1.

Methods of Integration

The Fundamental Theorem tells us how to evaluate a definite integral once we have an antiderivative
for the integrand function. However, finding antiderivatives (or indefinite integrals) is not as
straightforward as finding derivatives. We need to develop some techniques to help us. Nevertheless,
we note that it is not always possible to find an antiderivative expressed in terms of elementary
functions.
In this chapter we study a number of important techniques which apply to finding integrals for
specialized classes of functions such as trigonometric functions, products of certain functions, and
rational functions.

1.1 Substitution Method

Theorem 1.1.1 If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I, and f is
continuous on I, then f (g(x))g0 (x)dx = f (u)du.
R R

f (g(x))g0 (x)dx
R
The Substitution method to evaluate
1. Substitute u = g(x) and du = ( dg 0
dx )dx = g (x)dx.

2. Integrate with respect to u.

3. Replace u by g(x)

sec2 (5x + 1) · 5dx

R
 Example 1.1.1 Find

solution We substitute u = 5x + 1 and du = 5

Z Z
Then sec2 (5x + 1) · 5dx = sec2 udu
= tan u + c
= tan(5x + 1) + c


10 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration
R
 Example 1.1.2 Find cos(7θ + 3)dθ

solution We let u = 7θ + 3 so that du = 7dθ . The constant factor 7 is missing from dθ term
in the integral. We can compensate for it by multiplying and dividing by 7,

1
Z Z
cos(7θ + 3)dθ = cos(7θ + 3) · 7dθ
7
1
Z
= cos udu
7
1
= sin u + c
7
1
= sin(7θ + 3) + c
7

R 2 x3
 Example 1.1.3 Solve x e dx
3 3 3
solution We can rewrite x2 ex dx as in the form x2 ex dx = ex · x2 dx Let
R R R

u =x3
du =3x2 dx
du
⇒ dx = 3x2
1 du
Z Z
2 x3
∴ x e dx = eu · x 2 2
3 x
1
Z
u
= e du
3
1
= eu + c
3
1 3
= ex + c
3

R √
 Example 1.1.4 Evaluate x 2x + 1dx

solution
Letu = 2x + 1 ⇒du = 2dx
du
⇒dx =
2

u−1
Again since u = 2x + 1, ⇒ x =
Z √ 2
u−1 1 du
Z
∴ x 2x + 1dx = ( )·u2
2 2
1 1
Z Z
1 3 1
(u − 1)u 2 du = (u 2 − u 2 )du
4 4
1 2 5 2 3
= ( u2 − u2 )+c
4 5 3
1 5 1 3
= (2x + 1) 2 − (2x + 1) 2 + c
10 6

1.1 Substitution Method 11

R Sometimes we can use trigonometric identities to transform integrals we do not know how to
evaluate into ones we can evaluate using the substitution rule.

 Example 1.1.5
1 − cos 2x
Z Z
2
Evaluate sin xdx = dx
2
1
Z
= (1 − cos 2x)dx
2
1 1 sin 2x x sin 2x
= x− +c = − +c
2 2 2 2 4


cos2 xdx = 1+cos 2x

dx = 2x + sin42x + c
R R
 Example 1.1.6 Evaluate 2 

 Example 1.1.7
sin x −du
Z Z Z
tanxdx = dx =
cos x u
= − ln |u| + c = − ln | cos x| + c
1
= ln + c = ln | sec x| + c
| cos x|


R An integrand may require some algebraic manipulation before the substitution method can
be applied. This example gives two integrals obtained by multiplying the integrand by an
algebraic equal to 1, leading to an appropriate substitution.

 Example 1.1.8
dx ex ex
Z Z
dx = dx(multiply by( ) = 1)
e + e−x
x e2x + 1 ex
du
Z
= Let(u = ex , u2 = e2x , du = ex dx)
u2 + 1
= tan−1 (ex ) + c


 Example 1.1.9
sec x + tan x
Z Z Z
sec xdx = (sec x)(1)dx = sec x · dx
sec x + tan x
sec2 x + sec x tan x
Z
=
sec x + tan x
du
Z
=
u
= ln |u| + c = ln | sec x + tan x| + c


Integrals of the tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant functions

R
1. tan xdx = ln | sec x| + c
R
2. cot xdx = ln | sin x + | + c
R
3. sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + c
R
4. csc xdx = − ln | csc x + cot x| + c
12 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration

Trying different substitutions

The success of the substitution method depends on finding a substitution that changes an integral
we cannot evaluate directly into one that we can. Finding the right substitution gets easier with
practice and experience. If the first substitution fails,try another substitution, possibly coupled with
other algebraic or trigonometric simplifications to the integrand.
R 2z
 Example 1.1.10 Evaluate √
3 2 dz
z +1

solution Substitute for the most “troublesome” part of the integrand and see how things work
out:
Method 1: Substitute

u =z2 + 1
du =2zdz

2z du
Z Z
√ dz =
3 2
z +1 u1/3
Z
= u−1/3 du

u2/3 3 3 2
+ c = u2/3 + c = (z2 + 1) 3 +C
=
2/3 2 2
p
3
Method 2: Substitute u = z2 + 1 instead.
⇒ u3 = z2 + 1, 3u2 du = 2zdz

2z 3u2
Z Z Z
√
3 2
dz = du =3 · udu
z +1 u
u2 3 2
=3 · + c = (z2 + 1) 3 +C
2 2


Exercise 1.1 Evaluate the following integrals using substitution method:

Z
1. 2(2x + 4)5 dx, u = 2x + 4

4x3
Z
2. dx, u = x4 + 1
(x4 + 1)2
Z
3. (3x + 2)(3x2 + 4x)4 dx, u = 3x2 + 4x

√ 1
Z
(1 + x) 3 √
4. √ , u = 1+ x
x

t t t
Z
5. (1 − cos ) sin dt, u = 1 − cos
2 2 2
 1.2 Integration by parts 13
1 1 1
Z
6. 2
cos2 ( )dx, u=
x x x


1.2 Integration by parts

R
This is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form f (x)g(x)dx.
It is useful when f is differentiable repeatedly and g can be integrated repeatedly without difficulty.
The integrals x cos xdx and x2 ex dx are such integrals because f (x) = x or f (x) = x2 can be
R R

differentiated repeatedly to become zero, and g(x) = cos x or g(x) = ex can be integrated repeatedly
without difficulty.
Integration by parts also applies to integrals like ln xdx and ex cos xdx.
R R

In the first case, f (x) = ln x is easy to differentiate and g(x) = 1 is easy to integrate.
Produt rule in integral form
d
If f and g are differentiable functions of x, the product rule says that [ f (x)g(x)] = f 0 (x)g(x) +
dx
f (x)g0 (x)
d
Z Z
In terms of indefinite integrals, this equation becomes [ f (x)g(x)] = [ f 0 (x)g(x)+ f (x)g0 (x)]dx
dx
or
d
Z Z Z
[ f (x)g(x)] = f 0 (x)g(x)dx + f (x)g0 (x)dx
dx
d
Z Z Z
Rearranging the term of this last equations, we get f (x)g0 (x)dx = [ f (x)g(x)]dx− f 0 (x)g(x)dx,
dx
leading to the integration by parts formula.
For f (x) = u, g(x) = v, du = f 0 (x)dx, and dv = g0 (x)dx we have the formula of integration by parts
written
Z as: Z Z Z
uv = uv − vu0 or udv = uv − vdu
0

R
 Example 1.2.1 Find x cos xdx
Z Z
solution We use the formula udv = uv − vdu with
u=x dv = cos xdx
du = dx v = sin x
Then
R R
x cos xdx = x sin x − sin xdx = x sin x + cos x + c 
R
 Example 1.2.2 Find ln xdx
Z Z
R R
solution Since ln xdx can be written as ln x · 1dx, we use the formula udv = uv − vdu
with
u = ln x dv = dx
1
du = x dx v = x

1
Z Z Z
ln xdx = x ln x − x · dx =x ln x − dx
x
=x · ln x − x + c

R Sometimes we have to use integration by parts more than once.

