classroom situation to a life situation.
Learning is related all round development: Learning largely depends upon the activities of the
learner. It is said that no learning can take place where there is no self-activity. It is creative
experience of all Knowledge. Learning is related to all-around development.
Learning is motivated by adjustment: The individual has to adjust to neer the motive is the
curiosity to learn new things. E.g if a student is eager to solve a maths problem, they will pay
attention in class in order to learn how to solve it.
Goal: Learning is goal-directed activity. Behaviour does not just occur, it is caused by some
needs and is oriented towards a goal. E.g A child in need of water directs his behaviour in such a
way as to satisfy his thirst.
Exploration of the situation: the correct responses cannot be determined at once. They are
required to be thought over; the whole situation needs to be explored. E.g a student creating a
project might explore different methods to make it appealing and creative.
Repetition/Reinforcement: If the response is successful in satisfying the needs, that response is
reinforced and on subsequent occasions, an individual will tend to repeat it. E.g if starting to
study well before the exam helps the student gains better grades, they might repeat the same
behaviour.
Insight: An insight is a sudden awareness or perception of the essential relationships in the
situation. It must be however noted that the insight does not come immediately upon the
presentation of a problem. It is preceded by implicit trial and error, a process which involves
thinking of possible moves, instead of actually making them. E.g In solving a puzzle or a
mathematical problem, we try to see the relationship between the various elements through
implicit trial and error.
Modification of behaviour: Learning of a particular moment in a learning environment brings
essential changes in the behaviour of an individual. These changes later on become part & parcel
of the learning behaviour. These learnt acts are retained for a longer time, depending upon the
nature of the learner. E.g learning values from school are retained with the student for a long time
and are applied in several other situations of life.
Adjustment: It is a process by which a living organism maintains a balance between its needs
and circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these needs.w environment.
Learning is universal in nature: All animals learn diff things. Man is a rational animal and
hence he learns more. Learning is continuous and not restricted to the childhood period. It goes
on with life. Death is the end of it.
Learning is never ending growth: We are always inspired to learn more and more. One
achievement leads to future incentives, pursuits and efforts.
6 What is learning? Describe the factors affecting learning./अधिगम क्या है? अधिगम को प्रभावत करनेवाले कारको का वर्णन करें
Two factors that influence learning are 1. Factors Associated with Leaner and 2. Factors Related
to Learning Process!
I. Factors associated with learner:
Learner is the focal point in any learning. Without learners, there cannot be learning.
The following are some of the factors associated with learners:
1. Motivation:
It is the most important factor influencing the learner. If the learner has no motivation to learn,
any amount of force will be futile. More the motivation better will be the learning. In addition to
motivation, the learner should have a definite goal. It will direct the individual appropriately and
help him to achieve the goal.
2. Readiness and willpower:
This is just like motivation. If the learner is ready to learn, he will develop the motivation to
learn. Along with readiness, strong willpower is also essential to overcome hurdles and problems.
Readiness will help to develop a positive attitude in learners.
3. Ability of the learner:
This refers to the level of intelligence, creativity, aptitude and other abilities necessary for
learning.
Intelligence enables the learner to learn better and understand things and the relationships
between them. It includes both general and specific intelligence related to a specific area of
learning.
4. Level of aspiration and achievement:
Learning depends upon the level of aspiration to achieve. If the aspiration level is high, the
learner will work hard and achieve more. However, the aspiration level should be in accordance
with the ability of the learner.
Otherwise, it may affect negatively leading to feelings of inferiority. At times the learner may not
realize his ability and keep a low level of aspiration resulting in low achievement, which is also a
tendency to be rectified.
5. Attention:
The learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning. Attentiveness helps to grasp
learning material. The distraction of attention affects learning.
6. General health condition of the learner:
General health includes the physical and mental health of the learner. The learner should have
good physical health. Organic defects like blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, deafness, paralysis,
mutism, severely handicapped, etc., will affect learning. Problems in sense organs will lead to
improper perception. Chronic illnesses may lead to fatigue and lack of interest.
In addition to physical health, the mental health of learners is also important. Adjustment
problems and minor mental problems like worry, anxiety, stress, and inferiority complexes will
affect learning.
7) Maturation of the learner:
Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only according to the maturity of our
bodies. For example, a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a bicycle even after vigorous
training, because it requires muscular or physical maturity.
II. Factors related to learning material:
The nature of learning material is also important. Meaningful material can be learnt better and
more quickly than meaningless material. Because understanding lessons create interest in the
learner. In addition to meaning, simple material can be learnt better than complex material.
III. Factors Related to Learning Process:
1. Methods of learning:
Effective learning depends upon the methods of study also. There are certain methods which save
the energy and time of the learner. These are called ‘economic methods of learning’. They are
a. Part v/s whole method:
Smaller and shorter lessons may be learnt at a stretch-called whole method. If the material is too
lengthy, it must be divided into parts, so that it will be easy for learning. After reading in parts the
learnt material should be connected or associated with each other.
b. Spaced v/s un-spaced method:
Learning continuously without a gap leads to interference in memory called inhibition. Hence, it
is always advisable to keep a small interval between each reading.
c. Recitation v/s repetition:
Just repetition of lessons becomes rote learning in which chances of forgetting are more. In
recitation, the learner will check the weak points which may be forgotten and put more emphasis
 on those points. This process will help to overcome missing of points from the memory.
2. Overlearning:
It is experimentally proved that overlearning helps better learning and memory.
3. Knowledge of results as feedback:
It is essential to know the amount of material grasped, so that changes may be made in process of
learning. Knowledge of results refers to getting feedback by means of testing, examination,
interview, etc.
4. Good physical atmosphere:
Sufficient light and ventilation, a calm and clean place, normal temperature, and some minimum
furniture will help to learn processes.

7 “Maturation affects learning”.Justify./ “परिपक्वता अध्ययनावर परिणाम करते समर्थन करा./"परिपक्वता सीखने को
प्रभावित करती है"।न्यायोचित करें
Learning depends upon maturation. If the individual is mature to learn a particular activity, he
will learn effectively. If the individual is not mature, learning will not be effective. When the
development results from the growth of the physiological systems, it is called maturation. The
two processes maturation and learning are closely related to each other. Maturation helps in the
process of learning. Learning can only take place if the stage for that type of learning is been
achieved through a process of maturation. E.g If we try to teach a six months child to walk, the
infant cannot learn to walk, since the muscles are not mature enough for the infant to learn to
walk. This particular activity is only possible when the nerves and muscles have attained a
particular stage of maturity and learning. Forcing a child to attempt to learn certain speech
patterns, before a certain maturation has occurred, can disrupt the normal development of the
speech in the child and do damage. On the other hand, failure at an appropriate time to provide
specific training in speech may be a cardinal educational error. Individual differences in attitude,
interest, ambitions and personality patterns are not due to maturation alone but due to maturation
and learning. If the development is the result of maturation alone, there would not have been
individual personality. The more mature the organism, the less training is needed to reach a given
level of proficiency. Eg. The experiment was conducted by Arnold Gesell on two identical twins
aged 46 weeks. Twin T was given the daily practice of 10 minutes of stair climbing for six
weeks. While another twin C was not given any training in stair climbing. At the end of 6 weeks,
twin T would climb the steps in a little over 25 seconds, while C could not climb. Then T’s
training was discontinued and C was given a training of 2 weeks period. At the end of the period
C could reach the same standard as that T. The difference was due to six weeks of maturation.

8 Importance of Maturation in Learning/अध्ययनात परिपक्वतेचे महत्व स्पष्ट करा.

 ● As defined by Garry and Kingsley “Maturation is the process whereby behaviour is modified
as the result of growth and development of physical structures”.
● When the development results from the growth of the physiological systems, it is called
maturation.
● The two processes maturation and learning are closely related to each other. Maturation helps
in the process of learning. Learning can only take place if the stage for that type of learning has
been achieved through a process of maturation. Ex. If we try to teach a six months child to walk,
the infant cannot learn to walk, since the muscles are not mature enough for the infant to learn to
walk. This particular activity is only possible when the nerves and muscles have attained a
particular stage of maturity and learning.
● Educational Implications
1) The role of maturation and learning helps the parent or the teacher to know as what and when
to begin training.
2) The knowledge of the role played by maturation suggests that if the child is not old or mature
enough to profit from teaching, it has little value for him and the time and effort on the part of the
teacher are wasted.
3) If learning precedes maturation there is more waste of time and energy.
4) Learning should begin when the child is ready to learn. If the child is ready to learn and not
given guidance or training, his interest is likely to wave.

