Disinformation and ‘Fake News’ in Media Literacy

Faith Jones

School of Communication Studies, Kent State University

COMM-45902-003

Professor Rekha Sharma

April 23, 2022

In recent years, the spread of disinformation and fake news has significantly increased

and has gained worldwide attention. This has resulted in a greater concern for the effects it might

project into our future lives and how we will choose to perceive and relay information to each
other. According to Guarda (2018), “Disinformation is the information that is false and

deliberately created to harm a person, social group, organization or country” (p.8). Also,

according to Allcott and Gentzkow (2017), “fake news is news articles that are intentionally and

verifiably false and could mislead readers” (p.213). This impacts how humans think and react to

the information they encounter in their everyday lives. The way we conceptualize information

has a large impact on our society and our future generations to come. Disinformation and fake

news have continuously been debunked and ignored and are becoming harder to identify with the

technological advancements we have faced in recent years. The dire need for more resources

available to all generations and more specifically younger ones is significant to not only them but

the future of information. I have implemented a step-by-step process to help ensure that younger

generations are provided with the appropriate resources and that it is effectively taught to them.

The power of media literacy can be the ultimate change that prevents our society from becoming

permanently persuaded and results in detrimental outcomes.

All ages of people are being impacted by this issue in various ways. Younger generations are

extremely vulnerable to this threat due to the lack of developed knowledge that older generations

have gathered over the years. Younger generations also propose a serious threat due to their

intense use of media technology. Most younger generations have grown up surrounded by

technology and see it as essential to their daily lives. Most people, specifically young adults, use

social media as the source for their news (Mitchell, 2018). The outlets in which people choose to

find their information, especially younger people, will continue to impact how present and future

people find information, credible or not. Although some of the impacts of media technology are

positive, there are also many negative effects. The media has the power to alter the ways we

think and process information. Many people are unaware of all the ways information can be
persuaded to get people to develop specific viewpoints. The way we choose to interpret

information has an astonishing impact on not only our minds but our society. It is becoming the

gateway for the new ways we are learning to process information and share.

Forms of disinformation tend to feed off the fact that they have no limitations on social media

platforms. According to Allcott and Gentzkow (2017), “The long history of fake news

notwithstanding, there are several reasons to think that fake news is of growing importance.

First, barriers to entry in the media industry have dropped precipitously, both because it is now

easy to set up websites and because it is easy to monetize web content through advertising

platforms'' (p. 214). The world of media and technology is slowly allowing it to become easier to

present questionably credible information. Without understanding how this issue is proposing

serious threats to our minds and influencing our society then there is no stop to the irreversible

effects it will have.

As a result, the magnitude of this problem can lead to “post-reality” results. Guarda (2018, p.11),

stated “semiotic refraction seems to be replacing reflection, resulting in the emergence of ‘post-

reality’, a type of parallel universe embedded into real life, i.e., a simulacrum that seems to be

more concrete than reality itself.” This leads people to believe conspiracy theories when they are

constantly exposed to stop the process of the spread of disinformation, we must create a more

well-known awareness of this issue. This presented issue also allows us to think deeply about all

the impacts that media has had on the human species. Social media and the power of technology

have created us to be test animals of media messages and rather than questioning it, people think

they must accept it because it’s all we have ever known. Guarda (2018) says, “’post-reality can

very well be the final and ultimate trap of our species since we have already reached turning

points in many fields, such as in nuclear weapon escalation and global warming” (p.11). This
statement goes to show the threatening result that disinformation and fake news can have on our

society and lead us down a path that cannot be changed. These two controversial topics are just

two of the many examples of how a post-reality is starting to become our finish line.

My goal is to create more resources for awareness among the younger generations. I want to

allow them to become more knowledgeable about the threats it imposes. To fight the spread of

disinformation and all its various forms we must act. A recent activity proposed by Bonnet &

Rosenbaum (2019), stated, “In response to shifts in the current information landscape and the

increasing prevalence of “fake news” and misinformation, a librarian specializing in information

literacy and a faculty member with expertise in media literacy collaborated to create a workshop

that helps students unpack the many meanings of “fake news” and think critically about the news

they consume and share” (p.104). The step-by-step process used in this workshop starts by

asking simple questions about what they consider ‘fake news' to be and asking them where they

get their news from. After getting the responses, students are then informed with definitions of

these concepts supported by academic research and are told some of the general reasoning as to

why not all information is trustworthy. Next, students are presented with the reasoning as to why

it is so challenging to identify the truthfulness of new content. The next steps include informing

these students how our personal biases influence how we perceive a source is credible or not.

Lastly, students are given exercises in which they are asked to find strategies that help them to

determine if a source is credible or not.

The findings from this workshop study help to support my goal of implementing a

specific step-by-step process that helps younger generations if not all generations to better

identify these threats and learn to identify both credible information and news and noncredible.