14 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration
R x
 Example 1.2.3 Evaluate e cos xdx

solution Let u = ex , dv = cos xdx.

du = ex dx, v = sin x
R x
e cos xdx = ex sin x − ex sin xdx
R

Now for the last integral we apply integration by parts by letting

u = ex , dv = sin xdx.
x
du = e dx, v = − cos x
Then
Z Z
ex cos xdx =ex sin x − [−ex cos x + ex cos xdx]
Z
x x
=e sin x + e cos x − ex cos xdx

Z
2 ex cos xdx =ex sin x + ex cos x
ex sin x + ex cos x
Z
⇒ ex cos xdx =
2


cosn xdx interms of an integral of a

R
 Example 1.2.4 Obtain a formula that expresses the integral
lower power of cos x

solution Think of cosn x as cosn−1 x · cos x. Then we let

u = cosn−1 x, dv = cos xdx.
du = (n − 1) cosn−2 x(− sin xdx), v = sin x
Integration by parts gives,
Z Z
cosn xdx = cosn−1 sin x + (n − 1) sin2 x cosn−2 xdx
Z
= cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) (1 − cos2 x) cosn−2 xdx
Z Z
n−1 n−2
= cos x sin x + (n − 1) cos xdx − (n − 1) cosn xdx

IfRwe add (n − 1) cosn xdx to both sides

R
of the equation, we obtain
n cosn xdx = cosn−1 sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 xdx.
R

We then divide through by n and the final result is

cosn−1 x sin x n − 1
Z Z
n
cos xdx = + cosn−2 xdx (1.2.1)
n n


Formula (1.2.1) above is called a reduction formula because it replaces an integral containing
some power of a function with an integral of the same form having the power reduced.
When n is a positive integer, we may apply the formula repeatedly until the remaining integral is
easy to evaluate.
 1.3 Integration of Rational Funtions by Partial Fractions 15

 Example 1.2.5
cos2 x sin x 2
Z Z
cos3 xdx = + cos xdx
3 3
1 2
= cos2 x sin x + sin x + c.
3 3


Exercise 1.2 Use integration by parts to establish the reduction formula:

Z Z
1. xn cos xdx = xn sin x − n xn−1 sin xdx

Z Z
2. xn sin xdx = −xn cos x + n xn−1 cos xdx

1.3 Integration of Rational Funtions by Partial Fractions

Here our aim is to show how to express a rational fraction (a quotient of polynomials) as a sum of
simpler fractions, called partial fractions which are easily integrated.
(5x − 3)
For instance, the rational fraction 2 can be written as x25x−3
−2x−3
2
= x+1 3
+ x−3 .
(x − 2x − 3)
This tells us that

5x − 3 2 3
Z Z Z
2
dx = dx + dx
x − 2x − 3 x+1 x−3
=2 ln |x + 1| + 3 ln |x − 3| + c.
This method is called the method of partial fractions.
The above example consists of finding constants A and B such that
5x − 3 A B
= + (1.3.1)
x2 − 2x − 3 x+1 x−3
(Pretend that we do not know A and B).
A B
x+1 and x−3 are called partial fractions because their denominators are only part of the original
denominator x2 − 2x − 3.
We fin A and B i.e solve equation (1.3.1) above

5x − 3 =A(x − 3) + B(x + 1)
5x − 3 =(A + B)x − 3A + B
⇒
A + B = 5, −3A + B = −3 (1.3.2)
Solving (1.3.2) simultaneously gives A = 2 and B = 3.
General description of the method
f (x)
Success in writing a rational function g(x) as a sum of partial fractions depends on two things:
(i). The degree of f (x) must be less than the degree of g(x). That is the fraction must be proper.
If it isn’t, divide f (x) by g(x) and work with the remainder term.
(ii). We must know the factors of g(x).
16 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration
f (x)
Method of Partial Fraction when is proper
g(x)
(i). Let x − r be a linear factor of g(x). Suppose that (x − r)m is the highest power of x − r that
A1 A2
divides g(x). Then, to this factor, assign the sum of the m partial fractions: + +
x − r (x − r)2
Am
···+ . Do this for each distinct linear factor of g(x).
(x − r)m

(ii). Let x2 + px + q be an irreducible quadratic factor of g(x) so that x2 + px + q has no real roots.
Suppose that (x2 + px + q)n is the highest power of this factor that divides g(x). Then, to
B1 x +C1 B2 x +C2
this factor, assign the sum of the n partial fractions: 2 + 2 +···+
(x + px + q) (x + px + q)2
Bn x +Cn
2
(x + px + q)n
f (x)
(iii). Set the original fraction equal to the sum of all these partial fractions. Clear the resulting
g(x)
equation of fractions and arrange the terms in decreasing powers of x.

(iv). Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the resulting equations for the
coefficients.

 Example 1.3.1 Use partial fractions to evaluate:

x2 + 4x + 1
Z
dx.
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)
solution
The partial fraction decomposition has the form
x2 + 4x + 1 A B C
= + + .
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) x − 1 x + 1 x + 3
To find the values of coefficients A, B and C we clear fractions and get

x2 + 4x + 1 =A(x + 1)(x + 3) + B(x − 1)(x + 3) +C(x − 1)(x + 1)

=A(x2 + 4x + 3) + B(x2 + 2x − 3) +C(x2 − 1)
=(A + B +C)x2 + (4A + 2B)x + (3A − 3B −C)

⇒A + B +C = 1
4A + 2B = 4
3A − 3B −C = 1

3 1 1
A = , B = and C = −
4 2 4
Hence we have

x2 + 4x + 1
Z  
3 1 1 1 1 1
Z
dx = + − dx
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) 4 x−1 2 x+1 4 x+3
3 1 1
= ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 1| − ln |x + 3| + k
4 2 4

1.3 Integration of Rational Funtions by Partial Fractions 17

Z Example 1.3.2 Use partial fractions to evaluate


6x + 7
dx
(x + 2)2
6x + 7 A B
solution 2
= +
(x + 2) x + 2 (x + 2)2

6x + 7 =A(x + 2) + B
=Ax + (2A + B)

A = 6 and 2A + B = 7

⇒12 + B = 7
⇒B = −5

Z  
6x + 7 6 5
Z
∴ dx = − dx
(x + 2)2 x + 2 (x + 2)2
dx
Z Z
= − 5 (x + 2)−2
x+2
=6 ln |x + 2| + 5(x + 2)−1 + c

 Example 1.3.3 Use partial fractions to evaluate:

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3
Z
dx
x2 − 2x − 3
solution First divide the numerator by the denominator to get a polynomial plus a proper fraction.
2x + 0
2 3 2


x − 2x − 3 2x − 4x − x − 3
− 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x
0x2 + 5x − 3
0x2 + 0x + 0
5x − 3

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3 =2x(x2 − 2x − 3) + 5x − 3

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3 5x − 3
⇒ =2x + 2
x2 − 2x − 3 x − 2x − 3

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3 5x − 3
Z Z Z
∴ dx = 2xdx + dx
x2 − 2x − 3 x2 − 2x − 3
2 3
Z Z Z
= 2xdx + dx + dx
x+1 x−3
=x2 + 2 ln |x + 1| + 3 ln |x − 3| + c


18 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration

Z Example 1.3.4 Use partial fractions to evaluate:


−2x + 4
dx.
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2
solution The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor as well as a repeated linear fac-
tor, so we write

−2x + 4 Ax + B C D
= + +
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
−2x + 4 =(Ax + B)(x − 1)2 +C(x − 1)(x2 + 1) + D(x2 + 1)
=(A +C)x3 + (−2A + B −C + D)x2 + (A − 2B +C)x + (B −C + D)

Hence we obtain

A +C =0
−2A + B −C + D =0
A − 2B +C = − 2
B −C + D =4

Solving the 4 equations above we obtain A = 2, B = 1,C = −2 and D = 1

Hence we have

−2x + 4 2x + 1 2 1
= − +
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
2
Z  
−2x + 4 2x + 1 2 1
Z
dx = − + dx
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
 
2x 1 2 1
Z
= + − + dx
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
1
= ln |x2 + 1| + tan−1 x − 2 ln |x − 1| − +c
x−1

Z Example 1.3.5 Use partial fractions to evaluate:


dx
dx
x(x2 + 1)2
solution

1 A Bx +C Dx + E
= + 2 +
x(x2 + 1)2 x x + 1 (x2 + 1)2
.
=..
=(A + B)x4 +Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A

A + B = 0, C = 0, 2A + B + D = 0, C + E = 0, A = 1
⇒ A = 1, B = −1,C = 0, D = −1, and E = 0. Thus
 1.4 Trigonometric Substitutions 19

Z  
dx 1 −x −x
Z
dx = + + dx
x(x + 1)2
2 x x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
1 x x
Z Z Z
= dx − 2
dx − dx
x x +1 (x + 1)2
2

dx 1 du 1 du
Z Z
= − −
x 2 u 2 (u)2
1 1
= ln x − ln(x2 + 1) + +k
2 2(x2 + 1)
|x| 1
= ln √ + 2
+k
x + 1 2(x + 1)
2

1.4 Trigonometric Substitutions

This occurs when we replace the variable of integration by a trigonometric function. The most
common substitutions are x = a tan θ , x = a sin θ and x = a sec θ . √ √ √
These substitutions are effective in transforming integrals involving a2 + x2 , a2 − x2 and x2 − a2
into integrals we can evaluate directly. Since they come from the reference right angles below.

With

x =a tan θ ,
a2 + x2 =a2 + a2 + tan2 θ = a2 (1 + tan2 θ ) = a2 sec2 θ

With

x =a sin θ ,
a − x2 =a2 + a2 − a2 sin2 θ = a2 (1 − sin2 θ ) = a2 cos2 θ
2

With

x =a sec θ ,
x − a2 =a2 secθ −a2 = a2 (secθ −1) = a2 tan2 θ
2
20 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration

Procedure for a Trigonometric substitution

1. Write down the substitution for x, calculate the differential dx and specify the selected values
for θ for the substitution.

2. Substitute the trigonometric expression and the calculated differential into the integrand, and
then simplify the results algebraically.

3. Integrate the trigonometric integral, keeping in mind the restrictions of angle θ for reversibil-
ity.

4. Draw an appropriate reference triangle to reverse the substitution in the integration result and
convert it back to the original value of x.

dx
Z
 Example 1.4.1 Evaluate √
4 + x2
solution We set x = 2 tan θ , dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ , − π2 < θ < π
2
4 + x2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 4(1 + tan2 θ ) = 4 sec2 θ
Then

dx sec2 θ
Z Z
√ = dθ
4 + x2 Z | sec θ |
= sec θ dθ
= ln | sec θ + tan θ | + c
√ 
 4 + x2 x 
= ln 
 +  +C
2 2


dx
Z
 Example 1.4.2 √
a2 + x2
solution We set x = a tan θ , dx = a sec2 θ dθ ,
dx a sec2 θ
Z Z
a2 + x2 = a2 + a2 tan2 θ = a2 (1 + tan2 θ ) = a2 sec2 θ . Then √ = √ dθ =
a2 + x 2 a2 sec2 θ
sec2 θ
Z Z
dθ = sec θ dθ .
| sec θ |

= ln | sec θ + tan θ | + c
√ 2 
 a + x2 x 
= ln  +  +C
a a


x2
Z
 Example 1.4.3 Evaluate √ dx
9 − x2
solution We set ,
x = 3 sin θ , dx = 3 cos dθ , − π2 < θ < π2
9 − x2 = 9 − 9 sin2 θ = 9(1 − sin2 θ ) = 9 cos2 θ
Then
1.4 Trigonometric Substitutions 21

x2 9 sin2 θ · 3 cos θ dθ
Z Z Z
√ dx = √ dθ =9 sin2 θ dθ
9 − x2 9 cos2 θ
1 − cos 2θ
Z
=9 dθ
 2 
9 sin 2θ
= θ− +C
2 2
9
= (θ − sin θ cos θ ) +C
2 √
9 − x2
 
9 −1 x x
= sin − · +C
2 3 3 3
√
9 −1 x x 9 − x2
= sin − +C
2 3 2 3


dx 2
Z
 Example 1.4.4 Evaluate √ ,x >
2
25x − 4 5
solution We first rewrite the radical as

s  
p
2 2
4
25x − 4 = 25 x −
25
s  2
2
=5 x2 −
5
to put the radical in the form x2 − a2 .
We then substitute
x = 52 sec θ , dx = 25 sec θ tan θ dθ , 0 < θ < π
2

 2
2 2 4 4
x − = sec2 θ −
5 25 25
4 4
= (sec2 θ − 1) = tan2 θ
s 25 25
 2
2 2 2
x2 − = | tan θ | = tan θ
5 5 5

Z 2
dx dx 5 sec θ tan θ
Z Z
√ = = dθ
5 · ( 25 ) tan θ
q
25x2 − 4 4
5 x2 − 25
1
Z
= sec θ dθ
5
1
= ln | sec θ + tan θ | +C
5 √
 
1  5x 25x2 − 4 
= ln  +  +C
5 2 2

22 Chapter 1. Methods of Integration

Exercise 1.3 Evaluate the following integrals

dx
Z
(a). √
9 + x2

3dx
Z
(b). √
1 + 9x2
Z p
(c). 1 − 9t 2 dt

dx
Z
(d). √
x2 x2 − 1

 2. Applications of Integration

In this chapter we study the applications of definite integrals in computing the area under a curve
and the area between two curves, define and find volumes and areas of surfaces of revolution.

2.1 Areas Between Curves

Suppose we want to find the area of a region that is bounded above by the curve y = f (x), below by
the curve y = g(x), and and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b.