9 Explain the role of Attention in Learning/अध्ययनात अवधानाची भूमिका स्पष्ट करा.

● Ross has defined attention as a process of getting an object of thought clearly before the mind.
● Meaning & Nature/Process of Attention
1) Attention is focusing of consciousness on a particular object: We see a number of things in the
environment at a particular time and are aware or conscious of many of them. Ex while
perceiving the blackboard writing in the classroom, a student is aware of the presence of the
charts hanging on the walls, the teacher, his activities and the activities of the students sitting
beside him. But he is not aware of all these very clearly. At one moment he can be clearly aware
only of this or that object or activity.He is clearly aware of the words and sentences are written
on the blackboard because his consciousness is focused on them.
2) Attention is constantly shifting or fluctuating: Consciousness at a particular moment may be
divided into two parts, central and marginal. At the time when our attention is on the blackboard
and consciousness is focused on it, the other objects and activities in the classroom remain within
the reach of marginal consciousness.This helps in becoming partly conscious or aware of them.
Both these fields of perception and consciousness are interchangeable.The object which is at a
moment within the focus of consciousness can in another moment go under the marginal
consciousness or even beyond that.
Therefore, it is proper to realise attention as a flexible and dynamic process. The subject of
attention generally goes on changing and the object of attention remains the same on which the
consciousness is centred.
 3) Attention is a selective process: At any moment, there are various stimuli in the environment
of an individual which try to affect him. E.g. there may be music coming from a radio, someone
talking or noises coming from the street. Instead of these stimuli affecting the same sense organs,
there may be stimuli affecting us from other sense organs, we may have headaches or feel
extremely cold or hot. All these things make a bid for our attention. Our reaction is selective and
stimuli which suit our interests and attitudes are able to attract attention, others are ignored. The
stimulus which is more important and useful than the other is attended to at once whereas the less
important and significant ones are attended to later on. in this way, attention has a narrow field
and is always selective.
4) Attention is a state of preparedness or alertness: According to Morgan and Gilliland, attention
is a process involving a preparatory adjustment for a response.During this process, the organism
tries to prepare himself or adjust himself to the stimulus situation. In other words, he goes into a
process of physical, mental, and emotional alertness or preparedness. His sense organs adjust
themselves to receive the stimulus more effectively. We may mark him turning his head, or
fixing his eyes towards the object of attention. At this stage of preparedness, one may easily
notice the state of tension in the muscles. We can find familiar instances of it in the military
command of ‘attention’ and the athletic call of ‘ready’. Attention does not only involve motor
preparedness but also brings mental alertness or preparedness. In this way, attention brings on all-
around alertness and preparedness in the organism for accomplishing the task successfully.
● A teacher can succeed in imparting education only when the attention and interests of the
students are directed towards education. The child cannot learn and acquire new adaptations until
he is attentive and interested.

10 “Attention is the selective activity of consciousness or the process of getting an object of thought
clearly”.Justify with respect to nature of Attention.

11 Explain voluntary Attention with examples./ऐच्छिक अवधानाचे स्पष्टीकरण करा

● Whenever we intentionally look or listen, attending is referred to as voluntary. Usually in such
type of attention, we have a clear-cut goal before us and for its accomplishment, we, with all our
efforts, make ourselves attentive.
● There are 2 types of voluntary Attention.
1) Implicit Voluntary attention: In this, attention is obtained by a single act of volition. E.g. When
a child is assigned some math sums in the class, and he does not attend to them, he is warned by
the teacher that he will be punished if he does not do his assigned work. This can make him
exercise his willpower, attend to the assigned task and finish it properly. Here, a single act of will
is responsible for the arousing of attention. Hence, we can say that it is implicit voluntary
attention.
2) Implicit Voluntary attention: In this, attention is captured by repeated acts of will. One has to
struggle hard for keeping oneself attentive. It requires strong willpower, keen attention and strong
 motives for the accomplishment of the task. The attention paid at the time of examination day for
the required preparation against the heavy odds and distraction is a glaring example of such
attention.

12 Explain Involuntary Attention/अनैच्छिक अवधानाचे स्पष्टीकरण करा

● Whenever we suddenly attend to some unexpected stimulus such as a loud noise, a bright flash
of light, or a painful stimulation of any kind, it is called involuntary attention.
● Sometimes the object has striking qualities such as intensity or size which attract our attention.
● The attention which is aroused by the instincts is called enforced involuntary attention.
● The attention which is aroused by sentiments is called spontaneous involuntary attention.
● It is the result of properly developed sentiments. We give some spontaneous attention towards
that object, idea, or person around which our sentiments are formed.
● E.g. a band is playing in our neighbourhood and we attend to it while we are reading a book;
our attention to the band is involuntary or spontaneous.
● E.g.when you are preparing for an examination you are compelled to attend to any sudden
noise in the classroom against your will.
13 Explain Habitual Attention/अभ्यस्त अवधानाचे स्पष्टीकरण करा
● The ideal form of attention is habitual. It is spontaneous;it develops on account of real interest
in the subject.
● This kind of attention is effortless. There is no feeling of strain or effort.
● This type of attention is seen when one develops interest in a subject. The individual is well set
to follow the chosen course of activity with interest.
● E.g. a scientist works in a laboratory for hours together. External stimuli do not distract his
attention. Here, the external stimuli don’t control but the internal stimuli do control attention
14 Importance of Attention/अवधानाचे महत्व स्पष्ट करा.
● By paying attention one tries to apply one’s mental powers as effectively as possible. When learners
concentrate their attention on what is being taught the learning is more effective. Thus, it helps in the
effective teaching-learning process.
● If a learner does not pay attention to what is being said or taught, the message goes to his/her sensory
memory only and gets eliminated before getting transferred to long-term memory. Hence, attention
facilitates memory.
● Learning or acquiring any skill is possible only when an individual is attentive while being taught.
● Paying attention to objects or instruction leads to greater understanding and thus builds one’s interest in
the given subject.
● When one focuses his/her attention on the given topic, it saves time and energy for the teacher or
trainer, speeding up the learning process.
● To be successful, one needs to be attentive and focused in the given or chosen direction. Attention,
therefore, leads to success and achievement.

15 Write any five objective factors of Attention/अवधानाचे वस्तुनिष्ठ घटक लिहा

Ross has defined attention as a process of getting an object of thought clearly before the mind.
Objective Factors of Attention
● Intensity
A strong stimulus is more likely to be noticed than a weak one. A teacher with a loud voice can
attract the attention of students more than a teacher with a soft voice. Also, the brilliant headlight
 of a car catches our attention more easily than the dull lamp of a cycle.
● Size or Extensity
A bigger object captures attention better than a smaller one. Hence, the charts, maps, and models
in the classroom should be big enough to capture the attention of the students. The teacher should
write boldly on the blackboard. e.g. a big advertisement or tall building or an elephant easily
attracts our attention.
● Repetition
If a stimulus is repeated it is likely to attract our attention. Hence, the teacher should make
sectional recapitulations during the lesson. e.g. the alarm of a clock would go unnoticed if it
strikes only once. Also, to attract our attention, advertisers repeat a particular slogan, while
advertising through radio.
● Change
Change attracts our attention. If some change takes place, our attention is automatically focused
on it. Therefore, changes in voice, method, and gestures are necessary for the class. E.g. a
speaker modulates his voice to attract the attention of the audience.
● Movement
Objects in motion attract our attention. A teacher who teaches while standing like a statue at a
place does not inspire students so much as a teacher who moves and acts according to their needs.
E.g.1 a bug goes unnoticed in bed if it is at a standstill, but it catches attention as soon as it starts
moving. E.g.2 a child’s attention is easily attracted by moving rather than by a steady toy in a toy
shop.
● Contrast
Contrast in a natural course attracts our attention. Hence, teachers should sometimes introduce
some points of contrast in their teaching. e.g. 1. An inkblot on a white sari is likely to attract
attention more readily than one on a coloured sari. E.g.2. reptiles are not easily noticed in green
grass. E.g.3. a tall and short person walking together attracts one’s attention.
● Systematic and definite form
An object with a systematic and definite form attracts more than an object with a vague and
indefinite form. Hence, teachers should give definite knowledge. The diagrams on the blackboard
should be complete in form.
● Novelty
New objects easily attract our attention. A teacher who goes to the class with new ideas and new
methods attracts the attention of students. For e.g. a student wearing a western dress with a turban
on their head is likely to attract attention. New fashions in dresses generally become popular
because of some novelty, which attracts the attention of the customer.
16 Write any five subjective factors of Attention/अवधानाचे व्यक्तिनिष्ठ घटक लिहा
Ross has defined attention as a process of getting an object of thought clearly before the mind.
Subjective Factors of Attention
● Interest
Interest and attention go side by side. Interest is a powerful dedicator in the ‘real of attention’.
According to McDougall, “interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action”. Hence, it
is an interest which inspires attention. So, the teacher should make his lesson interesting. He must
pay attention towards the interests of the students. E.g. a hungry child pays attention to food, a
cat looks for mice, a mother pays attention to her sick child, etc.
● Temporary or momentary need
 In a shop, the article you wish to buy catches your eye, even though other articles are more
prominently displayed. The advertisement “situation vacant” though printed in a very small type
attracts the attention of a person seeking a job.
● Temperament
People of different temperaments attend different objects. An extrovert will attend to socially
attractive things, while an introvert will not even notice their existence.
● Habits
Habit is also a great incentive for attention. if we have been habituated to a particular thing, our
attention is immediately attracted by it. Hence, suitable habits should be inculcated in children.
● Instincts
Instincts are the “prime movers” of our behaviour. So, the things which appeal to our instincts
attract our attention. Hence, the teacher should appeal to the instincts of the students in order to
catch their attention and make the lesson a success.
● Sentiments
Tasks which are connected with our emotions attract our attention. The people who are
sentimental about books will attend books at the bookstall and the religious-minded will attend
religious institutions and discourses. Hence, the teacher should appeal to the sentiments of the
students.
17 What is the relationship between Attention and Interest?/अवधान आणि अभिरुची यात काय संबंध आहे ?
There is a significant difference between attention and interest. Attention may be a particular
object or idea of thought in the environment. Attention is an active state of mind which involves
organization, concertation and selection of the object in the environment. A particular thing,
person, sound etc, attracts our attention. We focus our attention on a particular thing or idea.
Interest on the other hand is an innate and instinctive state of mind which remains dormant in the
individual.’ Mc Dougall’ has pointed out that interest is the latent state of our attention. So, the
basic cause of our attention is that of interest. We do not pay attention to anything that does not
interest us. Interest impels us to attention.According to Mc Dougall, ‘interest is latent attention
and attention is interest in action. ‘In the absence of interest, one is not able to attend. Interest is
the course of attention no doubt, but it should be noted that attention may also be the cause of
interest in the individual mind. A man may not have interest in mind, but due to voluntary
attention, the object, at last, appears as interesting to him.
So, from the above discussion, it is evident that there is a close relationship between interest and
attention. Both are dependent on each other. Ross has pointed out that attention and interest are
like two sides of the same coin. So, we may say that interest helps to create attention. Where
there is interest, there is attention. Similarly, where there is attention, there is interest.
18 What is the relationship between Attention and Interest? As a teacher how will you make
your lecture interesting?
There is a significant difference between attention and interest. Attention may be a particular
object or idea of thought in the environment. Attention is an active state of mind which involves
organization, concertation and selection of the object in the environment. A particular thing,
person, sound etc, attracts our attention. We focus our attention on a particular thing or idea.
Interest on the other hand is an innate and instinctive state of mind which remains dormant in the
individual.' McDougall has pointed out that interest is the latent state of our attention.
So, the basic cause of our attention is that of interest
 We do not pay attention to anything that does not interest us. Interest impels us to attention.
According to McDougall, interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action. In the
absence of interest, one is not able to attend. Interest is the course of attention no doubt, but it
should be noted that attention may also be the cause of interest in the individual mind. A man
may not have interest in mind, but due to voluntary attention, the object, at last, appears as
interesting to him.
So, from the above discussion it is evident that there is a close relationship between interest and
attention, Both are dependent on each other, Ross has pointed out that attention and interest are
like two sides of the same coin. So we may say that interest helps to create attention. Where there
is interest, there is attention. Similarly, where there is attention, there is interest

