1.

For a local cemetery, I visited Linden Grove Cemetery which is located near Covington

and can be reach via the Mile Road and Licking Pike in just 16 minutes.

Based on the following observation, there are some

headstone which are >50 years old are using

“marbleized” limestone. There are signs of

deterioration and moderately weathered due to some factors like precipitation, temperature,

and wind. These headstones made of limestone are inclined to break or come away in large

flake. The degree of weathering is more prominent in limestone than in limestone which

seems to be marbleized or slightly metamorphosed. In limestone which doesn’t show any

indications of slight metamorphism, inscriptions are becoming hard to read or worst some of

the details are vanishing and lost.

Some of the headstones in Linden Grove Cemetery are made in

granite. Probably the majority of the tombs are made of granite

that can last longer than headstones made of limestone. Granite

weathers well and it is less susceptible to weathering elements.

Granite is also been used as one of the headstones material over time in Linden Grove. It is a

very hard stone, weathers well and comes in a range of different colors including pink, reddish

brown, black and gray. Granite memorial forms tend to be simple compared to many of the

marble forms. Granite are cut in blocks and the resulting structures are more geometric and

other details can be added eventually. Granite could also be polished and both polished and

unpolished surfaces were made use of.

Also granite has a mottled look and comes in different

colors, including black, white, and pink due to varying

mineral contents and effects of weathering in the

surface.
Comparing the Level of Weathering between Older Headstones and Newer Headstones
Older Headstone
Because of old age and through
time, older headstone are most
susceptible to weathering and
Degree of Weathering
the degree of weathering are
more evident in the surface not
just in corners.
Mostly are marbleized limestone
and are made of carbonate
minerals which can easily
dissolved by water and acid.
Effervesces when acid is pour
Mineralogy upon on it therefore reducing it
and making it weak.
Most headstones are greater
Age than 50 years.
Shelter None. Mostly are exposed.
Highly exposed to atmospheric
Level of Exposure
pollutants.
Newer Headstone
Are made of materials like
granite which is very strong and
can withstand extreme weather
condition, thus less to
moderately susceptible to
weathering.
Some headstones are made of
granite and are made of visible
crystal which are mostly stable in
weathering condition. These
minerals are tabular and
sporadically distributed in the
rock. Quartz which is a glassy
mineral and colorless, mica
which splits into thin flakes, and
feldspars which are usually
pinkish and some varies in color.
Some are greater than 20-50
years. Yet it’s still look fresh and
slightly weathered.
None. Mostly are exposed.
Highly exposed to atmospheric
pollutants.
2. Ohio River is a 981-mile (1,579.0 km) river flows through or along the border of six states,

and its drainage basin includes parts of 15 states. Through its largest tributary, the Tennessee

River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U.S. The river follows a

roughly SW and then WNW course until Cincinnati, before bending to a WSW course for most

of its length. The course forms the northern borders of West Virginia and Kentucky; and the

southern borders of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, until it joins the Mississippi River near the city

of Cairo, Illinois. Geologically speaking Ohio river is quite young and shallow. Based on

satellite images the Wabash-Ohio confluence meanders several times and probably seat and

follows an ancient tributary system. According to some historical data, there could be mass

wasting in the river which resulted to its shallowness and a very high discharge rate. Most are

clastic sediments from the following sources: 1.) mainstream and bank erosion, 2.) mass

wasting and tributary transportation and 3.) organic matter. Other possible for mass wasting is

dredging of the river to be used as a commercial material and infill for construction.
To mitigate the problem, probably commercial and industrial companies should be regulated.

The dams raise the water level and might turn the river largely into a series of reservoirs,

eliminating shallow stretches and allowing for commercial navigation.

