Limestone

Types
• There are many varieties of limestones are known.
• Types are divided into groups: autochthonous and allochthonous
• Autochthonous includes those varieties which have been formed by biogenic precipitation
from seawaters.
• Allochthonous types are formed from the precipitated calcareous sediments that have been
transported from one place to another where they were finally deposited.

Common Types of Limestones

Chalk
➢ It is a soft, fine-grained, white to grayish variety of limestone that is composed of the
calcareous skeletal remains of microscopic marine organisms including coccoliths and
foraminifera.
➢ Chalk is a friable limestone with a very fine texture, and it is easily crushed or crumbled

Shelly Limestone
➢ It is also known as Fossiliferous, is a limestone that contains obvious and abundant fossils.
They are usually marine invertebrates such as brachiopods, crinoids, mollusks, gastropods,
and coral that are fully or partly preserved. These are the normal shell and skeletal fossils
found in many types of limestone.
➢ Coquina is the name of poorly cemented limestone composed almost exclusively of sand-
size fragments of calcareous shell and/or coral debris. A small amount of calcareous
cement usually binds the grains together.
Argillaceous Limestone
➢ These limestones contain clay as a significant constituent and are clearly of allochthonous
origin. When the clay and carbonate factions are present in almost equal proportions, the
rock is termed marl.

Lithographic Limestones
➢ It is a dense rock with a very fine and very uniform grain size. It occurs in thin beds which
separate easily to form a very smooth surface
➢ These are compact massive homogenous varieties of pure limestones that find extensive
use in litho-printing.
➢ In the late 1700’s, a printing process known as lithography was developed to reproduce
arts by drawing them on the stones with an oil-based ink, then using the stone to press
multiple copies of images.
Kankar
➢ It is a common nodular or concretionary form of carbonate material formed by evaporation
of subsoil water rich in calcium carbonate just near the soil surface.
➢ It is found in the older alluvium or stiff clay of the Ind-gigantic plain.
➢ Precipitated calcium carbonate in the form of cement in porous sediments or as a coating
on pebbles.
➢ It is non-marine in origin.

Calc-Sinter
➢ It is a carbonate deposit formed by precipitation from carbonate rich spring waters.
➢ It is also known as Travertine or Calc-tufa and it is commonly occurred around margins of
Hot Springs.

Travertine
➢ It is a variety of limestone that forms where geothermally heated alkaline water,
supercharged with dissolved gases and minerals, emerges at the certain surface. It can also
form where the water emerges into the subsurface caverns. Travertine can precipitate as a
form of cave such as stalactites, stalagmites and flowstone.
Tufa
➢ It is a porous limestone produced by precipitation of calcium carbonated from the waters
of a hot spring or other body of surface water that has the ability to precipitate volumes of
calcium carbonate. The pore space in tufa often results when plant material is trapped in
precipitating calcium carbonate.
➢ One of the most famous locations where Tufa is actively forming is at Mono Lake,
Yosemite National Park. The most spectacular tufa features at the lake which are known
as “Tufa Towers”. They form by the interaction of the freshwater springs and alkaline lake
water.

Dolomite
➢ It is a carbonate rock of sedimentary origin and is made up chiefly more than 50% of the
mineral dolomite which is a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium with a formula
of CaMg(C03h).
➢ Ferrous iron is present in small proportions in some varieties.
 ➢ Gypsum also makes appearance in some dolomites.
➢ But the chief associated carbonate is that of calcium, in the form of calcite.

Texture
➢ Dolomite shows textures mostly similar to limestones to which it is very often genetically
related.
➢ In other varieties, dolomites may be coarsely crystalline, finely crystalline or showing
interlocking crystals.