R If f and g are arbitrary continuous functions, we find with an integral.

Definition 2.1.1 If f and g are continuous with f (x) ≥ g(x) throughout [a, b], then the area of
the regions between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) from a to b is the integral of ( f − g) from
a to b :
Z b
A= [ f (x) − g(x)]dx.
a
24 Chapter 2. Applications of Integration

 Example 2.1.1 Find the area of the region bounded above by the curve y = 2e−x + x, below by
1
the curve y = ex , on the left by x = 0 and on the right by x = 1
2
solution

The area between the curves over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is given by

Z 1   
−x 1 x −x 1 2 1 x
A= (2e + x) − e dx = − 2e + x − e
0 2 2 2
 
−1 1 1 1
= − 2e + − e) − (−2 + 0 −
2 2 2
2 e
=3 − − ≈ 0.9051
e 2


 Example 2.1.2 Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y = 2−x2 and the line y = −x

solution
First we sketch the two curves (as shown in the figure below). The limits of integration are found
by solving y = 2 − x2 and y = −x simultaneously for x.

The limits of integration are found by solving y = 2 − x2 and y = −x simultaneously for x.

2 − x2 = − x
x2 − x − 2 =0
(x + 1)(x − 2) =0
2.1 Areas Between Curves 25

x = −1, x = 2
The region runs from x = −1 to x = 2. The limits of integration are a = −1, b = 2

The area between the curve is

Z b  Z 2
A= f (x) − g(x) dx = [(2 − x2 ) − (−x)]dx
a −1

x2 x3 2
Z 2  
= (2 + x − x2 )dx = 2x + −
−1 2 3 −1
   
4 8 1 1 9
= 4+ − − −2+ + =
2 3 2 3 2


R If the formula for a bounding curve changes at one or more points, we subdivide the region
into subregions that correspond to the formula changes and apply the formula for the area
between curves to each subregion.
√
 Example 2.1.3 Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by y = x
and below by the x− axis and the line y = x − 2.

solution

√
x =x − 2
x =(x − 2)2 = x2 − 4x + 4
x2 − 5x + 4 =0
(x − 1)(x − 4) =0

x = 1, x = 4
√
Only the value x = 4 satisfies the equation x = x − 2. Note that x = 1 is an extraneous root
introduced by squaring . Hence for a = 2, b = 4
√ √
For 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 : f (x) − g(x) = x − 0 = x
√ √
For 2 ≤ x ≤ 4 : f (x) − g(x) = x − (x − 2) = x − x + 2
26 Chapter 2. Applications of Integration

Total area
Z 2
√ Z 4
√
= xdx + ( x − x + 2)dx
0 2
2  4
2 3 x2

2 3
= x 2 + x − + 2x
2
3 0 3 2 2
   
2 3 2 3 2 3
= (2) 2 − 0 + (4) 2 − 8 + 8 − (2) 2 − 2 + 4
3 3 3
2 10
= (8) − 2 =
3 3


Integrating with respect to y

If a region’s bounding curves are described by functions of y, the approximating rectangles are
horizontal instead of vertical and the basic formula has y in place of x.

For such regions we use the formula

Z d
A= [ f (y) − g(y)]dy
c

In this case, f denotes the Right Hand Side curve and g the Left Hand Side curve, so f (y) − g(y) is
non-negative.
 Example 2.1.4 Find the area in example 2.1.3 by integrating with respect to y.

solution The lower limit of integration is y = 0. We find the upper limit by solving x = y + 2
and x = y2 simultaneously for y.

y + 2 =y2
y2 − y − 2 =0
(y + 1)(y − 2) =0

y = −1, y = 2
The upper limit of integration is b = 2. (The value y = −1 gives a point of intersection below the
x− axis).
The area of the region is
 2.2 Volumes using cross- sections 27

Figure 2.1.1: It takes two integrations to find the area of this region if we integrate with respect to
x. It takes only one if we integrate with respect to y

Z d Z 2
A= [ f (y) − g(y)]dy = [y + 2 − y2 ]dy
c 0
Z 2
= [2 + y − y2 ]dy
0
y2 y3 2
 
= 2y + −
2 3 0
4 8 10
=4 + − =
2 3 3


Exercise 2.1 Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the lines and curves given below:

(a). y = x2 − 2 and y = 2

(b). y = 2x − x2 and y = −3

(c). y = x4 and y = 8x

(d). y = x2 − 2x and y = x

(e). y = x4 − 4x2 + 4 and y = x2

(f). x = 2y2 , x = 0 and y = 3

(g). x = y2 and x = y + 2

(h). y2 − 4x = 4 and 4x − y = 16

(i). x − y2 = 0 and x + 2y2 = 3

(j). x + y2 = 0 and x + 3y2 = 2

2.2 Volumes using cross- sections

28 Chapter 2. Applications of Integration

Definition 2.2.1 The volume of a solid of integrable cross- sectional area A(x) from x = a to
x = b is the integral of A from a to b,
Z b
V= A(x)dx
a

R This definition applies whenever A(x) is integrable and in particular when it is continuous.To
apply the definition to calculate the volume of a solid using cross-sections perpendicular to
the x-axis, take the following steps:

Calculating the Volume of a Solid

1. Sketch the solid and a typical cross-section.

2. Find a formula for A(x), the area of a typical cross-section.

3. Find the limits of integration.

4. Integrate A(x) to find the volume.

 Example 2.2.1 A pyramid 3m high has a square base that is 3m on a side. The cross-section of
the pyramid perpendicular to the altitude xm down from the vertex is a square xm on a side. Find
the volume of the pyramid.

solution
1. A sketch. We draw the pyramid with its altitude along the x−axis and its vertex at the origin
and include a typical cross-section.

Figure 2.2.1: The cross-sections of the pyramid in 2.2.1 are squares.

2. A formula for A(x). The cross-section at x is a square x meters on a side, so its area is
A(x) = x2 .

3. The limits of integration. The squares lie on the planes from x = 0 to x = 3.

4. Integrate to find the volume:
3
x3
Z 3 Z 3
2
V= A(x)dx = x dx = = 9m3
0 0 3 0
2.2 Volumes using cross- sections 29

 Example 2.2.2 A curved wedge is cut from a circular cylinder of radius 3 by two planes. One
plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The second plane crosses the first plane at a 45deg
angle at the center of the cylinder. Find the volume of the wedge.

solution We draw the wedge and sketch a typical cross-section perpendicular to the x−axis.

Figure 2.2.2: The wedge sliced perpendicular to the x−axis. The cross-sections are rectangles.

The base of the wedge in the figure is the semicircle with x ≥ 0 that is cut from the circle x2 + y2 = 9
by the 45deg plane when it intersects the √ x in the interval [0, 3], the y− values in
√ y−axis. For any
this semicircular base vary from y = − 9 − x2 to y = 9 − x2 . When we slice through the wedge
by a plane perpendicular to the x−axis, we obtain a cross-section at x which is a rectangle of height
x whose width extends across the semicircular base. The area of this cross-section is
 p 
A(x) = (height)(width) =(x) 2 9 − x 2

p
=2x 9 − x2

The rectangles run from x = 0 to x = 3, so we have

Z b Z 3p
V= A(x)dx = 9 − x2 dx
2x
a 0
3
2 2 32
= − (9 − x )
3 0
2 3
=0 + (9) 2
3
=18

Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method

The solid generated by rotating (or revolving) a plane region about an axis in its plane is called
a solid of revolution. To find the volume of a solid of revolution, we need only observe that the
cross-sectional area A(x) is the area of a disk of radius R(x), the distance of the planar region’s
boundary from the axis of revolution. The area is then

A(x) = π(radius)2 = π[R(x)]2

30 Chapter 2. Applications of Integration

So the definition of volume in this case gives:

Volume by Disks for Rotation About the x-axis
Z b Z b
V= A(x)dx = π[R(x)]2 dx.
a a
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often called the disk method
because a cross-section is a circular disk of radius R(x).
√
 Example 2.2.3 The region between the curve y = x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, and the x−axis is revolved
about the x−axis to generate a solid. Find its volume.

solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid.