From the satellite images, Ohio river has a

series of meanders and dammed portion

which probably once flowing in an ancient

river segment. There are numerous number

of islet/islands (mid-channel islands?) made

of sedimentary deposits, misfit streams,

small oxbow lakes(?), and cut-off streams in

which tributaries are once flowing. The ridges

probably formed as scroll bars, and the ridge-

and-swale pattern reflects variations in the

composition of the Holocene alluvium. The

general alluvial sequence under the flood

plain consists of a basal layer of medium fine-grained sand overlain by muds consisting of

varying proportions of silt and clay. The thickness of the basal sand under the ridges,

however, is two to three times greater than that under the swales, and the mud under the

swales is consistently more clayey than that over the ridges.

3. Cut Slope

The road cut in Mason Road is one a very common

place to study Kope Formation. It is an outstanding

and easily accessible exposure of

Ordovician strata. Most of the rock

types are sedimentary like limestones and shale units. The cut slope is located just along the

Mason Road.

The cut slope is entirely

composed of rocks belonging

to the Kope Formation which

is over 200 feet thick at the

site, although only the upper

28 feet is exposed. The Kope

Formation is composed of

interbedded limestone,

siltstone, and shale, with shale

comprising about three-fourths of the total thickness. Because of weathering, some part of the

slope are deteriorated. Minor land scarps, along

with trees sliding down the hillsides, are evidence

that the land could require extra measures to

develop or indicate an unsuitable place to

urbanize. Most land scarps are due to insufficient

subsurface drainage. Since Kope Formation is

primarily composed of interbedded limestone

which is very susceptible to weathering, it erodes

easily when exposed to air and water. As a result,

the colluvial materials found at the surface layer

of the Kope formation have a high propensity to

slide. Colluvial materials consist of loose bodies of

sediment that have been deposited or built up at the bottom of a low grade slope or against a

barrier on that slope and are transported by gravity. On the right photo shows loose rocks and

sediments in the slope. Wire netting, geo-fabrics, can be use to catch the rubble from falling

into the road. However, in case of slope slope stability, stabilization can be attained by using

engineered structures to hold the entire slope like retaining wall and even a single bed to

prevent it from sliding down. Later, draining pipes can be added to remove the excess water

in the soil being reinforced. This will prevent the soil from becoming supersaturated and

increases the weight of the material. Engineered structures like piles, bolts can be drilled into

the slope to hold it in place and fortifying it by adding grout and concrete shot. Nailing the soil

can also be used to stabilize the slope which is more cost-effective than using retaining wall

which is more expensive and needed high maintenance.

4. Licking River is a partly navigable, 303-mile-long (488 km) tributary of the Ohio River in

northeastern Kentucky in the United States. The river and its tributaries drain much of the

region of northeastern Kentucky between the watersheds of the Kentucky River to the west

and the Big Sandy River to the east. It flows northwest in a highly meandering course. It has a

drainage area of 779 sq. mi., with a

length of 303 mi, gradient of 9.1 ft/mi,

and discharge rate of 4,221 cu ft./s.

There are several smaller streams

draining out in Licking River. Both

start at some high point in Licking

Watershed. The larger Licking River

have varying depths and sediment

deposit which makes the water

murky in some portions.

 In the vicinity of the river which I

believe to be its flood plain, there are

several establishment and residences

that shouldn’t be there. Looking at the

satellite photos, it can be concluded

that the northern portion of the Licking

River is moderately meandered

compared to the southern segment

which is obviously meandering and scouring some sediments. The depth of water in the

northern segment can be inferred as shallow compared to the southern segment. The

approximate width of the Licking River increases from the Cumberland Plateau of Eastern

Kentucky as it drains into Ohio River. Since Licking River is a part of a watershed, with North

Fork and South Fork Licking tributaries, it is smaller compared to Ohio River and its meanders

are still developing as the action of water changes the direction of the stream caused by

deposition and erosion of embankment materials. The Geology of the Licking River

Watershed is a mixture of Ordovician (north east portion) and small bands of Silurian,

Devonian, and Mississippian geologic regions. The soils in the lower Licking are from

weathering of limestone which produces productive soils, sink holes, springs and caves. The

soils in this area are fertile because the Ordovician limestone contains phosphate minerals

and these serve as natural fertilizers. Ordovician and Silurian rocks are surrounded by a ring

of Devonian strata (410 to 360 million years old) consisting of limestones, dolostones, and a

thick deposit of gray to black shale.