Formation
➢ These are formed in most cases from limestones by a simple process of replacement of
Ca++ ions by Mg++ions through the action of Mg++ion rich waters.
➢ This ionic replacement process is often termed dolomitization.
➢ The replacement may have started shortly after the deposition of quite subsequent to the
compaction.
➢ Direct precipitation of dolomites from magnesium rich waters is also possible.
➢ It such directly precipitated deposits of magnesium carbonate occur in association with
gypsum, anhydrite and calcite.
➢ It is believed that in such cases, it is the calcite, which is precipitated first, depleting the
seawater of CaC03 and enriching it with MgC03.
➢ The CaMg(C03h) precipitates at a later calcite.

Occurrence
➢ It is the widespread sedimentary rock and is found commonly associated with limestones.
➢ Also, it forms intervening layers between limestones formations spread over wide areas.
➢ It may occur at the extended boundaries of many limestone deposits.
➢ These indicate locations where magnesium rich ground waters could have an easy access
for the replacement process to take the place in an original limestones” rock.

Types of Dolomites
On the basis mode of formation, dolomites can broadly divide into two groups:

• Primary Dolomite and,

• Secondary Dolomite
Primary Dolomite- precipitate directly from aqueous solution, mostly at near room temperature
(20-30 degrees), with no CaCO3 dissolution involved. However, dolomite can also from as a
secondary phrase replacing the precursor mineral calcite (dolomitization process).
Classification of Dolomitization

1. Evaporate Dolomitization
2. Seepage-reflux Dolomitization
3. Mixing-Zone Dolomitization
4. Burial Dolomitization
5. Seawater Dolomitization

Evaporation Dolomite
Dolomite is in fact formed in high intertidal supratidal and sabkhas environment. Dolomitic that
formed in the supratidal environment are precipitated from evaporated seawater.
Seepage-reflux Dolomitization
This process comprises the formation of dolomitizing solutions over vaporization of lagoon water
or tidal flat pore water besides then the succession of these solutions into nearby carbonate rocks.

Mixing Zone Dolomitization

This type of dolomite formed by the mixing of seawater within the fresh water. The source
of water may be a rainwater.
Burial Dolomitization
It involves prime mechanism which is the dewatering of basinal mud rocks due to compaction and
removal of Mg-rich fluids into neighboring shelf edge.

Seawater Dolomitization
Seawater itself can also be a source of dolomite because it contains the sufficient amount
of Mg ions with little modification.

Natural or Inherent Limestone Problems

Weathering
Limestones subjected to exterior exposures deteriorates due to weathering or natural effects
of wind, rain and thermal change. Limestone is extremely durable. Since it is a carbonate rock, it
is highly reactive when exposed to acids or even mildly acidic rain water, and it can suffer
substantial deterioration.

Erosion
Erosion can be result of general weathering. It can be more localized phenomenon

Based upon handling or exposure.

Staining
Discoloration of the limestone, whether general or localized, is staining. Staining, may be
the result of exposure to variety of exterior substances or to internal occlusion in the stone or
structural elements.

Some of the most common types of staining and causative agents are:

1. Oil/grease stains: These stains are usually the result of vandalism or use. A variety
of organic or inorganic oils may be absorbed into the stone upon contact. The depth
of penetration will depend upon the viscosity of the oil/grease, temperature, stone,
porosity, finish and dryness.
2. Dyes and inks: The staining could be any color depending on the type and source
of the dye. This type of stain is likely to be extremely localized around the area of
contact. The liquid containing the coloration may be absorbed into the stone and
during the normal process of evaporation, the coloring pigment is deposited in the
stone.
3. Organic Stains: Organic stains are caused by direct contact with decomposing
organic matter, such as leaves, bird or animal droppings, flowers, tea or coffee.
Metallic Stains: Two major categories of metallic staining occur; they tend to be based on either
iron or copper. The source of staining may be internal structural components or elements. The
major source is the water wash, or run-off, from adjacent metallic elements, especially bronze and
copper

Peeling
Peeling is the flaking away of the stone surface from the substrate in strips or layers. It may
result from the improper application of masonry coatings which result in failure of the coating
and/stone surface. It may also result from a defect in the stone, or from weathering.