Figure 2.2.3: The region Figure 2.2.4: solid of revolution

The volume is

Z b
V= π[R(x)]2 dx
a
Z 4
√
= π[ x]2 dx
0
4
πx2 π(4)2
Z 4
=π xdx = = = 8π
0 2 0 2


 Example 2.2.4 The circle x2 + y2 = a2 is rotated about the x-axis to generate a sphere. Find its
volume.

solution We imagine the sphere cut into thin slices by planes perpendicular to the x−axis. The
cross-sectional area at a typical point x between −a and a is

A(x) = πy2 = π(a2 − x2 ).

Therefore, the volume is

x3 a
Z a Z a  Z a 
2 2 2 2 42
V= A(x)dx = π(a − x )dx = π (a − x )dx = π a x − = πa3 .
−a −a −a 3 −a 3

 Example 2.2.5 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by
√
y= x and the lines y = 1, x = 4 about the line y = 1.
2.2 Volumes using cross- sections 31

Figure 2.2.5: The sphere

√ generated by rotating the circle x2 + y2 = a2 about the x−axis. The
radius is R(x) = y = a − x2 .
2

Figure 2.2.6: The region Figure 2.2.7: solid of revolution

solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid.
The volume is
Z 4
V= π[R(x)]2 dx
1
Z 4
√
= π[ x − 1]2 dx
1
Z 4
√
=π [x − 2 x + 1]dx
1
 2 4
x 2 3 7π
=π −2· x +x =
2
2 3 1 6


To find the volume of a solid generated by revolving a region between the y−axis and a curve
x = R(y), c ≤ y ≤ d, about the y−axis, we use the same method with x replaced by y.
In this case, the area of the circular cross-section is

A(y) = π[radius]2 = π[R(y)]2 ,

and the definition of volume gives

32 Chapter 2. Applications of Integration

Volume by Disks for Rotation About the y-axis

Z d Z d
V= A(y)dy = π[R(y)]2 dy.
c c

Example 2.2.6 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the
y−axis and the curve x = 2y , 1 ≤ y ≤ 4, about the y− axis.

solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid. The

Figure 2.2.8: The region Figure 2.2.9: solid of revolution

volume is
Z 4
V= π[R(y)]2 dy
1
Z 4  2
2
= dy
1 y
Z 4  4  
4 1 3
=π 2
dy = 4π − = 4π = 3π
1 y y 1 4

 Example 2.2.7 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the
parabola x = y2 + 1 and the line x = 3 about the line x = 3.

solution We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid

Figure 2.2.10: The region Figure 2.2.11: solid of revolution

2.2 Volumes using cross- sections 33

Note that
√ the cross-sections
√ are perpendicular to the line x = 3 and have y−coordinates from
y = − 2 to y = 2. The volume is

Z √2
2
V= √ π[R(y)] dy
− 2
Z √2
= √ π[2 − y2 ]2 dy
− 2
√
4 3 y5 2

=π 4y − y +
3 5 −√2
√
64π 2
=
15


Exercise 2.2 1. Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating about the x−axis the
3
area under the curve y = x, from x = 0 to x = 4. Answer=12π
4
2. The area of the segment cut off by y = 2 from the curve y = x2 + 1, is rotated about y = 2,
16
find the volume of the solid generated. Answer= π
15
3
3. Let R be the region bounded by y = x 2 , the x-axis, and x = 0, x = 4.

i. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating R about the x-axis.
ii. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating R about the line y = −4.
√
4. The region bounded between the graphs y = x and the x-axis for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 is revolved
around the line y = 2. Find the volume of the solid that is generated.
√
x2 −9
5. Find the area under the graph of y = x from x = 3 to x = 5.

6. Sketch the region bounded by the curves and find its area

i. 4x = 4y − y2 , 4x − y = 0.
ii. y = ex , y = e, y = x, x = 0.
8
iii. 4y = x2 and y = x2 +4
.
iv. y = sin2 x, y = tan2 x, x
 
∈ − π4 , π4
x2
v. The region in the first quadrant bounded by the x-axis, the parabola y = 3, and the
circle x2 + y2 = 4.

7. The base of a solid is the region bounded by x = y2 and x = 3 − 2y2 . Find the volume of
the solid given that the cross sections perpendicular to the x-axis are

i. rectangles of height h.
ii. equilateral triangles.

 3. Sequences and Series

Sequences are fundamental to the study of infinite series and many applications of mathematics.In
this chapter we will explore general sequences of numbers and the conditions under which they
converge to a finite number.

3.1 Representing Sequences

A sequence is a list of numbers
a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an , · · ·
in a given order. Each of a1 , a2 , a3 and so on represents a number. These are the terms of the
sequence. For example, the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, · · · , 2n, · · · has first term a1 = 2, second
term a2 = 4, and nth term an = 2n. The integer n is called the index of an , and indicates where an
occurs in the list. Order is important. The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, · · · is not the same as the sequence
4, 2, 6, 8, · · · .
We can think of the sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , c . . . , an , · · · as a function that sends 1 to a1 , 2 to a2 , 3 to a3 ,
and in general sends the positive integer n to the nth term an . More precisely, an infinite sequence
of numbers is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers.
The function associated with the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, · · · , 2n, · · · sends 1 to a1 = 2, 2 to a2 = 4,
and so on. The general behaviour of this sequence is described by the formula an = 2n.
We can equally well make the domain the integers larger than a given number n0 , and we allow
sequences of this type also. For example, the sequence

12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, · · ·

is described by the formula an = 10 + 2n. It can also be described by the simpler formula bn = 2n,
where the index n starts at 6 and increases. To allow such simpler formulas, we let the first index of
the sequence be any integer. In the sequence above, {an } starts with a1 while {bn } starts with b6 .
Sequences can be described by writing rules that specify their terms, such as
√ 1 n−1
an = n, bn = (−1)n+1 , cn = , dn = (−1)n+1 ,
n n
 36 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series

or by listing terms:

√ √ √ √
{an } ={ 1, 2, 3, · · · , n, · · · }
1 1 1 1
{bn } ={1, − , , − , · · · , (−1)n+1 , · · · }
2 3 4 n
1 2 3 4 n−1
{cn } ={0, , , , , · · · , ,···}
2 3 4 5 n
{dn } ={1, −1, 1, −1, 1, · · · , (−1)n+1 , · · · }

We also sometimes write a sequence using its rule, as with

√
{an } = { n}∞
n=1

3.2 Convergence and Divergence

Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach a single value as the index n increases. This
happens in the sequence  
1 1 1 1
1, , , , · · · , , · · ·
2 3 4 n
whose terms approach 0 as n gets large.

