Constructivism 

Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively
take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they
build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge
(schemas).

Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

 Assimilation refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an existing schema.
 Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise and redevelop an existing schema.

For example, if I believe that friends are always nice, and meet a new person who is always nice
to me I may call this person a friend, assimilating them into my schema. Perhaps, however, I
meet a different person who sometimes pushes me to try harder and is not always nice. I may
decide to change my schema to accommodate this person by deciding a friend doesn’t always
need to be nice if they have my best interests in mind. Further, this may make me reconsider
whether the first person still fits into my friend schema.

Consequences of constructivist theory are that:

 Students learn best when engaged in learning experiences rather passively receiving information.
 Learning is inherently a social process because it is embedded within a social context as students and
teachers work together to build knowledge.
 Because knowledge cannot be directly imparted to students, the goal of teaching is to provide experiences
that facilitate the construction of knowledge.  
This last point is worth repeating. A traditional approach to teaching focuses on delivering
information to students, yet constructivism argues that you cannot directly impart this information.
Only an experience can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge. Therefore, the goal
of teaching is to design these experiences.

Classroom implication :
 Students work in goups
 The role of the teacher is to have dialogue with students, interactive and negotiative.
 valuing student questions and interest
 materials include primary sources, manupilative materials
 assessing students through students own work, observations, tests ; process is as important
as the product
 pre-tests, informal interviews and small group warm-up activities that require recall of prior
knowledge.
  pre-tests, informal interviews and small group warm-up activities that require recall of prior
knowledge.
 Assign problems and activities that will challenge students.
 Encourage students to evaluate new information and modify existing knowledge :
compare contrast information with already existing one
 Allow stuent to reflect what they have learned
Some classroom activities :
 Reciprocal learning which allows students teach each other in pairs
 Inquiry-based learning : learners pose qustions and seek answer via research and direct
observation ; as they find answers to their questions, they compare it with alreadt existing
knowledge, evaluate it and finally take it. Then, they draw on conclusions, and pose the
remaining gaps and plan for future research
 Problem-based knowledge : it is similar to IBL in the sense that learners seek solution to
to a problem. The difference is that PBL students engage in real life problems that require
group work ; doing this, student will acquire skills as communication, and collaborations.
 Cooperative learning : working together to complete assignement interdependently within
a group
Cognitive development (piaget) :
Piaget’s theories have had a major impact on the theory and practice of education (Case, 1998).

First, the theories focused attention on the idea of developmentally appropriate education—an

education with environments, curriculum, materials, and instruction that are suitable for students

in terms of their physical and cognitive abilities and their social and emotional needs 

 A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products : In addition to

checking the correctness of children’s answers, teachers must understand the processes

children use to get to the answer. Appropriate learning experiences build on children’s

current level of cognitive functioning, and only when teachers appreciate children’s

methods of arriving at particular conclusions are they in a position to provide such

experiences.

 Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement in

learning activities : In a Piagetian classroom the presentation of ready-made knowledge
is deemphasized, and children are encouraged to discover for themselves through
spontaneous interaction with the environment. Therefore, instead of teaching didactically,
teachers provide a rich variety of activities that permit children to act directly on the
physical world.
 Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget’s theory
assumes that all children go through the same developmental sequence but that they do so
at different rates. Therefore, teachers must make a special effort to arrange classroom
 activities for individuals and small groups of children rather than for the total class group.
In addition, because individual differences are expected, assessment of children’s
educational progress should be made in terms of each child’s own previous course of
development, not in terms of normative standards provided by the performances of same-
age peers.

 The teachers main role is the facilitation of learning by providing various experiences for the
students. "Discovery Learning" allows opportunities for students to explore and experiment,
while encouraging new understandings.
 Some general suggestions include: The use of concrete props and visual aids, and Present
problems that require logical analytical thinking, "brain teasers" are a great way to
incorporate this.

  It is important that the content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental
level of the learner 

Behavioral theory :
Educators can use behaviorist theory to improve student motivation. All learners want to feel good,
and so using reinforcement schedules to provide those experiences will motivate students to adjust
their behavior

Using the methods outlined by behaviorists tends to be more useful for learning that can be easily
assessed or monitored through observing learner behavior. Rote learning or “skill and drill”
memorisation style learning is a common learning style best suited to this theory. Rote learning is
defined as the memorization of information based on repetition.

Modeling, Shaping, and Cueing

Modeling is also known as observational learning. modeling is the basis for a variety of
learner behavior. learner acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses by observing
those around them(teacher). A child who kicks another child after seeing this on the
playground, or a student who is always late for class because his friends are late is displaying
the results of observational learning.

Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. As students

progresse towards the overall behavioral goal, positive reinforced is provided. In the
following scenario, the classroom teacher employs shaping to change student behavior: the
class enters the room and sits down, but continue to talk after the bell rings. The teacher
gives the class one point for improvement, in that all students are seated. Subsequently, the
students must be seated and quiet to earn points, which may be accumulated and redeemed
for rewards.

Cueing may be as simple as providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to the

appropriateness of a behavior. For example, to teach a child to remember to perform an
 action at a specific time, the teacher might arrange for him to receive a cue immediately
before the action is expected rather than after it has been performed incorrectly. For
example, if the teacher is working with a student that habitually answers aloud instead of
raising his hand, the teacher should discuss a cue such as hand-raising at the end of a
question posed to the class.

Social learning theory :

here are four elements to social learning theory :

 Attention. student can’t learn if they aren’t focused on the task. A student’s attention must
be captured for them to imitate a behavior. The ability to pay attention depends largely on
the accessibility of the behavior being observed, the complexity of the behavior and its
perceived value. 
 Retention. People learn by internalizing information. We then recall that information when
we want to respond to a situation that has elements that remind us of what we learned. In
order to learn from observation, we must retain that information. By retaining the sequence
of behaviors along with their consequences, the student can retrieve this knowledge and
apply it.. 

 Motivation. The will to perform a behavior based on the rewards and punishment resulting
from modeling the actions. When the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived cost, an
individual is more likely to imitate the behavior. Social responses and consequences dictate
whether an observed behavior is repeated in the future. 

Social learning theory suggests that social modeling and  good behavior are powerful classroom
tools. If children see positive outcomes from an action such as paying attention to the lesson, they
are more likely to perform that action themselves. Conversely, if they see negative consequences,
they are likely to avoid that behavior.

The use of theory in classroom :

The flipped classroom model. A flipped classroom model involves changing traditional learning
schedules. Instead of a teacher lecturing during the school day, students watch an instructional video
or read material at home. Then in class, they apply what they learned through activities or
assignments that might have been homework. Teachers act as guides and coaches, helping them
continue their learning. This embodies the social learning theory because students can observe the
behaviors and actions of other students during the learning and activities, seeing when they are
getting praised and encouraged, and apply those observations to their learning. Teachers can
incorporate this model by recording themselves lecturing on a certain subject so that students can
watch that video as their homework, then ask questions and work on assignments the next day.  

Gamification and simulations. Gamification and simulations help teachers turn their classroom into a
more interactive experience, turning assignments and activities into games. Gamification can involve
turning an activity into a competitive game with rewards for winners, creating that unique and novel
spark that will attract the interest of students. 

Simulations in the classroom help add interest and fun to a classroom situation. A mock trial, a mock
city, a digital simulation—these are great ways to enhance a classroom setting and keep students
engaged. Meanwhile, they can learn by researching for the assignment while interacting with and
learning from their peers. 

Peer coaching. Peer coaching is a great way to help students learn from each other. Students
connected to each other can observe and learn, helping each other along the way. It’s important to
be careful when instituting peer coaching, as you don’t want students to feel uncomfortable or
insecure about another student helping them. To successfully institute peer coaching, carefully
observe students to determine which pairs would be a good match.

To see the difference between social learning theory and social constructivism, visit:
http://www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/difference-between-social-learning-theory-and-
constructivism/

Problem-based learning

 Select from approches what meeting your teaching philosophy

 It is high time to detach from old teaching methods and give gorund to collaborative learning
 Personlize the learning, localize the learning
KWL : K-W-L charts are graphic organizers that help students organize information before, during,
and after a unit or a lesson. They can be used to engage students in a new topic, activate prior
knowledge, share unit objectives, and monitor students’ learning.

 Language items : should be practived in skills used in student’s environment.

 Teacher s :should make a balance between language items and skills.
 The primary goal of teaching should be producing a gobally competent citizen, instead of
teaching for the exam.

Attitudes during PBL

Confidence and patience: While the statement may appear self-evident, we begin by asserting that
the instructor must be confident that PBL can result in the desired types of learning. The learning
environment experienced by students in PBL is so different from the norm . It is predictable that, at
some point during a PBL project, students will feel like ships lost at sea. Particularly at these
moments, the instructor must maintain confidence that the PBL process can work. PBL involves trial
and error, as well as a large dose of studentdirected learning. At times, the process may seem
inefficient. However, instructors must cultivate patience in order to let students assume
responsibility and ownership for the process and products of their learning.

The role of the teacher :

1- Preparing the Class for a PBL Project : The successful implementation of PBL requires
a considerably more advance attention to materials review, selection and
preparation as well as logistical planning than most teachers are accustomed to
providing
2- Developing Classroom Norms that Support Problem-based Learning : Using Time
Effectively, Another norm we encourage is for students to personalize their learning
by identifying personal learning objectives in relation to PBL projects.
3- The teacher must be providing information about the content, act as a process
observer, Consult with Students on Individual Issues.
4- Feedback is an important factor that goes both ways : from the student to teacher
and from the teacher to student. Student Feedback to the Instructor could be done
 through Talkback Sheets and Reflective Essays. On the other hand, the teacher
provide feedback aswell.