19 “Interest and attention as the two faces of a coin” Justify.

There is a significant difference between attention and interest. Attention may be a particular
object or idea of thought in the environment. Attention is an active state of mind which involves
organization, concertation and selection of the object in the environment. A particular thing,
person, sound etc, attracts our attention. We focus our attention on a particular thing or idea.
Interest on the other hand is an innate and instinctive state of mind which remains dormant in the
individual.' McDougall has pointed out that interest is the latent state of our attention.
So, the basic cause of our attention is that of interest
We do not pay attention to anything that does not interest us. Interest impels us to attention.
According to McDougall, interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action. In the
absence of interest, one is not able to attend. Interest is the course of attention no doubt, but it
should be noted that attention may also be the cause of interest in the individual mind. A man
may not have interest in mind, but due to voluntary attention, the object, at last, appears as
interesting to him.
So, from the above discussion it is evident that there is a close relationship between interest and
attention, Both are dependent on each other, Ross has pointed out that attention and interest are
like two sides of the same coin. So we may say that interest helps to create attention. Where there
is interest, there is attention. Similarly, where there is attention, there is interest

20 What is meant by motivation?/प्रेरणा म्हणजे काय?

Learning takes place as a result of a response to some stimulation. Unless the individual has some
unsatisfied needs or drive which causes him to act in an attempt to satisfy the need, no learning
will take place. The direction of learning will depend upon the relative strength of motives. The
stronger the motive more is the curiosity to learn new things.
Types of Motivation:-
Motivation can be broadly classified into 2 types
1. Natural or Intrinsic Motivation
2. Artificial or Extrinsic Motivation
1. Natural or Intrinsic Motivation- it is directly linked to the natural instincts and urges and
implies the organism. The individual, who is naturally motivated, performs an act because he
finds interest in the activity. He is engaged in learning something because he derives pleasure
from learning that thing. The activity carries its own reward and the individual takes a genuine
interest in performing the activity due to some outside motives & goals.
 E.g. when a student tries to solve a mathematical problem and derives pleasure in the task of
solving it or tries to read poetry and the reading itself gives him pleasure lies within the activities.
So, we can say that he is intrinsically or naturally motivated. He solves the problems or reads the
poetry for its own sake. Suck types of motivation have real value in the learning task as it creates
spontaneous attention & interest & sustains it throughout.
2. Artificial or Extrinsic Motivation- in such motivation the source of pleasure does not lie
within the task. Such kind of motivation has no functional relation to the task. Here the individual
does not learn something, not for its own sake, but as a means of obtaining desired goals or
getting some external rewards. Working for a better grade or honour, learning a skill to earn a
livelihood receiving praise and blame, rewards and punishment etc. all belong to this category. In
comparison to Extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation as a source of spontaneous inspiration
stimulation brings results in the teaching-learning process. Therefore, it is always better to make
use of Intrinsic motivation.
21 Write any five motivational classroom techniques./कोणतीही पाच प्रेरणादायी वर्ग तंत्रे लिहा.
Students in the classroom learning need constant motivation from the teachers so that optimum
use of their talents may be made for their development. Motivation is fundamentally dependent
on an individual’s needs and drives. These drives produce a willingness to learn. The teacher
should therefore organise the activities in such a way that they will appeal to the needs. In other
words, every individual pupil should be led towards the goal that he is unaware of and
will want to attain.
Secondly, Goals should be within each pupil's reach and should seem attainable to him. Thirdly,
he should be able to judge whether he is attaining his goals or not and how he is falling short.
Fourthly, a teacher should not rigidly and strictly adhere to one technique of motivation but he
should make use of all techniques judiciously and scientifically.
1. Competition:- Competition means the desire to excel over others. It has been employed as a
strong motivating force in learning and is generally very effective. Hence, the teacher should
inculcate the spirit of competition among students. It can be among individuals as well as among
peer groups. It works well provided the individual competing may take place in one of two
forms:-
● Competition against another person, (or)
● Competition against one’s own need or record.
In the former form of competition, there lies a danger of developing undesirable habits in the
individual as he may resort to unfair means of excelling others. The other form of competition
stimulates the learner to compete with his own past record. It sets him on the path of self-learning
and provides intrinsic motivation. Therefore the teacher should try to inculcate the feeling of self-
improvement in the learner. A wise teacher should try to make use of the competition
based on cooperation and we-feeling.
Advantages of competition:-
a. It provides zest and feeling to life.
b. It is positive and satisfies basic urges.
c. It stimulates growth, development and maturation
d. It builds up morale and ego maximization.
e. It could lead to self-improvement, or competition can be against oneself as well as others.
2. knowledge of progress:-
Pupils' knowledge of their progress, of how well they are moving towards their good is a very
effective form of motivation. It also helps them to put in greater effort. Individual progress charts
not only inform a child as to how he is doing but also how he keeps the child involved in learning
activities. Children are said to learn better through programmed learning because they get
immediate information about success or failure. It will arouse curiosity, interest and enthusiasm
in the students. Immediate knowledge of the results provides sufficient feedback to the learner. It
does not only acquaint him with his success or failure but makes him able to plan his further
attempts in reaching specific goals. The teacher should make provisions for acquainting the
students well with their progress for this purpose Report cards should be maintained in the
school.
3. Praise and Reproof or blame: -Both raise and reproof are potent incentives. They can be
safely used for the achievement of desired motivation in classroom situations. Which one of these
incentives will prove more effective depends upon the personality of the learner as well as the
person who gives them. In the case of some individuals both praise and reproof work while
others respond best to one or other. Generally, those having feelings of adequacy respond more
favourably to praise and those who are self-assured work harder after criticism. The way in which
these incentives are given or repeated by the teacher also counts. They must either satisfy or
threaten our security or one or more of our other motives. A teacher should never hesitate to
confer praise when it is deserved. It is also important to note that whereas praise tends to be
cumulative in its effects, reproof if overdone, loses its effectiveness and is taken by students as a
matter of routine. In this way, the teacher must try to recognise the nature of the students and
consequently make use of the praise or reproof in motivating and inspiring them. Following a
pupil's answer, the teacher verbally indicates pleasure at the pupil's response by the use of words
like ‘good’, ‘Fair’, ‘ Excellent’, ‘Correct’, etc.
4. Reward and Punishment:- Both of these are powerful incentives and try to influence the
future conduct (or) learning of an organism favourably while punishment as a negative motive is
based on fear of failure, fear of physical pain.Motive seeks to influence conduct favourably by
associating a pleasant feeling with the desired action.
As far as possible, the use of punishment as a motivating agent should be avoided as it kills
initiative, leadership, resourcefulness and the spirit of free thinking and adventurous living. On
the other hand, the rewards like prizes, honours, certificates, medals etc. have psychological
value and develop the student’s creative abilities, the spirit of emulation, self-confidence and
self-respect and other democratic feelings.
But punishment should not be taken as a rule and should be denied in all circumstances and never
be given to anybody. In some cases, it brings more improvement than reward.
For e.g. A student may strive hard to get the gold medal but in doing so he may be interested, not
in learning but in the medal. Therefore the teacher should be careful in using rewards (or)
punishment as an incentive to motivate his students.
Advantages of Rewards:-
Being pleasant, they generate interest & enthusiasm.
They appeal to ego-maximisation & develop high morale.
They create a pleasant association which helps in repeating the desired activity.
Disadvantages of Rewards:-
They encourage the wrong attitude of expecting something for nothing.
They afford the temptation to cheat.
They are mostly extrinsic in motivating the pupil towards winning a prize instead of cultivating a
taste for the thing itself.
 The majority of the pupils of the average level do not evoke any interest in winning rewards.
Advantages of Punishment:-
They often act as a deterrent.
They serve as a form of discipline.
They are specifically useful if –
They appear as natural consequences of the undesirable act.
They are used in combination with rewards.
The child can be made to realize that it is the undesirable act and not himself that is being
punished
Disadvantages of Punishment:-
They are based on fear which is not a healthy emotion.
They lose effectiveness if the child is no longer afraid.
They create unpleasant things that are negative and associated with failure.
They may endanger ill will towards teachers and society.
They are likely to reinforce the undesirable conduct by overemphasis.
The results of punishment are not always permanent.
5. Success and Failure: - the urge to succeed or to avoid failure is a fundamental drive in an
individual’s life. Research has shown that individuals reach new heights as a result of their
continued success and that they reach new lows as a result of their continued failure. If a child
succeeds in solving a mechanical puzzle, he is motivated to try it again. Nothing succeeds like
success. Success and failure are related to the level of aspiration. These depend not only upon the
actual achievements of an individual but on the goals and expectations which he has set for him,
teacher should help each student to set an appropriate goal. The teacher should set the goal in
such a way that the student will not need to meet with continuous failures. There should be a
balanced diet of success & failures, with success predominating.