My goal is to specifically make a workshop process that is practiced in higher-level education

settings as well as high school. I also plan for this strategic workshop to become so well known

in education that employers will want to incorporate it into their hiring and training processes.

Based on what I have learned from this study I plan to implement a similar replication. In my

step-by-step workshop, I hope to cover various grounds of information to ensure that my

participants are gaining useful knowledge that will not only help with their future paths but

develop a better base level of how to become information fluent.

Another study conducted by Amazeen and Bucy (2019), emphasizes the importance of

underlying factors that influence one’s resistance or acceptance of disinformation. In their study,

they focused on gathering background information on the sample groups' habits, interests, and

knowledge from group one and demographics, news knowledge, and political views from group

two. Amazeen & Bucy, (2019) stated, “Findings from the study extend the persuasion knowledge

model by explicating the contributions of an important informational difference that facilitates

recognition of covert persuasion as well as identifying coping mechanisms that define

inoculation-induced resistance to disinformation” (p. 416). This study helps to support my

workshop exercise goal by extending the level of background knowledge and information I have

on my sample group and comparing that information to the results of my study. This will then

allow me to better understand my results and implement more effective ways to prevent the

spread of disinformation.

My first step, like Bonnet & Rozenbaum’s, focuses on measuring students' level of

previous knowledge. In this process, I will focus on asking them how they define the terms,

disinformation and ‘fake news.’ I will use similar elements from Amazeen & Bucy’s study by

surveying what kinds of information and news they see most on their social media browsers. I

will then ask them how they typically think of that information and the types of strategies and
factors they consider when developing their opinions on it. According to Hartnett, (2011) &

McCombs, (2005), “Recent findings also assert that learning is supported when learners can

make a connection between assigned tasks and their interests and goals, as is the case when

evaluating and choosing between sources.” This helps to emphasize the benefits of making

personal connections with the target audience in order to effectively implement strategies.

Next, after gathering their responses I will find the most effective way to provide them with the

definitions of these terms supported by scholarly and research studies. After that, I will teach

students why it becomes so difficult to differentiate real news and information from fake due to

the arising influences that our society faces specifically through media. I will also make sure to

emphasize personal biases and the concept of confirmation bias and how they both significantly

influence how we perceive the information that surrounds us. Lastly, I will implement exercises

that relate to the common information and news that they are presented with on their social

media accounts and ask them to identify which sources are credible and which are not. At the

end of this exercise, I will provide them with the results and identify the determining factors that

are used as useful or unusual and provide them with the top ones to use in the future. Lastly, I

will ask these participants to write a reflection paper comparing the previous knowledge they had

coming into this workshop to the knowledge they are leaving with. This exercise will be

constructed to give younger people the opportunity to not only identify these threats but how to

respond to them in the most effective ways.

The dire need for this study is extremely significant today more than ever. It is especially

critical for younger generations that are the center of media in today’s age. According to

Mitchell, (2018), “Furthermore, social media, blogs, and video content sites have all become

sources of news in the digital landscape, especially in young adults.” No other age group has a
grasp around the high levels of technology like college students and early career beginners. This

age group has grown up surrounded by the ins and outs of technology and has learned how to

master all aspects. Also, according to Beckett, 2017; Farmer, 2019 and Luhtala & Whiting

(2018), “Educational services that involve news media literacy instruction are needed for young

adults enrolled in colleges and for adults in continuing education programs aimed at preparing

students for professional fields and trades.” With this age group at risk of being exposed to

disinformation and ‘fake news', it expresses a lot of concern for the future. It is highly critical

that we reach this age group because they are the influencers of future generations and have a

hold on the outcome results of these issues. Also, according to Potter, (2010), “Research has

found that this age group is particularly susceptible to unreliable news sources.”

The topics of disinformation and the assertive lessons of media literacy face endless

possible barriers. One main barrier is the lack of systematic implementation of media literacy

assessments. According to Buckingham & Domaille (2009), “Although many countries in the

world require media literacy to be taught in their curricula, in most places there is a lack of any

assessed activities measuring student learning in terms of skills and competencies. This barrier

then allows questioning on whether this taught curriculum is effective. This is a major concern

for the world of media literacy and threats of disinformation because it supports the lack of basic

education in this field. Media literacy is not always correctly documented, but the overall lack of

media literacy knowledge and the threats of disinformation it imposes is also very rare.

My persuasive message plan is to conduct personalized workshops for high school and college

students, as well as potential entry-level careers. In this step-by-step workshop, I plan to educate

students on the dangers of disinformation and the importance of media literacy. I plan to create

strong awareness for this issue and allow it to become more widely spread across the United
States. I plan to start my workshop by establishing the background that my audience has on my

topic and providing them with credible definitions and background information. Before this

workshop, I will gather more in-depth background information on my sample group of students

so that once I gather my results I can later go back and compare my findings. I then show the

students how it can be hard to identify disinformation and fake news in the media and connect

some of the material to potential background knowledge that the students have. This will then

allow students to better conceptualize the information I am sharing with them to promote more

effective learning. Lastly, I will present exercises for the students to engage with that connect

directly to the information that they encounter on their own media sources. I will ask the students

to identify the credible sources versus the non-credible ones and then provide them with accurate

results. In conclusion, I will then ask the students to write a reflection paper that will allow them

to reflect on the findings that they found from this workshop and reflect on the prior knowledge

that they had coming into the workshop initially.