 In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-
solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups,
finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning.

While in PBL, the instructor does not appear to be a central figure in the PBL classroom, without
his/her explicit attention to the creation of this structure and support of the learning climate, PBL will
fail to attain its potential.

Blended learning :

Bloom’s taxonomy : traditional model of teaching focus on the first three parts of the hierarchy.

Flipped classes : focuse o the whole : remembering, understanding and applying are done at home ;
when student come to class they have to be creative, reflective and analytics.

SMARTA goals use a specific set of criteria to help ensure that objectives are clearly defined and
attainable within a certain timeframe.

S : specific/ M : measurable/ A : atainable/ R : relevant/ T : time-oriented/ A : adaptable

The evolution of the digital learning platforms has a huge impact in educational institutions and has
eventually put the traditional methods in the back seat. However, there are demands for both
technology and traditional learning methods. As a result of this, the art of combining digital learning
tools with more traditional classroom face to face teaching gave birth to the term “Blended
Learning”.

It is an instructional methodology, a teaching and learning approach that combines faceto-face

classroom methods with computer mediated activities to deliver instruction

The important features of Blended Learning (hereafter referred to as BL) environment are:

 Increased student engagement in learning.

  Enhanced teacher and student interaction.
 Responsibility for learning.
 Time management and flexibility
 More flexible teaching and learning environment
 BL shifts the teacher’s role from knowledge provider to coach and mentor.

BL Structures in Education

Blended in-person class : the blended face-to-face class model is based in the classroom, although a
significant amount of classroom time has been replaced by online activities. It is needed when doing
discussions and group projects.

Blended online class : The class is mostly conducted online, but there are some required in-person
activities such as lectures or labs.

Flipped classe : The flipped classroom reverses the traditional class structure of listening to a lecture
in class and completing homework activities at home. Students in flipped classes watch a short
lecture video online and come into the classroom to complete activities such as group work, projects
or other exercises. The flipped classroom model can be seen as a sub-model of the blended face-to-
face or blended online class.

Flex class : used in schools with high numbers of struggling or at-risk students, the flex model of blended
learning emphasizes online content delivery. Lessons, for the most part, remain in the classroom – but it
becomes a blended learning environment. Students spend most of their time receiving individualized

instruction through online resources and adaptive software instead of traditional lessons.

Learner-centred teaching-learning activities include several cognitive processes which enable

learners to be communicative, confident, creative and cooperative :

 Creative Presentations : Education, at any level, and of any subject, should develop creative
thinking abilities of the learners.
 Cooperative Learning Strategies (CLS) : Cooperative Learning Strategies such as Jigsaw,
Team-Pair-Share, Team-Pair-Solo, Fishbowl, Corners, One-stray, PQP, etc. (there are many
more, which can be explored by teachers) have proven effective in face-to-face modes. These
strategies help in developing sense of responsibility of learning, interdependence, team-
 work, logical and analytical thinking and teacher can ensure participation of all learners in the
meaningful learning process.
 Brainstorming : Brainstorming exercise always helps learners to think spontaneously

Evaluation :

 Classroom/Online Quizzes
 Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation should be encouraged in universities and colleges.

 Inquiry based learning :

inquiry-based teaching is a pedagogical approach that invites students to explore academic content
by posing, investigating, and answering questions.

The role of the teacher in an inquiry-based classroom is quite different from that of a teacher in a
conventional classroom : Instead of providing direct instruction to students, teachers help students
generate their own content-related questions and guide the investigation that follows.

When teachers choose to use an inquiry-based approach, they have to provide rich experiences that
provoke students’ thinking and curiosity.

Teacher has to continuously assess the progress of each student as they work toward their solution
or final product; and to respond in-themoment to students’ emerging queries and discoveries.

Learner :

 An inquiry-based curriculum develops a life-long learner

 It teaches students to pose difficult questions and fosters the desire and skills to acquire
knowledge about the world.
 Students are given opportunities to take ownership of their own learning
 an inquiry-based approach allows students to draw connections between academic content
and their own lives, which can be particularly important for culturally and linguistically
diverse learners.
Multiple intelegence theory :

 teach english relying on your students talents

 the variability and diversity of students is a fact, to manage it you need to :
- know your students intellegences
- design the lesson according to these intelegences
- evaluate your student from time to time to see the ffectivness and
alternative options of the lesson
 tailloring the style of teaching to the style of learning.

The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence
that each individual possesses in varying degrees.

- According to Gardner , the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on
the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or
musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities.
- Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.

- Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of intelligence.

- Assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of intelligence.

- Technology can be used in the modern age to

- Topics should not be taught in a montonous way. It should be taught in different ways.

- A wide variety of approaches and activties must be used for learning so that learners can
think in different ways.
- Different ways of demonstration must be used for teaching a topic.

- monthly checklist to keep track of different activities and tasks conducted in the class.
How to teach :
- Words Are Not Enough(rhyming, music, realea)

- Play with the Language

- Cooperation not Competition(avoid prizes and awards in the class)

- Drawing and Colouring

UG theory :
First, teachers need to draw the attention about the differences among languages through
comparing them, because students may commit error like language intereference.
  The teacher should recognize their power in drawing the implication by themsleves.
 The emphasis should be on creating a balance between knowledge and skills instad of
knowledge alone since a successful lesson starts by knowledge and ends with a skill.
 Using the following mode of teaching : function-meaning-use
 L1 is to beminimized in the class, l2 must be maximized.

The Universal Grammar theory claims that the speaker’s knowledge of a language such as English
consists of several such general principles and of the appropriate parameter settings for that
language.
Implementation :
 The UG model is primarily about language knowledge, not language use, or language
development
 it is about grammar rather than about language
 its interests lie in what the speaker knows about language, grammatical competence, rather
than in how the speaker uses language, pragmatic competence
 UG also emphasizes the importance of vocabulary
 the learner needs to acquire masses of words, not just in the conventional way of knowing
their dictionary meaning or pronunciation but also in knowing the way they behave in
sentences.
 Focus On Student Learning : The main emphasis must be laid on students’ learning rather
than teacher training.
 Imbibe Natural Curiosity The teachers must apply a method of teaching that can develop
curiosity and interest among learners for learning naturally.

Social constructivism :
Spontaneous scaffolding vs planned scaffolding ?
 Lockstep mode of work :  A teaching/learning format in which all of the ss are all doing the
same thing, at and in the same time, and are expected to achieve the same results.

 Example : Any course where the class follows the same coursebook /curriculum, and works
through the activities in unison, led by the teacher.

 A Social Constructivist teacher creates a context for learning in which students can become
engaged in interesting activities that encourages and facilitates learning
 the teacher can guide students as they encounter problems, encourage them to work in
groups to think about issues and questions, and support them with confidence-building
praise
  collaborative, or cooperative learning involves students sharing background knowledge and
participating in a reciprocal nature in order to negotiate and settle on a shared constructed
meaning.
 The teacher instructs the students how to use social skills and build knowledge as a group so
they can work in cooperation more efficiently
 Another activity is a workshop, where knowledge is taught as an active, student-centered
process that gives students, individually and in groups, much of the responsibility for making
decisions about what will be studied and why.
 One other method involves anchored instruction. The anchored instruction approach is an
attempt to help students become more actively engaged in learning by situating or anchoring
education around an interesting topic.
Cultural learning :
Moran’s cultural elements framework Allows students to isolate elements of culture for further
exploraton. By looking at one element in detail, students can build the ability to recognize and start
to do the analysis on their own.
Products : = Things created and used in a culture Examples: chops+cks, convenience stores, para-
para dance.
Practices : = behaviors, social interac=ons Examples: gree+ngs, showing respect, exchanging business
cards
Persons = People acting within a culture Examples: salary man, taxi driver, grandmother
Communities = Groups of people sharing values and behaviors Examples: sports fans, construc+on
workers
Perspectives = underlying beliefs of a culture Examples: respect for teachers and elders, wabi sabi

AHWO : Based on Kolb’s Experien+al Learning Cycle, the Cultural Knowings Framework takes the
student step by step through a cultural element they have seen or experienced.
 Describing the cultural element allows them to see it from mul+ple angles based on direct
evidence. 2. Analyzing the descrip+on allows understanding to develop from mul+ple
views/perspec+ves. 3. Responding to this allows the students to explore their own reac+ons
and more importantly, create ques+ons to find out more.

 teachers must be competent in understanding the dynamics and uses of culture in their
classroom. 
 Students from different ethnic groups should be able to voice their cultural expression in order
to enhance content and learning processes.
 Teachers should expose students to multiple perspectives and allow students to critically
analyze differences between mainstream cultural ideals and those of different cultural
systems.
  Teacher as a cultural mediator : Teachers guide students to reflect on their own ethnic

identities and facilitate them in honoring other cultures and developing positive cross-
cultural relationships. 
 Classroom activities should enhance students' abilities to identify stereotypes and prejudices
and also teach students how to avoid perpetuating racism 
 Orchestrators of Social Contexts : they must make their teaching well-suited to the
sociocultural contexts and frames of reference of ethnically diverse students.
 they are also guides in helping students know how to utilize their cultural cognition in order
to facilitate their learning.