22 Educational Implications of Motivation./प्रेरणेचे शैक्षणिक उपयोजन

1. Teachers should make the teaching child-centred. He should teach according to the capacities,
abilities, aptitudes and interests of the students.
2. It is better to use positive methods like praise, reward, self and group competitions, knowledge
of progress etc. Fewer harm accrues from these.
3. Teachers should help the students to be clear about their goals. Various motives should be
directed towards the fulfilment of a major goal.
4. Over-motivation is as bad as a lack of motivation. Spurring a child on to aim at doing more
than what he is capable of doing makes him feel bewildered at his failure blaming him for failure
to achieve something beyond, capacity makes him frustrated.
5. Teachers should understand the child’s abilities and aim at developing their interests in those
areas in which they have some natural talent. In this way one can insure that they are intrinsically
motivated to work in those fields for e.g. A child who does well in games will certainly face
failure in mathematics with greater calm & also accept more easily that there is a need to master
at least the basics of mathematics with conscious effort.
6. The various measures suggested above are effective only when administrated immediately.
E.g. if we punish a dog for soiling a carpet ten days later, the poor animal does not even realise
why it is being punished. The punishment fails to associate itself with the cause. Similarly, both
praise & blame lose their effectiveness if a lot of time is allowed to lapse between the event & the
 administrator of praise or reproof. Students are very eager to know the results of periodical tests.
The teacher should appreciate the students’ performance as early as possible.
7. Knowledge of progress be given to the pupils at a suitable time.
8. Teacher should try his best to improve the system of evaluation. Occasional & frequent tests
are arranged.
23 Write Maslow’s hierarchical set of 5 basic needs./5 मूलभूत गरजांचा मास्लोचा श्रेणीबद्ध संच लिहा
Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs is one of the best-known theories of motivation and is
represented in the form of pyramid
1. Physiological needs
- Physiological needs are the basic needs which are vital for our survival. Some examples of
physiological needs are food, water, breathing etc
- In addition to basic requirements of nutrition, air, temperature regulation, shelter, and clothing
are also part of physiological needs.
- Maslow also includes sexual reproduction in this level since it is essential for the propagation of
species
2.Security and safety needs
At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary. People want to control and order
their lives. So, the need for safety and security contributes largely to behaviours at this level.
Some of the basic security and safety needs include financial security, health and wellness, safety
against accidents and injury, finding a job obtaining health insurance and health care,
contributing money to a savings account and moving into a safer neighbourhood are all examples
of actions motivated by security and safety needs.
3. Social needs
The social needs in Maslow's hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance, and belonging.
At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behaviour.
Some of the things that satisfy this need include friendships, romantic, attachments, family, social
groups, community groups, churches and religious organizations.
In order to avoid problems such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for people
to feel loved and accepted by others.
4. Esteem needs
At the fourth level in Maslow's hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. Once the needs
at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a more prominent
role in motivating behaviour.
At this level, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of others.
People have a need to accomplish things, and then have their efforts recognized. In addition to
the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, esteem needs include such things as self-
esteem and personal worth.
* Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team
participation, and personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling esteem needs.
5. Self-actualization needs
- At the very peak of Maslow's hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. Self-actualizing people
are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and
interested in fulfilling their potential
-According to Maslow's definition of self-actualization,
"It may be loosely described as
 the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, potentialities, etc. Such people seem to be
fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing. They are people who
have developed or are developing to the full stature of which they
are capable."

24 What is Emotional Quotient?/भावनिक बुद्धिमत्ता म्हणजे काय

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions in
positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome
challenges and defuse conflict.
Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and behavioural science journalist, popularized the term
emotional intelligence and developed related concepts in his influential book.
Emotional Intelligence (1995). In Working with Emotional Intelligence (1998), Goleman
explored the function of El on the job. According to Goleman, emotional intelligence is the
largest single predictor of success in the workplace.
Goleman and others have developed the concept of a testable EQ (emotional intelligence
quotient) counterpart to the IQ (intelligence quotient). In contrast to the focus on academically-
oriented skills, such as mathematical ability, that are evaluated in an IQ test, an EQ test focuses
more on the individual's capacity to deal effectively with others.
To that end. it evaluates traits and abilities such as self-awareness and empathy, which are
sometimes referred to as soft skills.
- Goleman describes emotional intelligence as "managing feelings so that they are expressed
appropriately and effectively, enabling people to work together smoothly toward their common
goals."
According to Goleman, the four major skills that make up emotional intelligence are:
1. Self-awareness - You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and
behaviour. You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self-confidence.
2. Social awareness - You have empathy. You can understand the emotions, needs, and concerns
of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and recognize the power
dynamics in a group or organization.
3. Self-management - You're able to control impulsive feelings and behaviour, manage your
emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt to changing
circumstances.
4. Relationship management - You know how to develop and maintain good relationships,
communicate clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and manage conflict.

25 Educational implication of Kolb’s theory/कोल्बच्या उपपत्तीचे शैक्षणिक उपयोजन

- Kolb’s learning stages and the cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning
provision available to students.
To develop more appropriate learning opportunities activities designed and carried out in a way
that offers the chance to the learner in a way that best suits them.
Teachers can identify the most preferred learning style of students and plan the lesson and
strengthen these learning patterns.
Activities/materials should be developed in ways that draw activities from each stage (of the
experimental learning cycle) and make sure to take students through the whole process in
 sequence.

26 Educational implication of Multiple intelligence/बहुविविध उपपत्तीचे शैक्षणिक उपयोजन

Accepting Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for teachers in
terms of classroom instruction. The theory states that all seven bits of intelligence are needed to
productively function in society. Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligence as equally
important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which typically place a strong
emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical intelligence. Thus, the Theory
of Multiple Intelligences implies that educators should recognize and teach a broader range of
talents and skills.
Teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style which engages most or all of the
intelligence. When teaching about the revolutionary war, a teacher can show students battle
maps, play revolutionary war songs, organize a role play of the signing of the Declaration of
Independence, and have the students read a novel about life during that period. This kind of
presentation not only excites students about learning but also allows a teacher to reinforce the
same material in a variety of ways. By activating a wide assortment of intelligence, teaching in
this manner can facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject material. Everyone is born
possessing the nine intelligences. Nevertheless, all students will come into the classroom with
different sets of developed intelligence. This means that each child will have his own unique set
of intellectual strengths and weaknesses. These sets determine how easy (or difficult) it is for a
student to learn information when it is presented in a particular manner. This is commonly
referred to as a learning style. Many learning styles can be found within one classroom.
Therefore, it is impossible, as well as impractical, for a teacher to accommodate every lesson to
all of the learning styles found within the classroom.
Nevertheless, the teacher can show students how to use their more developed intelligence to
assist in understanding a subject which normally employs their weaker intelligence (Lazear,
1992). For example, the teacher can suggest that an especially musically intelligent child learns
about the revolutionary war by making up a song about what happened.
27 Educational Implications of Maslow’s Theory./मास्लोच्या उपपत्तीचे शैक्षणिक उपयोजन
- To maintain physiological needs in the classroom, the teacher must be aware of student’s need;
students should also inform teachers about their needs e.g a tired and hungry child would not be
able to focus in learning, so he should be first feed.
The classroom must be a place free from physical bullying; students need to feel emotionally and
physically accepted in the classroom to reach their full potential.
Group exercise can increase the feeling of belongingness, to support friendships between peers.
Students must be shown that they are valued and respected, by encouraging them and also not
putting them in embarrassing situations.
Teachers should boost the self-esteem of students by encouraging their work and giving them
opportunities to step into real-world scenarios to achieve their higher potential.
28 Write four pillars of Education/शिक्षणाचे चार स्तंभ लिहा.
In order that the essence of the four ‘pillars of learning’ be appropriately interpreted, a brief
snapshot follows what each relates to in terms of educational context.
Learning to know: This type of learning is radically different from ‘acquiring itemized codified
information or factual knowledge’, as often stressed in conventional curriculum and in ‘rote
learning’. Rather it implies ‘the mastering of the instruments of knowledge themselves’.
‘Acquiring knowledge is a never-ending process and can be enriched by all forms of experience’.
‘Learning to know’ includes the development of the faculties of memory, imagination,
reasoning,problem-solving, and the ability to think in a coherent and critical way. It is ‘a process
of discovery, which takes time and involves going more deeply into the information/knowledge
delivered through subject teaching. ‘Learning to know’ presupposes learning to learn’, calling
upon the power of concentration, memory and thought’, so as to benefit from ongoing
educational opportunities continuously arising (formally and non-formally) throughout life.
Therefore ‘learning to know’ can be regarded as both a means and an end in learning itself and in
life. As a means, it serves to enable individual learners to understand very least enough about
nature, humankind and its history, about his/her environment, and about society at large. In an
end, it enables the learner to experience the pleasure of knowing, discovering and understanding
as a process.
Learning to do: This pillar of learning implies in the first place the application of what learners
have learned or known into practice; it is closely linked to vocational-technical education and
work skills training. However, it goes beyond narrowly defined skills development for ‘doing’
specific things or practical tasks in traditional or industrial economies. The emerging knowledge-
based economy is making human work increasingly immaterial. ‘Learning to do’ calls for new
types of skills, more behavioural than intellectual. Material and technology are becoming
secondary to human qualities and interpersonal relationships. Learning to do thus implies a shift
from skill to competence, or a mix of higher-order skills specific to each individual. ‘The
ascendancy of knowledge and information as factors of production systems is making the idea of
occupational skills obsolete and is bringing personal competency to the fore’. Thus ‘learning to
do’ means, among other things, the ability to communicate effectively with others; aptitude
toward teamwork; social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relations; adaptability to
change in the world of work and in social life; competency in transforming knowledge into
innovations and job-creation; and a readiness to take risks and resolve or manage conflicts.
Learning to live together: In the context of increasing globalization, the Delors Commission
places a special emphasis on this pillar of learning. It implies an education taking two
complementary paths: on one level, the discovery of others and on another, the experience of
shared purposes throughout life. Specifically, it implies the development of such qualities as
knowledge and understanding of self and others; appreciation of the diversity of the human race
and an awareness of the similarities between, and the interdependence of, all humans; empathy
and cooperative social behaviour in caring and sharing; respect of other people and their cultures
and value systems; capability of encountering others and resolving conflicts through dialogue;
and competency in working towards common objectives.
Learning to be: This type of learning was first conceptualized in the Report to UNESCO in
1972, Learning To Be (Edgar Faure et al), out of the fear that ‘the world would be dehumanized
as a result of technical change’. It was based on the principle that ‘the aim of development is the
complete fulfilment of man, in all the richness of his personality, the complexity of his forms of
expression and his various commitments – as an individual, member of a family and of a
community, citizen and producer, inventor of techniques and creative dreamer’. ‘Learning to be’
may therefore be interpreted in one way as learning to be human, through the acquisition of
knowledge, skills and values conducive to personality development in its intellectual, moral,
cultural and physical dimensions. This implies a curriculum aiming at cultivating qualities of
 imagination and creativity; acquiring universally shared human values; developing aspects of a
person’s potential: memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacity and
communication/social skills; developing critical thinking and exercising independent judgment;
and developing personal commitment and responsibility. It is important to note that the four
pillars of learning relate to all phases and areas of education. They support and interpenetrate one
another and should therefore be applied as basic principles, cross-cutting themes and generic
competencies for integration in and across subject areas of learning domains.