On the other hand the sequence

√ √ √
 
1, 2, 3, · · · ,

have terms that get larger than any number as n increases.

 
n+1
The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, · · · , (−1) , · · · bounce back and forth between 1 and −1, never
converging to a single value.
 
Definition 3.2.1 The sequence an converges to the number L if for every positive number ε
there corresponds an integer N such that for all n,

n > N ⇒ |an − L| < ε.

 
If no such number L exists, we say that an diverges.
If {an } converges to L, we write limn→∞ an = L, or simply an → L, and call L the limit of the
sequence.

R The definition is very similar to the definition of the limit of a function f (x) as x tends to ∞.
We will exploit this connection to calculate limits of sequences.

 Example 3.2.1 Show that

1.
1
lim =0
n→∞ n
 3.3 Calculating Limits of Sequences 37

2.
lim k = k, any constant
n→∞

solution
1. Let ε > 0 be given. We must show that there exists an integer N such that for all n,
 
1 
n > N ⇒  − 0 < ε.

n

1 1 1
This implication will hold if < ε or n > . If N is any integer greater than , the implication
n ε ε
1
will hold for all n > N. This proves that lim = 0.
n→∞ n

2.Let ε > 0 be given. We must show that there exists an integer N such that for all n,

n > N ⇒ |k − k| < ε

since k − k = 0, we can use any positive integer for N and the implication will hold. This proves
that, lim k = k for any constant k. 
n→∞

 
Exercise 3.1 Show that the sequence 1, −1, 1, · · · , (−1)n+1 , · · · diverges. 

Definition 3.2.2 The sequence {an } diverges to infinity if for every number M there is an integer
N such that for all n larger than N, an > M. If this condition holds we write

lim an = ∞
n→∞

or an → ∞.

Definition 3.2.3 If for every number m there is an integer N such that for all n > N we have
an < m, then we say that {an } diverges to negative infinity and write

lim = −∞
n→∞

or an → −∞.

3.3 Calculating Limits of Sequences

   
Theorem 3.3.1 Let an and bn be sequences of real numbers, and let A and B be real
numbers. The following rules hold if limn→∞ an = A and limn→∞ bn = B.

1. Sum Rule: limn→∞ (an + bn ) = A + B

2. Difference Rule: limn→∞ (an − bn ) = A − B

3. Constant Multiple Rule: limn→∞ k · bn = k · B (any number k)

4. Product Rule: limn→∞ (an · bn ) = A · B

38 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series
an A
5. Quotient Rule: limn→∞ = if B 6= 0
bn B

 Example 3.3.1
 
−1 1
1. lim = −1 lim
= −1 · 0 = 0 Constant Multiple Rule
n→∞ n n→∞ n

   
n−1 1 1
2. lim = lim 1 − = lim 1 − lim = 1 − 0 = 1 Difference Rule
n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n→∞ n

5 1 1
3. lim = 5 · lim
· lim = 5 · 0 · 0 = 0 Product Rule
n→∞ n2 n n→∞n→∞ n
 
4
−7
4 − 7n6 n6 0−7
4. lim 6 = lim  = = −7 Sum and Quotient Rules
n→∞ n + 3 n→∞ 3 1+0
1 + n6


Theorem
  3.3.2
 -The 
Sandwich
 Theorem for Sequences
Let an , bn and cn be sequences of real numbers. If an ≤ bn ≤ cn holds for all n beyond
some index N, and if limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn = L, then limn→∞ bn = L also

1
 Example 3.3.2 Since → 0, we know that
n
cos n −1 cos n 1
1. → 0 because ≤ ≤ .
n n n n
1 1 1
2. → 0 because 0 ≤ n ≤ .
2n 2 n
1 −1 1 1
3. (−1)n → 0 because ≤ (−1)n ≤ .
n n n n


Using L’Hôpital’s Rule

Theorem 3.3.3 Suppose that (x) is a function defined for all x ≥ n0 and that {an } is a sequence
of real numbers such that an = f (n) for n ≥ n0 . Then

lim f (x) = L ⇒ lim an = L

x→∞ n→∞

Proof. Suppose that lim f (x) = L. Then for each positive number ε there is a number M such that
x→∞
for all x,
x > M ⇒ | f (x) − L| < ε.
Let N be an integer greater than M and greater than or equal to n0 . Then

n > M ⇒ an = f (n)and|an − L| = | f (n) − L| < ε.


3.3 Calculating Limits of Sequences 39

 Example 3.3.3 Show that

ln n
lim =0
n→∞ n

(ln x)
The function is defined for all x ≥ 1 and agrees with the given sequence at positive integers.
x
By the theorem above, we will have
ln n ln x
lim = lim
n→∞ n x→∞ x

By L’Hopital’s rule
1
ln x 0
lim = lim x = = 0
x→∞ x x→∞ 1 1
ln n
We conclude that lim =0 
n→∞ n

R When we use l’Hôpital’s Rule to find the limit of a sequence, we often treat n as a continuous
real variable and differentiate directly with respect to n.

 Example 3.3.4 Does the sequence whose nth term is

 n
n+1
an =
n−1
converge? If so find limn→∞ an .

The limit leads to the indeterminate form 1∞ . We can apply l’Hôpital’s Rule if we first change the
form to ∞ · 0 by taking the natural logarithm of an :

n+1 n
 
ln an = ln
n−1
 
n+1
=n ln
n−1

Then  
n+1
lim ln an = lim n ln
n→∞ n→∞ n−1

 
n+1
ln n−1
= lim 1
n→∞
n

−2
(n2 −1)
= lim
n→∞ −1
n2

2n2
= lim = 2.
n→∞ n2 − 1
 40 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series

ln an → 2

eln an → e2

⇒ an ln e → e2

i.e
an → e2

 
The sequence an converges to e2 . 

 
Exercise 3.2 Which of the sequences an converge, diverge. Find the limit of each convergent
sequence.

1. an = 2 + (0.1)n
n + (−1)n
2. an =
n
1 − 2n
3. an =
1 + 2n
2n + 1
4. an = √
1−3 n

1 − 5n4
5. an =
n4 + 8n3
n+3
6. an =
n2 + 5n + 6
n2 − 2n + 1
7. an =
n−1
1 − n3
8. an =
70 − 4n2


3.4 Infinite Series

An infinite series is the sum of an infinite sequence of numbers

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · ·

The sum of the first n terms

Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
3.4 Infinite Series 41

is an ordinary finite sum and can be calculated by normal addition. It is called the nth partial sum.

For example, to assign meaning to an expression like

1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +···
2 4 8 16
we add the terms one at a time from the beginning and look for a pattern in how these partial sums
grow.

Partial sum Value Suggestive expression for partial sum

First: s1 = 1 1 2−1
Second: s2 = 1 + 21 3
2 2 − 12
Third: s3 = 1 + 12 + 14 7
4 2 − 14
.. .. ..
. . .
th 1 1 1 2n −1 1
n : sn = 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n−1 2n−1 2 − 2n−1

Indeed there is a pattern.