References:

https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu

https://passel2.unl.edu

https://gotbooks.miracosta.edu

https://gsa.gov

Karst Topography and Underground Drainage

▪ Karst is a term used to describe landscapes that are formed by chemical weathering process
controlled by groundwater activity.

▪ German form of the Yugoslavian term “Kras” means “bare stony ground”. This term refers
to any landscape formed by dissolution of the underlying bedrock

The most common types of Karst Landforms:

• Enclosed depressions
• (including sinkholes and dolines)
• Sinking streams or swallow holes
• Springs
• Dry valleys
• Caves
• Caverns
• Tower

Karst Topography Process

1. Rainwater and groundwater percolate through underground Fissures.
2. Conduits continues to widen which creates underground network of cavities.
 3. Rocks above cavities subsides.
4. Sinkholes overlaps and eventually fill with superficial debris.

Factors affecting Karst Process

• Solubility of Bedrock
• Climate
• Structure of Limestone
• Vegetation/Non-carbonate Geology
• Atmospheric 𝐶𝑂2

Stratification

The layering that occurs most in sedimentary and in those igneous rocks formed at the
Earth’s surface. The plane separating individual rock layers is called stratification plane or
bedding plane.

Strata may range from thin sheets that cover many square kilometers to thick lens like
bodies that extend only few meters laterally. A stratum, plural strata, that is less than one
centimeter (0.4 inch) in thickness is termed a lamina, whereas one greater than this thickness is a
bed.

Every stratum is characterized by its own lithology (composition), sedimentary

structures, grain size and fossil content that make it unique and different from the strata that lie
above and below it.

Stratigraphy

➢ Made of two words, the strata and graphy

➢ A branch of geology concerned with the detailed study of rock strata in a systematic way
in accordance to the lithology, chronology, and sequence of the rock.
➢ Provides various data like origin, composition, distribution and succession of strata.
 ➢ Provides idea about the occurrence of strata, destruction of lamina and fossils present in
them.

Several Subfields of Stratigraphy

1. Lithostratigraphy
- Organization of strata on the basis of their lithologic characteristics.
- Subdivision of rocks succession occurs into units on the basis of rock type
- the basic principle is that the younger layers are deposited over older
layers.
- Fossils have no significance in lithostratigraphy
2. Chronological Stratigraphy
- Integrated approach to establish the time relationship among geologic unit
- Studies the age of strata.
3. Biostratigraphy
- Study of the fossil record of the rocks on faunal succession to establish
relationship.
- It also says the use of dating of rocks by investigating those fossil contents
4. Magnetostratigraphy
- Deals with the measurable variation on remanent (inherited) magnetic
properties of rock units for the purpose of correlation

Principle of Stratigraphy

principle of stratigraphy is like the geological tools that really helps to determine
the relative age number of existing events and fields relations which can be estimated from one
outcrop or from many outcrops.

The Three Major Principle

1. Principle of Superposition
A vertical set of strata (layers) is a chronological record of the geologic history of
that strata. Also, the youngest layers are on top and the oldest on bottom.
 2. Principle of Original Horizontality
Layers of sediments are generally deposited in horizontal position.

3. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships

When a fault cuts through rock layers, or when magma intrudes other rock and
hardens, then the fault or intrusion is younger than the rocks around it.

Unconformities

A surface that represents a break in the rock record. Deposition stopped for a long
period of time and erosion has removed previously formed rock and then deposition resumed.

Types of Unconformities

1. Nonconformity/Heterolithic Unconformity

When the underlying rocks are Igneous or Metamorphic (i.e. unstratified) and the
overlying younger rocks are sedimentary (stratified)

2. Angular Unconformity

When the underlying (older) rocks and overlying (younger) rock strata show some
angle, which regard to one another.

3. Disconformity

When the underlying (older) rocks and overlying (younger) sedimentary rock strata
are parallel and the contact plane is an erosional surface.