29 Define learning, unlearning and relearning.अध्ययन न-अध्ययन आणि अध्ययनाची पुनरावृत्ती ची व्याख्या.
Learning is the key process in human behaviour. Parents and teachers always show concern for
children’s learning. Learning influences our skills, language, attitudes, interests and even our
goals. Learning in the simplest sense is the modification of behaviour as the result of experience.
Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a
result of experience (or) practice.
Daniel Bell, in Encyclopaedia of Psychology says that learning is modification due to energies of
the organism and environment impinging on the organism itself.
Gates says that learning is modification of behaviour through experience.
Crow and Crow are of the view that learning involves the acquisition of habits, Knowledge and
attitudes.
Skinner includes in learning both acquisition and retention.
According to Garry and Kingsley, learning is a process by which behaviour is originated (or)
changed through practice (or) training.
Learn: To gain or acquire knowledge of or skill in (something) by study, experience, or being
taught.
Unlearn: To discard (something learned, especially false or outdated information) from one's
memory.
Relearn: To learn (something) again.
The world we are living in is fast and dynamic, where change remains the only constant. So, to
change, what is important is the attitude to learn. In a way, rather than piling up information, we
must be prepared to do away with (unlearn) old methods and adopt (relearn) new ones to boost
our career growth
Surrounded by like-minded people hampers unlearning. So, learn from your opposite i.e.
professionals from different backgrounds.

Unit 2

31 Five ways of applying Skinner’s theory in the classroom/वर्गात स्किनरचा सिद्धांत लागू करण्याचे पाच मार्ग.
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning, which is why it is also referred to
as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviourist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and
motivations could not be used to explain behaviour.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behaviour. Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behaviour that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained how
 we acquire the range of learned behaviours we exhibit each and every day.
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.
Formulating the hypothesis and implementing the intervention programmes also implies the use
of reinforcement techniques:
(a) Positive reinforcers:
The teacher should use positive reinforcers to influence behaviours.
(b) Appropriate reinforcer:
The reinforcer should be selected that is appropriate for the behaviour. No one reinforcer is likely
to work in all situations. Variation in the reinforcer may be effective.
(c) No demand for too much effort:
The teacher should not demand too much effort for too little reward. Positive reinforcers are
effective because children derive certain benefits from them. Children assess these benefits
against the effort it took them to obtain a reinforcer.
(d)Immediate reinforcement:
The teacher should reinforce a behaviour immediately after it occurs because the association
between a behaviour and the reward is easily made at this time.
(e) Reinforcing successive approximation to goal behaviour:
The teacher should reinforce each successive approximation to the goal behaviour. When a
student shows little success, his success must be rewarded. Instead of waiting for the complete
behaviour, the teacher should reinforce components of the total behaviour. This is known as
shaping behaviour.
(f) Continuous reinforcement to partial reinforcement:
Once the goal behaviour is acquired, the teacher should gradually make a shift from continuous
reinforcement to intermittent schedules. If the teacher abruptly stops reinforcing the behaviour,
extinction is likely to occur. The purpose of shifting from continuous reinforcement to partial
reinforcement is to bring the behaviour under self-reinforcement or self-control.
(g) Attention to desirable behaviour:
The teacher should usually try to catch the child doing the right thing rather than the wrong thing
and thus calls attention to desirable behaviours, not undesirable ones.
(h) Praise the behaviour:
The teacher should praise the behaviour, not the child.
(viii) Keeps records of progress and checks the result:
The teacher needs to record the student’s progress towards achieving a goal. Keeping records of a
student's progress will allow the teacher to assess if his plan is working.

32 Write any five educational implications of Bandura’s theory of social learning./बंडु राच्या सामाजिक
शिक्षणाच्या उपपत्तीचे कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन लिहा.
 Albert Bandura, a psychologist and learning theorist who first proposed social learning theory
can be credited for first having noted observational learning. It is a powerful tool of
psychological enquiry. Observation is one of the oldest techniques of data collection that man has
made use of. Observational studies allow researchers to document behaviour in a natural setting
and witness events that could not be produced in a lab.
Observation allows researchers to experience a specific aspect of social life and get a firsthand
look at a trend, institution, or behaviour. Participant observation involves the researcher joining a
sample of individuals without interfering with that group’s normal activities in order to document
their routine behaviour or observe them in a natural context.
Observation is defined as,
“Measurement without instruments
Bandura’s Social learning theory has numerous classroom implications
1. Students learn by simply observing others, so we teachers are the role model of students. We
must be good at Mannering in front of children.
2. Describing the consequences of behaviour increasing appropriate behaviour, decreasing
inappropriate behaviours; this includes discussing the rewards of various behaviours
3. Modelling such as attention, retention, reproduction and motivation provides an alternative to
teaching new behaviours
4. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing a task, it is important to develop
a sense of self-efficacy
5. Teachers should help students self realistic expectations; ensure that expectations are realistic
and challenging
6. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving students’ behaviours.
7. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and be careful that they do not model
inappropriate behaviour
8. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.
For example, a student who is praised for raising their hand to speak will more than likely repeat
that behaviour. Additionally, other students will follow suit and raise their hands after observing
that the behaviour elicited a positive outcome.
We can conclude from the above points, Bandura’s Social learning theory is one of the most
influential theories of learning and development. This theory states people can learn new
information and behaviour by watching other people, this type of learning can be used to explain
a wide variety of behaviour.

33 Write the principles of operant conditioning/साधक अभिसंधानाची तत्वे लिहा

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning, which is why it is also referred to
 as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviourist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and
motivations could not be used to explain behaviour.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behaviour. Skinner used operant to refer to any "active behaviour that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explains how we
acquire the range of learned behaviours we exhibit each and every day.
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
Extinction – When a previously reinforced behaviour decreases in frequency and eventually
ceases altogether because reinforcement is withheld • Spontaneous
Recovery – When an extinguished behaviour reappears without having been reinforced
Shaping – Reducing complex behaviours into a sequence of more simple behaviours –
Reinforcing successive approximations to the complex behaviour
Generalization – When an individual learns to make a particular response to a particular
stimulus and then makes the same or a similar response in a slightly different situation
Discrimination – When an individual learns to notice the unique aspects of seemingly similar
situations and thus responds differently
Educational Applications
In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and
student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill
performance.
A simple way to shape behaviour is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g.,
compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable ratio produces the highest
response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initial reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs
at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until
eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.
For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should
praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the
teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional
answers will be praised.