It’s also important that I carefully identify my audience. I plan to target students that are

currently in high school and college, as well as potentially freshly graduated college students.

With this age group, it can be both challenging and beneficial. When dealing with the young

adult demographic the levels of vulnerability are higher due to their younger age and low level of

exposure. With that advantage, it’s also important to identify the many challenges that arise with

dealing with this target audience. Young adults and teenagers tend to have lower attention spans

due to the high use of technology. Therefore, I chose to implement an engaging workshop that

allows students to work with one another and connect what they are learning to their everyday

lives. Also, with this age group, it is highly important to identify the risk of ego involvement.

Ego involvement is the idea that people tend to accept or reject a concept based on its importance
to one’s self-esteem. According to Mount (2018), “From research on the general sociology

classroom, however, we know that the best results come when we present material “that is

relevant for our students and teach students how to connect their life experiences with social

contexts.” This goes to show that an effective way to teach students is through personal

connection because it promotes more effective learning and allows information to stick better

with students when they can associate with something familiar in their lives.

Various tactics will be used through my persuasive plan to ensure effective success for my target

audience. One tactic I plan on using is the expression of self-efficacy and fear appeals because of

its prominence within my target audience and its ensured effectiveness. This is a highly effective

tactic for not only my message plan but for my direct audience. My younger audience tends to be

more self-involved so expressing the threats that my issues could have on them personally will

promote them to participate and self-reflecting to prevent themselves from these risks. Allowing

my audience to be presented with the threats at hand will help to motivate them into wanting to

act accordingly and how they see the best fit. According to Maloney, Lapinski and Witte (2011),

“At the point where “perceptions of threat begin to outweigh perceptions of efficacy… people

begin to shift from danger control to fear control” (p.210). This goes to show that when people

observe a potential threat then they become more engaged in the issue, and the ways that they

can prevent the threat from occurring or impacting them. I plan to highly emphasize the threats

and results that can occur if disinformation and fake news continues to progress at the rate that it

is now. I plan to specifically create a fear appeal around the concept of a potential post-reality.

Next, I will then implement ego-involvement tactics while I am having my sample group

identify some of the media that they encounter regularly on their phones. Young adults and

adolescents tend to be specifically biased and more ego-based due to societal trends that they
encounter on a day-to-day basis. I will draw attention to the specific skills and levels of

advancements that their age group has in comparison to others to allow students to feel more

comfortable and confident during the workshop. I will connect with these specific people in a

more personable way to allow for more effective persuasion. I will do this by understanding my

audience’s complexity, nudging them to interact with other students in their sample group, and

even with me as their instructor to better promote effective learning and comfortability during

this process.

I will also be sure to express nonverbal communication throughout my instruction

process of the workshop and maintain consistency. Immediacy cues will constantly be enforced

through my workshops such as eye contact, smiling, and specific body language. By maintaining

these three basic nonverbal cues I can help to ease my sample group by making them feel more

comfortable and with a sense of freedom rather than trying to intimate them. I will also use

effective illustrators throughout these nonverbal cues to help increase the attention of the

students and increase message retention. I also will make it a point to carefully construct my

physical appearance to ensure a more relaxed and friendlier first impression to my target

audience of students. Rather than dressing very business-like and professional, I will try to keep

my appearance more casual and comfortable so that students aren’t likely to overanalyze my

appearance and reflect it in their participation in the workshop.

Lastly, I plan to structure my message plan in a specific order that is most effective for

my audience. Once I develop a level of compliance with my audience through personal

connections, I will address the issue’s complexity and explicit conclusions. I will do this by

expressing consistency through my workshop instruction process and by providing clear

instruction throughout the workshop. I will also touch on the gain and loss message framing to
express to the students exactly what they can benefit from taking this workshop seriously as well

as the harsh consequences that can come if they don’t. I will also be sure to include scholarly

credible evidence throughout to ensure students that this is a serious matter and that we must pay

more attention to. For my specific target audience, I find that repetition will be a key element in

ensuring that the students fully understand the issue at hand and will find their genuine desire to

fight against it.

Overall, I plan to carefully construct my message plan to reach the needs of my target

audience which is young adults and adolescents. I am aware of the influences and factors that

persuade this age group because I fit into the same age demographic category. I am prepared to

take all the effective steps I need to ensure that students develop a sense of comfortability,

openness, and motivation to want to learn more about this topic and the ways we can fight

against it. I plan to provide them with an eye-opening experience that is both informative and

personably reflective to encourage and inspire a call to action.

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