The partial sums form a sequence whose nth term is

1
sn = 2 −
2n−1
 
1
This sequence of partial sums converges to 2 because limn→∞ 2n−1
= 0. We say “the sum of the
infinite series 1 + 12 + 14 + · · · + 2n−1
1
+ · · ·00
 
Definition 3.4.1 Given a sequence of numbers an , an expression of the form a1 + a2 + a3 +

·· · +an + · · · is an infinite series.The number an is the nth term of the series. The sequence
sn defined by

s1 =1
s2 =a1 + a2
..
.
n
sn =a1 + a2 + · · · + an = ∑ ak
k=1
..
.

is the sequence of partial sums of the series, the number sn being the nth partial sum. If the
sequence of partial sums converges to a limit L, we say that the series converges and that its
sum is L. In this case, we also write
∞
a1 + a2 + · · · + an = ∑ an = L
k=1

If the sequence of partial sums of the series does not converge, we say that the series diverges.
 42 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series

3.5 Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series

The most basic question we can ask about a series is whether it converges or not. In this section,
we study this question, starting with series that have non negative terms. Such a series converges
if its sequence of partial sums is bounded. If we establish that a given series does converge, we
generally do not have a formula available for its sum.
So for a convergent series, we need to investigate the error involved when using a partial sum to
approximate its total sum.
The Integral Test
We now introduce the Integral Test with a series that is related to the harmonic series, but whose
nth term is 1/n2 instead of 1/n.
 Example 3.5.1 Does the following series converge?
∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ n2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 · · · + n2 + · · ·
n=1

1 R∞ 1
solution We determine the convergence of ∑∞ n=1 n2 by comparing it with 1 x2 dx. To carry out the
comparison, we think of the terms of the series as values of the function f (x) = x12 and interpret
these values as the areas of rectangles under the curve y = x12 . As Figure 10.10 shows,

1
Figure 3.5.1: The sum of the areas of the rectangles under the graph of f (x) = x2
is less than the
area under the graph

1 1 1 1
sn = 2
+ 2 + 2 +···+ 2
1 2 3 n
= f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + · · · + f (n)
1
Z ∞
< f (1) + 2
dx
1 x
1
Z ∞
<1 + 2
dx
1 x
<1 + 1 = 2
1
Thus the partial sums of ∑∞
n=1 n2 are bounded from above (by 2) and the series converges. 
3.5 Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series 43

Theorem
 3.5.1 -The Integral Test
Let an be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that an = f (n) where f is a continuous
∞
positive, decreasing function of x for all x ≥ N (N is a positive integer). Then the series ∑ an
Z ∞ n=N

and the integral f (x)dx both converge or both diverge.

N

 Example 3.5.2 Does the following series converge?

∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ n2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 · · · + n2 + · · ·
n=1
∞
1 1
Z ∞
solution: We determine the convergence of ∑ 2 by comparing it with dx
n=1 n 1 x2
Z a
1
Z ∞
dx = lim x−2 dx
1 x2 a→∞ 1
 a 
−1 
= lim
a→∞ x 1
 
1
= − lim − lim 1
a→∞ a a→∞

= − 1[0 − 1] = 1

Hence the series converges. 

 Example 3.5.3 Does the following series converge?

∞
1 1 1 1
∑ n = 1+ 2 ++3 +···+ n +···
n=1
1
solution: Let f (x) = over [1, ∞]
x
Z a
1 1
Z ∞ Z ∞
T hen f (x)dx = dx = lim dx
1 1 x a→∞ 1 x
 a

= lim ln |x| 
a→∞
1
= lim ln |a| − ln 1
a→∞
=∞ − 0
=∞

1
Z ∞
∴ dx diverges
1 x
∞
1
Hence by the integral test, we have that ∑ n diverges. 
n=1
 Example 3.5.4 Show that the p− series
∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ np = 1p + 2p + 3p + · · · + np + · · ·
n=1

(p is a real constant) converges if p > 1.

44 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series
1
solution: If p > 1, then f (x) = p is a positive decreasing function of x.
x
Since
 −p+1 b
1 x
Z ∞
p
dx = lim
1 x b→∞ −p +1 1
 
1 1
= lim −1
1 − p b→∞ b p−1
1 1
= (0 − 1) =
1− p p−1
hence the series converges by the integral test. 

Exercise 3.3 Determine the convergence or divergence of the series:

∞
2
1. ∑ ne−n Converges
n=1
∞
1
2. ∑ 2ln n Diverges
n=1


Comparisson Test
Theorem 3.5.2 -Comparisson Test
Let ∑ an , ∑ cn and ∑ dn be series with non-negative terms. Suppose that for some integer N

dn ≤ an ≤ cn

for all n > N

(a) If ∑ cn converges, then ∑ an also converges.

(b) If ∑ dn diverges, then If ∑ an also diverges.

5
 Example 3.5.5 Determine if ∑∞
n=1 5n−1 converges or diverges.
∞
1
solution: Consider the series ∑ n.
n=1
∞ ∞ ∞
5 1 1
Then ∑ =∑ 1
> ∑
n=1 5n − 1 n=1 n − 5 n=1 n
1 1
i.e n < n− 1
5
∞ ∞
1 5
Now since ∑ n diverges so is ∑ 5n − 1 
n=1 n=1

Limit Comparisson Test

Theorem 3.5.3 -Limit Comparisson Test
Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ≥ N (N an integer):

1. If limn→∞ bann = c > 0, then ∑ an and ∑ bn both converge or diverge.

2. If limn→∞ abnn = 0 and ∑ bn converges, then and ∑ an converges.

3.5 Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series 45

3. If limn→∞ abnn = ∞ and ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ an diverges.

 Example 3.5.6 Which of the following series converge, and which diverge?
∞ ∞
3 5 7 9 2n + 1 2n + 1
(a) + + + +··· = ∑ 2
= ∑ 2
4 9 16 25 n=1 (n + 1) n=1 n + 2n + 1
∞
1 1 1 1 1
(b) + + + +··· = ∑ n
1 3 7 15 n=1 2 −1
∞
1 + 2 ln 2 1 + 3 ln n 1 + 4 ln 4 1 + n ln n
(c) + + +··· = ∑ 2
9 14 21 n=1 n + 5

solution:
We apply the limit comparisson test to each series

(a) Let
2n + 1
an =
n2 + 2n + 1
2n 2
For large n, we expect an to behave like = since the leading terms dominate for large n,
∞ ∞
n2 n
1 1
so we let bn = . Since ∑ bn = ∑ diverges.
n n=1 n=1 n
and
an 2n2 + n
lim = lim 2 =2
n→∞ bn n→∞ n + 2n + 1

∑ an diverges by part 1 of the limit Comparisson Test.