34 Any five educational implications of Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning/स्किनरच्या साधक

अभिसंधान कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन लिहा.
The implication of the theory of operant conditioning:
1. Conditioning study behaviour: Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of
reinforcement, which expedite learning. For effective teaching, teachers should arrange effective
contingencies of reinforcement. Example: For Self-learning a student teacher should reinforce
student behaviour through a variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate
patting on the back or by giving higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behaviour: During the learning process children acquire
unpleasant experiences also. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and
 the classroom and the learner dislikes the subject and the teacher. Suitable behavioural
contingencies, an atmosphere of recognition, acceptance, affection and esteem helps a child in
approaching the teacher and the subject. If a student is not serious about studying, the teacher
makes use of negative reinforcement like showing negligence, criticizing the student etc. but if
the student is serious in study, the teacher makes use of positive reinforcement like prizes,
medals, praise and smile.
3. Managing Problem Behaviour: Two types of behaviour are seen in the classroom via
undesired behaviour and problematic behaviour. Operant conditioning is a behaviour therapy
technique that shapes students' behaviour. For this teacher should admit positive contingencies
like praise, encouragement etc. for learning. One should not admit negative contingencies.
Example punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary classes – escape
stimulation.
4. Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through conditioning fear, anxieties,
prejudices, attitudes, and perceptual meaning develops. Examples of anxiety are signals on the
road, sirens blown during wartime, and a child receiving a painful injection from a doctor.
Anxiety is a generalized fear response. To break the habits of fear, a teacher should use
desensitization techniques. Initially, teachers should provide a very weak form of the conditioned
stimulus. Gradually the strength of the stimulus should be increased.
5. Conditioning group behaviour: Conditioning makes the entire group learn and a complete
change in behaviour is seen due to reinforcement. It breaks undesired and antisocial behaviour
too.
Example: Putting questions or telling lies to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such
circumstances students learn to keep mum in class. Asking questions, and active participation in
class discussions will make the teacher feel happy – interaction will increase and the teaching-
learning process becomes more effective.
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different forms, for the
progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When the response is correct, positive
reinforcement is given. Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of January
is rewarded in the month of December. To overcome this Programme instruction is used. This
subject matter is broken down into steps. Organizing in logical sequence helps in learning. Each
step is built upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process of learning. Immediate
reinforcement is given at each step.
7. Shaping Complex Behaviour: Complex behaviour exists in the form of a chain of small
behaviour. Control is required for such behaviour. This extended form of learning is the shaping
technique. The smallest Behaviour is controlled at the initial stage. On behalf of different
contingencies, the next order of the chain of behaviours is controlled. Example: Vocabulary in
English. Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex forms of behaviour.

35 Write the principles of Classical conditioning/अभिजात अभिसंधानाची तत्वे लिहा

 Classical Conditioning theory was developed by Russian physiologist and Nobel Prize winner
Ivan P. Pavlov.
To explain his theory of classical conditioning, Pavlov gave some principles of conditioning.
1. Principle of Reinforcement – It refers to the following of conditional stimulus by the
unconditioned stimulus i.e., food following the bell. Children’s learning becomes effective when
they are rewarded immediately after a good performance.
2. Principle of Sequence and Time Interval - There is an optimal time between the presentation
of the conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned stimuli.
3. Principle of Stimulus Generalization - If we are conditioned to one thing i.e., the bell, then
we would be conditioned to all sorts of bells. The response was the greatest to the conditioned
stimulus and went on decreasing to other stimuli which were less like the original one.
4. Principle of Differentiation/ Discrimination – When two stimuli are sufficiently
distinguishable, a living being can be conditioned to respond to one of them. For e.g., this is how
one learns to differentiate between different brands of tea or coffee.
5. Principle of Extinction – A conditioned response will disappear over time when the
conditioned stimulus is no longer presented.
6. Principle of Spontaneous Recovery – There is no complete extinction on account of the time
interval but there is inhibition of conditional response.
7. Principle of inhibition - Inhibition may be defined as a process in which a stimulus inhibits a
response that would otherwise occur.
8. Principle of Higher-Order Conditioning – When a neutral stimulus can cause the conditional
response if it had been associated with the conditional stimulus.
9. Principle of Secondary Reinforcement - Conditional Response is established to some
stimulus other than the primary one. E.g., food elicited salivation. Secondary reinforcement plays
an important role in later learning esp. in the case of children when the reward may be no more
than a kind word or some other gesture or some token reward.
10. Principle of Age and Conditioning – The process of conditioning is valuable at all ages but
especially in early childhood.

36 Write the phases of Social Learning/सामाजिक अध्ययनाचे टप्पे लिहा

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviourist learning theories of
classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:
Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour. For a behaviour to
be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviours on a daily basis, and
many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a
behaviour influences others to imitate it.
2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered? The behaviour may be noticed but is
 not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a
memory of the behaviour is formed to be performed later by the observer. Much of social
learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the
behaviour is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just
demonstrated. We see such behaviour on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate
but this is not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason,
even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour, we cannot. This influences our decisions whether
to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old lady who struggles to walk
while watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she
will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and punishments that follow
a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the
perceived costs (if there are any), then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the
observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer,
then they will not imitate the behaviour

37 Steps of Bandura’s social learning theory/बंडु राच्या सामाजिक शिक्षणाच्या उपपत्तीचे सोपान.
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour. For a behaviour to
be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviours on a daily basis,
and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in
whether a behaviour influences others imitating it.
2. Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may be noticed but
is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important
therefore that a memory of the behaviour is formed to be performed later by the
observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those
cases. Even if the behaviour is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a
memory to refer to.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just
demonstrated. We see such behaviour on a daily basis that we would like to be able to
imitate but this is not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for
that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour, we cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the
scenario of a 90-year-old lady who struggles to walk while watching Dancing on Ice. She
may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it
because she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and punishments that
 follow a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards
outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behaviour will be more likely
to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be
important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behaviour.

38 Write any five educational implications of Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning/पाव्हलॉवच्या

अभिजात अभिसंधानची कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन लिहा.
1. Theory of Reward and Punishment:
The theory of reward and punishment is also based on conditioning. Children know that they will
be punished as a result of wrong actions and they will be rewarded as a result of good deeds.
Thus, for the conditioning of the child, it is essential to punish him for his misdeeds and give him
rewards for distinctions. This thing motivates the children in the classroom.
2. Useful in Language Learning:
The teacher can utilize this conditioning method in the classroom for teaching the languages.
Conditioning is much useful in language training, particularly Sanskrit language. The correct use
of the language makes the child conditioned for the use of that particular language. Apart from
the Sanskrit language, this conditioning method is quite effective in the learning of subjects like
Mathematics.
3. Helpful in Removal of Superstitions:
A teacher can make use of the conditioning method to eliminate the superstitions of the children.
Certain superstitions like sneezing and passing the cat across your way etc. can be removed by
this method. The teacher has to develop faith in the children through conditioning that such types
of superstitions have no place in real-life situations. They have to be pulled out of his false orbit.
4. Development of Attitudes:
Conditioning may help the child in breaking negative and promote attitudes. In short, good and
bad habits may be developed in the child through this method of conditioning. Proper habits can
be formed by providing education on positive behaviour and values to the child. Thus, a teacher
should present himself before the children as an ideal. Conditioning between good examples and
responses of the children will help in developing a healthy attitude in the child.
5. Helpful in Adjustment:
The conditioning method helps the child in adjusting to various types of environments. The
beginning of this takes place with the adjustment of the child in classroom conditions and school
circumstances. Later, he applies all this to make adjustments in real-life challenging situations. It
is the conditioning only that enables the child to make a way in difficult and odd circumstances.
6. Use of Audio-Visual Aids:
The use of audio-visual aids in the classroom can be made effective through conditioning. For
example, if the word parrot is to be taught to the children in the class, then the picture of the
parrot must be shown to them along with the word written on the Blackboard. Children will
speak that word after looking at the picture. Then the picture is removed and the children will
 repeat only the written word. Thus, the children could learn to speak the word parrot as a result of
conditioning.
7. Arousal of Fear, Love and Jealousy:
The conditioning helps in accelerating the development of fear, love and jealousy among the
students in the classroom. For instance, if a teacher beats any child excessively or he makes fun
of him in the midst of his classmates, then, quite naturally that child will show fear or jealousy
for that teacher even after hearing his name only. On the contrary, if a teacher exhibits love and
affection for students, in return, the students will show full regard for that teacher.
8. Useful in Mental Hospitals:
Mental cases and emotionally unstable children can best be treated with this process of
conditioning. There are quite a few pieces of research evidence, on behalf of which, one may
confidently admit the role of conditioning in the treatment of mental patients. Moos Ward
Atmosphere Scale is the pioneer in this regard. It states that on account of love, affection and
good treatment many complexes and fears can be removed from the minds of such patients and
such type of conditioning helps in their early recovery.
Sometimes, conditioning is to be ceased or happens to be ceased itself. This is known as de-
conditioning. For de-conditioning lack of motivation, increase in the interval, lack of repetition
and removal of natural stimuli are the responsible elements.

39 Any five educational implications of Bandura’s theory of Observational Learning/ बंडु राच्या
निरीक्षणासंबंधी शिक्षणाच्या उपपत्तीचे कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन.
Five educational implications of bandura's theory of Observational Learning are
1. Social modelling is a very powerful method of education.
2. If children see positive consequences from a particular type of behaviour, they are more likely
to repeat that behaviour themselves.
3. Conversely, if negative consequences are the result, they are less likely to perform that
behaviour.
4. Novel and unique contexts often capture students' attention and can stand out in the memory.
Students are more motivated to pay attention if they see others around them also paying attention.
5. Another less obvious application of this theory is to encourage students to develop their
individual self-efficacy through confidence building and constructive feedback, a concept that is
rooted in social learning theory.