Misfit Stream

is a stream occupying a valley which is larger than would be predicted on the basis of the

stream's present erosive power. The term applies particularly to a meandering stream whose

dimensions are much smaller than those of the meandering valley through which it flows.

The possible two processes in which misfit streams can form are:

1.) Glaciation or glacial melt due to differences in topography and elevation that modifies the

landscape by creating glacial troughs.

2.) Erosion – either headward erosion of one stream valley upwards into another or lateral

erosion of a meander through the higher ground dividing the adjacent streams. In areas

underlain by limestone or has a karstic topography such as some part of Kentucky, streams

may sink, or flow underground (a sinking or losing stream) and then reappear in a nearby

stream valley.

Figure 1: One of the processes that creates misfit stream is

glaciation. Misfit stream is a stream which is too small
compared to the valley in which they occupy. They only form
after glaciation has carved out a U-Shape.

The term misfit stream is often incorrectly used as a synonym for an underfit stream. An

underfit stream is a type of misfit stream whose sedimentary discharge is too small to be
 correlated with either existing channel characteristics,

i.e. meander or hydraulic radius, wavelength and

channel width, or valley size. In glacial areas, The misfit

streams are readily found in ground moraines, but are

never found in valley train and outwash deposits, and

are only poorly defined in end moraines.

Figure 2: River capture is initiated

by a stream through headward
erosion. In the diagram showing
the present, 'B' is what is
remaining of the captured river
which is called misfit stream.

Three Misfit Stream in Northern America:

Dolores River, Paradox Valley, Montrose County, Colorado

Name was apparently

paradoxical course of

Dolores River – instead of

flowing down the length of

the valley, the river cuts

across the middle. The

river seems to spills

sluggishly over the table-

flat valley floor of salt formation in a series of meandering coils, merge itself, and plunges out

the northern side in another echoing gorge. Thus it's a misfit stream.
Yosemite Valley, Western Sierra Nevada Mountains, Northern California

Yosemite Valley is a glacial valley in Yosemite National Park in the Western Sierra Nevada of

Northern California. There are several hanging valleys and creeks (e.g. Bridalveil Falls) that

form ribbons lakes below and flowing out if is a misfit stream.

Glacier National Park, Montana

Another location in which misfit stream can be found is in Glacier National Park in
Montana. The mountains of Glacier National Park began forming 170 million years ago
when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata. The
current shapes of the Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges and positioning and size of
the lakes show the telltale evidence of massive glacial action, which carved U-shaped
valleys and left behind moraines which impounded water, creating lakes. And out of these
lakes, misfit stream can be form. Of the estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in
the mid-19th century, only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010. Since there are still active
glaciers remaining until 2030, misfit streams have constant replenishment from glacial
melt.
Lundy Canyon, Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains, California
Misfit stream flowing out of a ribbon lake which was form from creeks flowing into it. Lundy
Lake can be considered a ribbon lake and the misfit stream flowing out from it.

Little Miami River (LMR) as a Misfit Stream

The Little Miami River (LMR) is located in southwestern Ohio in the Ohio River drainage
basin. Covering portions of six counties and draining approximately 657 square miles. The
Little Miami River flows atop a buried valley aquifer composed of highly permeable sands
and gravel. This can be the former segment of an ancient river like in the case of a buried
misfit stream in Dayton, Ohio. The erosion of deep meandering channels in bedrock
appears consistent with melt-water streams let down through glacial ice. Such channels
would subsequently be filled with porous stream deposits in post-glacial times, allowing for
rapid groundwater flow. In the case of Little Miami River (which could be flowing on top of
another buried channel) the development of it as a misfit streams starts with dendritic
drainage system. It probably develops in waning ice sheet therefore formed by glaciation.
And the fact that the watershed in which it’s confined can be traced back to glacial deposit
underneath the water shed.