2 1
We would just as well have taken bn = , but is simpler.
n n
(b) Let
1
an =
(2n − 1)
1 1
For large n, we expect an to behave like n
, so we let bn = n . Since
2 2
∞ ∞
1
∑ bn = ∑ 2n
n=1 n=1

converges.
and
∞
an 2n 1
∑ bn n→∞ 2n − 1 = n→∞
= lim lim
1 − (1/2n )
=1
n=1
∑ an converges by part 1 of the Limit Comparisson Test.
(c) Let
(1 + n ln n
an =
(n2 + 5)

n ln n (ln n) 1
For large n, we expect an to behave like 2 = , which is greater than for n ≥ 3, so
n n n
1
we let bn = .
n
46 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series
∞ ∞
1
Since ∑ bn = ∑ n diverges
n=2 n=2
and
an n + n2 ln n
lim = lim =∞
n→∞ bn n→∞ n2 + 5

∑ an diverges by part 3 of the Limit Comparisson Test



Exercise 3.4 Use the Comparisson Test to determine if each series converges or diverges.
∞
1
(a) ∑ n2 + 30
n=1
∞
n−1
(b) ∑ n4 + 2
n=1
∞
1
(c) ∑ √n − 1
n=2
∞√
n+1
(d) ∑ √
2
n=1 n + 3


Absolute Convergence
When some of the terms of a series are positive and others are negative, the series may not converge.
For a general series with both positive and negative terms, we can apply the tests for convergence
studied before to the series of absolute values of its terms.
Definition 3.5.1 A series ∑ an converges absolutely (is absolutely convergent ) if the corre-
sponding series of absolute values, ∑ |an |, converges.

Theorem 3.5.4 -The Absolute Convergence Test

If ∑∞ ∞
n=1 |an | converges, then ∑n=1 an converges.

Proof. For each n, −|an | ≤ an ≤ |an |, so 0 ≤ an + |an | ≤ 2|an |.

If ∑∞ ∞
n=1 |an | converges then ∑n=1 2|an | converges and, by the Direct Comparisson Test, the non
negative series ∑∞ n=1 (an + |an |) converges.
The equality an = (an + |an |) − |an | now let us express ∑∞
n=1 an as the difference of two converges
series:
∞ ∞
∑ an = ∑ (an + |an | − |an |)
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
= ∑ (an + |an |) − ∑ |an |.
n=1 n=1

Therefore, ∑∞
n=1 an converges. 

Example 3.5.7 (a) For ∑∞ n+1 1 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · · ,

 n=1 (−1) n2 4 9 16
the corresponding series of absolute values is the convergent series.
1 1 1 1
∑∞n=1 n2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + · · ·
The original series converges because it converges absolutely.
3.5 Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series 47
sin n sin 1 sin 2 sin 3
(b) For ∑∞n=1 n2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + · · · ,
which contains
 both positive and negative terms, the corresponding series of absolute value is
  | sin 1| | sin 2|
∞  sin n 
∑n=1  n2  = 1 + 4 + · · · ,
which converges by comparisson with ∑∞ 2
n=1 (1/n ) because | sin n| ≤ 1 for every n.
The original series converges absolutely; therefore it converges.


The Ratio Test

Theorem 3.5.5 -The Ratio Test  
 an+1 
Let ∑ an be any series and suppose that limn→∞  an  = ρ.

Then:

(a) the series converges absolutely if ρ < 1

(b) the series diverges if ρ > 1 or ρ is infinite.

(c) the test is inconclusive if ρ = 1

 Example 3.5.8 Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
(a) For the series ∑ (2n + 5)/3n ,
n=0
 an+1  (2n+1 + 5)/3n+1 2n+1 + 5 3n
 
 = = ·
 an  (2n + 5)/3n 3n+1 2n + 5
n+1
1 2 +5
=
3 2n + 5
 2n+1 + 5  1  2 + 5/2n  1 2 2
  
∴ lim  n  = lim  = · =
n→∞ 2 + 5  3 n→∞  1 + 5/2n  3 1 3
2
∴ρ = <1
3
Hence the series converges absolutely.

(2n)! (2n+2)!
(b) If an = , then an+1 = (n+1)!(n+1)!
n!n!
and

 an+1 n!n!(2n + 2)!
 an = (n + 1)!(n + 1)!(2n)!


n!n!(2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)!

=
(n + 1)!(n + 1)!(2n)!
n!n!(2n + 2)(2n + 1)
=
(n + 1)(n)!(n + 1)n!
(2n + 2)(2n + 1)
=
(n + 1)(n + 1)
2(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=
(n + 1)(n + 1)
4n + 2
=
n+1
48 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series
4n + 2
lim =4
n→∞ n + 1
∴ ρ = 4 > 1 hence the series diverges.

(c) If an = 4n n!n!/(2n)!, then

 an+1 4n+1 (n + 1)!(n + 1)! (2n)!

 an =
 · n
(2n + 2)! 4 n!n!
n n
4 · 4 · (n + 1)n!(n + 1)n! · ()2n!
=
(2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)! · 4n n!n!
4(n + 1)(n + 1) 2(n + 1)
= =
2(n + 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1

 an+1 2n + 2
lim  = lim =1
n→∞ an n→∞ 2n + 1
∴ρ =1
Because the limit is ρ = 1, we cannot decide from the Ratio Test whether the series converges.
an+1
When we notice that = (2n + 2)/(2n + 1), we conclude that an+1 is always greater than
an
an because (2n + 2)/(2n + 1) is always greater than 1.
Therefore, all terms are greater than or equal to a1 = 2, and the nth term does not approach zero
as n → ∞. The series diverges.


The Root Test

Theorem 3.5.6 -The Root Test p
n
Let ∑ an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = ρ. Then:
n→∞

(a) the series converges absolutely if ρ < 1

(b) the series diverges if ρ > 1 or ρ is infinite.

(c) the test is inconclusive if ρ = 1.

 Example 3.5.9 Consider the series

(
n/2n , n odd
an =
1/2n , n even

Does ∑ an converge?
solution
We apply the Root Test, finding that
(√
n
p
n n/2, n odd
|an | =
1/2, n even
p √
∴ 1/2 ≤ n |an | ≤ n n/2
√ p
Since n n → 1, we have lim n |an | = 1/2 by the Sandwich theorem: The limit is less than 1, so
n→∞
the series converges absolutely by the Root Test.


 Example 3.5.10 Which of the series converge, and which diverge?

3.5 Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series 49
∞
n2
(a) ∑ 2n
n=1
∞
2n
(b) ∑ 3
n=1 n
∞  
1
(c) ∑
n=1 1+n

solution We apply the Root Test to each series, noting that each series has positive terms.
√
∞
n2
q n 2
2
(a) ∑ n converges because n n2n = 2n
n=1 2√
n 2
n 1 √
n 1 1
lim = lim n2 = · 12 = < 1
n→∞ 2 2 n→∞ 2 2
r
∞
2n n 2
n 2
(b) ∑ 3 diverges because 3
= √ n 3
→ 2/13 > 1.
n=1 n n ( n)
s
∞   
1 n 1 1
(c) ∑ converges because = →0<1
n=1 1 + n 1+n 1+n

50 Chapter 3. Sequences and Series

Exercise 3.5 1. Use the Ration Test to determine if each series converges absolutely or
diverges:
∞
2n
(a) ∑
n=1 n!
∞
2n+1
(b) ∑ n3n−1
n=1
∞
n+2
(c) ∑ (−1)n 3n
n=1
∞
n4
(d) ∑ n
n=1 (−4)
∞  
n−2
(e) ∑
n=1 n

2. Which of these series converge, and which diverge? Give reasons for your answers.
∞
2n n!n!
(a) ∑
n=1 (2n)!
∞
(−1)n (3n)!
(b) ∑ n!(n + 1!)(n + 2)!
n=1
∞
(n!)n
(c) ∑ (nn )2
n=1
∞
(n!)n
(d) ∑ (−1)n 2
n(n )
n=1
∞
nn
(e) ∑ 2n 2
n=1
∞
nn
(f) ∑ (2n )2
n=1