40 Any five educational implications of Pavlov’s theory/ पावलोव्ह सिद्धांताचे कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन.
The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively before
embarking on another one. This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a particular
stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a new one.
Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile with
various strategies that can enhance the effective participation of the students in the teaching-
learning activities.
 Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A a negative or
positive response comes through the stimulus being paired. For example, providing the necessary
school material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings about school and learning in
them, while punishment will discourage them from attending school.

41 Write any five Educational Implication of Theory of Learning by insight/ मर्मदृष्टी अध्ययन उपपत्तीचे कोणतेही पाच
शैक्षणिक उपयोजन..
Implications of Gestalt Theory.
Problem-Solving Approach: This theory emphasizes that as the learner is able to solve problems by his
insight, meaningful learning, learning by understanding, reasoning, etc. must be encouraged in the school.
From Whole to Part: The teacher should present the subject matter as a whole to facilitate insight
learning.
Integrated Approach: While planning the curriculum, gestalt principles should be given due
consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as a mere collection of isolated facts. It should be
closely integrated into a whole.
Importance of Motivation: the teacher should arouse the child’s curiosity, interest and motivation. He
should gain the full attention of the whole class before teaching.
Goal Orientation: As learning is a purposeful and goal-oriented task, the learner has to be well
acquainted with these objectives. He should be fully familiar with the goals and purposes of every task.
Emphasis on Understanding: It has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities than a
stimulus–response association. So the learner must be given opportunities for using his mental abilities.
Checking of Previous Experiences: As insight depends upon the previous experiences of the learner, the
teacher must check the previous experiences of the child and relate them to the new learning situation.
Gestalt theory was mostly criticized for being too descriptive instead of offering explanations and models
for described phenomena, investigating subjective experiences like perception, lack of precision in
descriptions and just qualitative description, denying the basic scientific approach of understanding a
whole as a set of its parts.

42 Write three stages of Bruner’s cognitive theory /ब्रूनरच्या बोधात्मक उपपत्तीचे तीन सोपान लिहा
Three Stages of Representation
Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive representation.
● Enactive, which is the representation of knowledge through actions.
● Iconic, which is the visual summarization of images.
● Symbolic representation is the use of words and other symbols to describe experiences.
● The enactive stage: appears first. This stage involves the encoding and storage of information.
There is a direct manipulation of objects without any internal representation of the objects. For
example, a baby shakes a rattle and hears a noise. The baby directly manipulated the rattle and
the outcome was a pleasurable sound. In the future, the baby may shake his hand, even if there is
no rattle, expecting his hand to producing rattling sounds. The baby does not have an internal
representation of the rattle and, therefore, does not understand that it needs the rattle in order to
produce the sound.
 ● The iconic stage: appears from one to six years old. This stage involves an internal
representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental image or icon. For example, a
child drawing an image of a tree or thinking of an image of a tree would be representative of this
stage.
● The symbolic stage: from seven years and up, is when information is stored in the form of a
code or symbol such as language. Each symbol has a fixed relation to something it represents.
For example, the word 'dog' is a symbolic representation of a single class of animals. Symbols,
unlike mental images or memorized actions, can be classified and organized. In this stage, most
information is stored as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
Bruner believed that all learning occurs through the stages we just discussed. Bruner also
believed that learning should begin with the direct manipulation of objects. For example, in math
education, Bruner promoted the use of algebra tiles, coins, and other items that could be
manipulated.
After a learner has the opportunity to directly manipulate the objects, they should be encouraged
to construct visual representations, such as drawing a shape or a diagram.

43 Write any five educational implication of Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory/औसुबेलच्या

अर्थपूर्ण शिक्षण सिद्धांताचे कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन.
1. Teaching can take place successfully through an expository process.
2. Bridge the gap between old learning and new learning.
3. Development of problem-solving skills.
4. Secondary school teachers should increase the use of explanations, demonstrations, diagrams
and illustrations.
5. Find the prior concept of the learners.
6. Presentation of ideas should be from general to specific.

44 Write principles of Vygotsky’s theory/ वायगॉट्स्कयच्या उपपत्तीचे तत्त्वे लिहा.

● Lev Vygotsky was a Russian Psychologist and Social Constructivist.
● He developed the theory of Socio-Cultural Development, which is also popularly known as
Social Development Theory.
● Vygotsky’s theory emphasized the role of society and culture in the development of a child.
He believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning”.
Principles of Vygotsky Theory
➔ More Knowledgeable Other
➔ The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to someone who has a better understanding
or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or
concept.
➔ Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not
necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the
individuals with more knowledge or experience.
➔ In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in
 their learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems. 
➔ Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide
students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be
programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.
➔ Zone of Proximal Development
➔ The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second
important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
➔ This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement
from a skilled partner.

➔ Scaffolding
➔ Scaffolding is the temporary help provided to the students or learners.
➔ It consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support
the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Unit 3

45 Write the role of teacher in group formation w.r.t. Bruce Tuckman’s Revised Model for
Group Development./ गटाच्या निर्मितीसाठी ब्रूस टकमंच्या गट विकास सुधारित प्रतिकृ ती च्या संधर्भात शिक्षकाची भूमिका लिहा.
Bruce Tuckman published his forming, storming, Norming, and Performing model in 1965. He
added a fifth stage Adjourning in 1977. Tuckman’s model explains that as the team develops
maturity and ability relationships establish and the leader changes the leadership style.
In a teacher-powered school teachers work collegially with shared responsibility and
accountability to design and run the school. In this guide, we can describe teachers’ teamwork as
it aligns with Bruce. W. Tuckamn’s four stages
Teachers will learn-
1. How to get started
2. What to expect from the school design and creation process.
3. How to develop high-functioning teams and
4. What steps and tasks to consider as they design and manage their team and school?

46 Write any five educational implications of sociometry/समाजशास्त्र तंत्राचे कोणतेही पाच शैक्षणिक उपयोजन लिहा.
The Word Sociometry Means The Effects Of Social Life And Friendship On An Individual
Or
Sociometry Is A Technique For Describing The Social Relationship Among Individuals In A
Group(Jennings).
The Measurement Of Social Interaction Is Termed Sociometry. *Sociometry Is Based On The
Fact That People Make Choices In Interpersonal Relationships Whenever People Gather, They
Make Choices- Where To Sit Or Stand; Choices About Who Is Perceived As Friendly And Who
Has To Be Avoided Sociometry.
 Educational Implication
1. The teacher should try to develop group consciousness among the students.
2. Education institutions should impart moral and religious learning through collective
instruction. Eg. by Celebrating festivals and Important days.
3. Education for patriotism and citizenship should be imparted to the students.
4. Group technique should be to teach intellectual subjects i.e., seminars, discussion, group
projects, etc.
5. National days, Teachers’ day and festivals should be celebrated to develop social qualities
among the students.

47 Any five uses of observation method/ निरिक्षण पद्धतीचे कोणतेही पाच उपयोग.
Observation is a way of gathering data by watching, Behaviour or noting physical characteristics
in the natural setting.
Uses-
1. To understand an ongoing process or situation: Through observation, a process or
situation can be monitored or evaluated as it occurs at a particular time. Eg. Researcher
want to access the existing ward management practices in public and private hospitals.
2. To gather data on individual behaviour or interaction between people: Observation of how
a researcher watches people’s behaviour or interaction between people. Eg. how nurses
respond to agitated patients in the emerging setting.
3. To know about a physical setting at least: Observing the environment or place where
something happens can facilitate increased understanding of the activity, event, or
situation that the researcher is evaluating. Eg. a researcher can observe whether a
classroom or training facility is conducive to learning.
4. Data collection where other methods are not possible: If respondents are unable to
provide data through questionnaires or interviews or unwilling to do so observation is a
process that needs little from the individual from whom we require data.

48 Explain longitudinal vs latitudinal method /रेखांशाचा विरुद्ध अक्षांशात्मक पद्धतीची व्याख्या करा.
In a longitudinal study, researchers respectively examine the same individual to select any
changes that might occur over a period of time. Longitudinal studies are a type of correlation
research in which researchers observe and collect data on a number of variables without trying to
influence those variables.
Longitudinal
- This is a correlation research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables
over long periods of time.
-It allows researchers to detect changes in the target population over a period of time.
-for example- Research to observe the physical stamina of an individual over 15 years.
Latitudinal
 - Compares different population groups at a single point in time. It is also called a “cross-
sectional” study
- It allows researchers to compare many different variables at the same time with little or no
additional cost.
-for example They don’t provide cause and effect relationships

49 Any five uses of experimental method for understanding learner/ अध्यानार्थीला समजून घेण्यासाठी
प्रायोगिक पद्धतीचे कोणतेही पाच उपयोग लिहा.

50 Write the concept of clinical method in Psychology / मानसशास्त्रात क्लिनिकल पद्धतीची संकल्पना लिहा
The process by which a health or mental health professionals arrives at a conclusion, judgment,
or diagnosis about a client or patient in a clinical situation. The clinical method in psychology
represents the fundamental tool and protocol to be utilized in the therapeutic context in order to
obtain the information and other aspects necessary for individual treatment. It seems that this
clinical method is not only used in psychology but other health sciences. This article analyzes the
early evaluation of Jean Piaget's renowned clinical method in order to investigate the method's
strikingly original and generative character ex.
An example of clinical psychology includes cognitive behavioural therapy: A clinical
psychologist uses techniques within the scope and treats an individual suffering from a mental
illness.

51 Write types of group formation /गट निर्मितीचे प्रकार लिहा.

1) Forming: this stage is usually characterised by some confusion and uncertainty.
The major goals of the group have been established. The nature of the task or leadership of the
group has not been determined
2) Storming: in this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of disagreement or conflict.
Members often challenge group goals and struggle for power.
3) Norming: this stage is characterised by the recognition of individual differences and shared
expectations.
4) Performing: performing, occur when the group has matured and attains a feeling of
cohesiveness. During this stage of development, individuals accept one another and conflict is
resolved through group discussion.
5) Adjourning: not all groups experience this stage of development because it is characterised by
the disbandment of the group. Members of the group often experience feelings of closure and
sadness as they prepare to leave.

52 Concept and meaning of group dynamics / गट प्रेरकतेची संकल्पना आणि अर्थ

Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioural patterns of a group. It can be used as a
means for problem-solving, and teamwork, and to become more innovative and productive as an
organization. The concept of group dynamics will also provide you with the strengths, success
 factors and measures along with other professional tools.

53 Education implication of group dynamics/ गट गतिशीलतेचे शैक्षणिक उपयोजन

•Facilitate guidance to students for them to adjust in team culture.
•Provide necessary support to enhance the social and emotional level of the class.
•Teach students to build group relations in the class.
•Guide students on how to get better at participation and contribution in Social groups.
•Facilitate comprehensive knowledge of the Group interaction process.
•Help students to understand and navigate effectively through conflicts and stressful situations

54 Any five uses of group dynamics in the classroom/ वर्गात गट गतिशीलतेचे कोणतेही पाच उपयोग.
•Facilitate guidance to students for them to adjust in team culture.
•Provide necessary support to enhance the social and emotional level of the class.
•Teach students to build group relations in the class.
•Guide students on how to get better at participation and contribution in Social groups.
•Facilitate comprehensive knowledge of the Group interaction process.
•Help students to understand and navigate effectively through conflicts and stressful situations.

55 Write the process of group formation /गट तयार करण्याची प्रक्रिया लिहा.
● Forming is a stage which is characterised by some confusion and uncertainty. Forming is
actually an orientation period when members get to know one another and share expectations
about the group. This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to
develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them.
● Storming is the stage where one can see the highest level of disagreement and conflict.
Members mainly voice their concerns, and criticism occurs at this stage. Actually in this stage
interpersonal conflicts arise and differences of opinion about The group goals also emerge. It is
important to work through the conflicts at this time and to establish clear goals.
● Norming is characterised by the recognition of individual differences and shared expectations.
Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides how it will evaluate the
progress. If the group resolves its conflicts, it can establish patterns of how to get its work done.
Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted by members of the group.
● Performing occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of cohesiveness. In this
stage, members of the group make decisions through a rational process that is focused on relevant
goals rather than emotional issues. Issues related to roles, expectations and norms are no longer
of major importance. The group is focused on its tasks, working effectively to accomplish its
goals.
● Adjourning indicates that members of the group often experience feelings of closure and
sadness as they prepare to leave. It is the final stage when the group, after achieving the
objectives for which it was created, starts to gradually dissolve itself.
56 Write the types of observation methods/ निरीक्षणाच्या पद्धती लिहा.
1. Naturalistic observation:
It is a data collection method that eliminates manipulation of variables & involves studying the
subject in its natural environment. This method is used by psychologists and social scientists.
This method is very useful & different as compared to a lab setting where individuals are fully
aware & might behave in a certain manner.
Example
A social experiment where an observer observes from a distance how Many people are willing to
help a blind man cross the road.
2. Participant observation:
It is a kind of observation where the researcher participates or joins the respective group that
he/she wants to study. If the research is about animals or wildlife they will not only be studying
their natural habitat but also be living alongside. This type of observation can be carried out in 2
ways where the researcher's identity is hidden, known as covert or he/she does not hide their
identity and asks permission to observe them known as overt.
Example: An example of overt which means he is not hiding his identity and has asked
permission to explore and record the lives of people living in that community is a YouTuber
named Peter Santenello who is exploring the Hasidic Jewish community in New York as well as
recording people with their permission & an example of covert would be if would be doing the
same thing but staying undercover.
3. Non-participant observation:
It is a kind of observation where the subject is being observed from a distance i.e. the observer
does not take any part in any of the activities as the observer would do in the previous
observation method. It is a common method of observation.
Example: A classic example would be an office setting where the supervisor does not need a
daily report of the employees as he is observing their progress & making a report.
4. Structured observation:
It is also known as systematic or controlled observation. It is easier to analyze the data as it is in
quantitative form i.e. numerical. As far as the collection of data is concerned it is carried out
systematically by following procedures. In a structured setting, the observer explains to the
participants the aim. This type of observation uses coding methods for data collection.
Example
An auditor performing inventory analysis in the store.
5. Unstructured observation:
It is also called uncontrolled observation. The observer records everything that takes place. There
is no set plan of action as there is in structured observation.
Example
Observing children's behaviour.

57 Any five features of group dynamic /गट गतिशीलतेची कोणतीही पाच वैशिष्ट्ये
 Followings are the features of Group Dynamics:
1. Concerned with the group: Group dynamics is concerned with group. Wherever a group exists
the individuals interact and members are continuously changing and adjusting relationships with
respect to each other.
2. Changes: Changes go on occurring like the introduction of new members, changes in
leadership, the presence of old and new members and the rate of change – fast or slow.
3. Cohesiveness: It refers to the degree to which group members willingly want to be a part of the
group and the motivation that they receive to stay in the group.
4. Group organization: Group organization is essential. It leads to greater group effectiveness,
participation, cooperation and constructive morale.
5. Continuous process: Dynamic groups are always in a continuous process of restructuring,
adjusting and readjusting members to one another for the purpose of reducing tensions,
eliminating conflicts and solving the problems which its members have in common.

58 Any five importance of group dynamics/ गट गतिशीलतेचे कोणतेही पाच महत्त्व

i. Firstly, a group can influence the way the members think. The members are always influenced
by the interactions of other members in the group.
ii. A group with a good leader performs better as compared to a group with a weak leader.
iii. The group can give the effect of synergy, that is, if the group consists of positive thinkers then
its output is more than doubled every time.
iv. Group dynamism can furthermore give job satisfaction to the members.
v. The group can also infuse team spirit among the members.
vi. Even the attitude, insights & ideas of members depend on group dynamism.
For example, negative thinkers convert to positive thinkers with the help of the facilitator.
vii. Also, if the group works as a cohesive group, cooperation and convergence can result in the
maximization of productivity.
viii. Furthermore, group dynamism can reduce labour unrest. Lastly, it reduces labor turnover due
to emotional attachment among the group members.

59 Any five Limitations of Experimental method/ प्रायोगिक पद्धतीची कोणतीही पाच मर्यादा
1. it is a rigid, rigorous and difficult method of study.
2. It is a time-consuming and costly method
3. The scope of this method is narrow and limited in terms of psychological problem
4. Controlling dependent and independent variables are quite difficult. Besides, well-equipped
time-consuming and other facilities may not be available in educational institutions.
5. Intervening variables such as noise, disturbances from outside, motivation, and socio-
economic status, may inference the dependent variable.
60 Any five limitations of clinical methods / क्लिनिकल पद्धतींच्या कोणत्याही पाच मर्यादा
1. the information given by the individual, parents and friends is not verifiable and highly
subjective. The field of application of this method is quite narrow and limited. there is a need for
specially trained teachers or professionals for carrying out the studies. valid generalizations lead
 to the enrichment of theory is not possible.
2. It is largely subjective, impressionistic and intuitive in nature.
3. It costly and time-consuming method.
4. It requires a trained and competent person which is not always available.
5. It is very difficult to know the whole history of any child or institution and to observe and
interpret it objectively.
61 Write any five advantages of observation method/ निरीक्षण पद्धतीचे कोणतेही पाच फायदे लिहा
1. It is more accurate and analytical than introspection, being a log of the child's actual behaviour.
2. It is an exceptional source of knowledge about what really exists in the classroom.
3. It is an analysis of a person in a natural situation and is thus more beneficial in a test situation
than a minimal study.
4. It is possible to use the approach for children of all ages. The smaller the boy, the better it is to
look at him. For shy kids, this approach has been considered really beneficial.
5. Can be used in all contexts: athletic exercises, seminars and situations in the classroom.
6. It is adaptable to people and communities alike.
Although observation is regarded as an efficient method for psychological studies, it suffers
from the following drawbacks.
62 Write any five methods of observation/ निरीक्षणाच्या कोणत्याही पाच पद्धती लिहा
Methods of observation
1. Testing method: Several types of tests measure various elements of human behaviour such as
abilities, interests, and personality.
Advantages: Convenient method for researchers to gain insight to certain aspects of an
individual's abilities or behaviour.
Disadvantages: Does not always provide a complete representation of an individual's true abilities
or personality.
Real-life: A teacher
2. Case study method: Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small
groups.
Advantages: Provides insight into specific cases.
Disadvantages: May focus on isolated circumstances or events that cannot be replicated.
People interviewed in case studies may distort their past experiences. Researchers may
unintentionally encourage people to answer questions a certain way.
Real-life: A lawyer
3. Cross-sectional method: Researchers compare the difference and similarities among people in
different age groups at a given time.
Advantages: Less time-consuming than the longitudinal methods for studying changes over time.
4. Naturalistic observation method: Researchers observe the behaviour of people or animals in
their natural habitats.
5. Laboratory observation: Participants are observed in a laboratory setting.
6. Longitudinal method: Description: A group of participants are observed at intervals over an
extended period of time
63 Any five importance of group dynamics /गट गतिशीलतेचे कोणतेही पाच महत्त्व