Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rock formation begins with igneous, metamorphic, or other sedimentary

rocks. When these rocks are exposed at the earth’s surface they begin the long slow but
relentless process of becoming sedimentary rock.

All rocks are subject to weathering. Weathering is anything that breaks the rocks into
smaller pieces or sediments. This can happen by the forces of like wind, rain, and freezing
water.

Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock groups (along with igneous and
metamorphic rocks) and is formed in four main ways: by the deposition of the weathered
remains of other rocks (known as 'clastic' sedimentary rocks); by the accumulation and the
consolidation of sediments; by the deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by
precipitation from solution.
Sedimentary rocks include common types such as chalk, limestone, sandstone, clay and
shale.
Sedimentary rocks cover 75% of the Earth's surface.
Four basic processes are involved in the formation of a clastic sedimentary rock: weathering
(erosion) caused mainly by friction of waves, transportation where the sediment is carried
along by a current, deposition and compaction where the sediment is squashed together to
form a rock of this kind.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden pressure as particles of sediment are
deposited out of air, ice, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension.
As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (or 'lithostatic') pressure squeezes the
sediment into layered solids in a process known as lithification ('rock formation') and the
original connate fluids are expelled.
The term diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes,
including cementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and
after its lithification, exclusive of surface weathering.

The land around you, no matter where you live, is made of rock. If you live in a place that
has good rich soil, the soil itself is finely broken down or weathered rock.

People that live in a desert region can easily find rocks on the surface. These rocks lay on a
surface of clay that is also a product of weathering rock 
The photo above shows layers of lava and ash in Hawaii that will, over time, and with the
help of bacteria, break down into fertile soil.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from broken pieces of rocks. These broken pieces of rock are
called sediments. The word "Sedimentary" comes from the root word "Sediment".

Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in water. Streams and rivers carry sediments in their
current. When the current slows around a bend or the river empties into a lake, or ocean, or
another river the sediments fall out because of gravity. The larger sediments fall out first
and the lightest sediments fall out last.

The diagram above shows layers of sediment that were laid down in a lake. In the spring the
lake receives an influx of water from the mountain snow melt. This snow melt carries with it
a large amount of sediment that becomes suspended in the lake water. As the sediment
settles out during the summer and especially in the winter, if the lake becomes frozen over,
the sediments come to rest on the bottom. The heaviest and largest particles settle out first
and the lightest sediments such as silts and clays settle out last. The number 1 shows
sediment that would have been laid down during 1994, number 2 in 1995, and number 3
would have been laid down in 1996. The gray area above the 3 would be the latest layer
being laid down at the present time. This laying down of rock-forming material by a natural
agent is called deposition. Natural agents of deposition are water, ice, gravity, and wind.

Sediment is deposited in flat, horizontal layers with the oldest layers on the bottom and the
younger layers laying on and over the older layers. Geologists use this knowledge to read
layers of sedimentary rock like the pages in a book. They can date layers by the fossils that
are found in them. If a layer has a fossil in it that is known to be 50 million years old the
layer itself must be at least 50 million years old and the layers below it have to be older than
50 million years.

Sedimentary rocks are formed in three ways from these different sized sediments.
A sedimentary rock is a layered rock that is formed from the compaction, cementation, and
the recrystallization of sediments.

Compaction is the squeezing together of layers of sediment due to the great weight of
overlying layers of rock. This squeezing of the layer results in reducing the thickness of the
original layer. When the layers are reduced in thickness the pore spaces around the
sediments are also reduced, which leads to a tighter packing of the layers.

Cementation is the changing of sediment into rock by filling spaces around the sediments
with chemical precipitates of minerals. binding the sediments, and forming solid rock. Calcite
and silica are common minerals that cement the sediments together.

Recrystallization is the third way that sedimentary rocks are formed. Recrystallization is

the formation of new mineral grains that are larger than the original grains. As the
sediments recrystallize they arrange themselves in a series of interlocking crystals that
connect the other grains together into a solid rock.

The photo above shows layers of sedimentary rocks that were deposited in flat horizontal
layers. These layers were then uplifted and bent by mountain building.

They are the site of very important resources such as ground water, coal, oil, and soil. Shale,
sandstone, and limestone are the most common types of sedimentary rocks. They are
formed by the most common mineral that is found on or near the surface of the Earth. The
mineral that forms these sedimentary rocks is feldspar.

Running water, such as the mountain stream above, sorts and transports more sediment
than any other agent of deposition.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are made of pieces of rock or mineral grains that have been
broken from preexisting rock. These particles and grains have become solid rock by the
processes of compaction or cementation of sediments. Some clastic rocks are conglomerate,
shale, breccia, gray and red sandstone, siltstone, and graywacke.

Non-clastic sedimentary rocks form from the precipitation (Precipitation is the separating

of a solid from a solution) of minerals from ocean water or from the breakdown of the
shells and bones of sea creatures. Sea animals such as coral produce calcium carbonate
solutions that harden to form rock. As the chemicals that comes from the mineral or
biological precipitation, mix with sediments on the floor of the ocean or lake they crystallize
and grow in the spaces around the sediment. When these crystals grow large enough to fill
the spaces they harden and form a solid rock.

Some non-clastic rocks are limestone, chert, dolostone, gypsum, halite (rock salt), diatomite,
and chalk.

Organic sedimentary rocks form from the build up and decay of plant and animal material.
This usually forms in swamp regions in which there is an abundant supply of growing
vegetation and low amounts of oxygen. The vegetation builds so quickly that new layers of
vegetation bury the dead and decaying material very quickly. The bacteria that decay the
vegetation need oxygen to survive. Because these decaying layers are buried so fast the
bacteria use up what oxygen there is available and can not finish the decomposition of the
vegetation. The overlaying layers become so heavy that they squeeze out the water and
other compounds that aid in decay.

This compressed vegetation forms coal. The longer and deeper that coal is buried makes it
of higher quality. Peat is the first stage of coal formation. Lignite is the next grade of coal
followed by bituminous and the highest grade, anthracite. Anthracite is actually a
metamorphic rock. It forms during mountain building when compaction and friction are
extremely high. This form of coal burns very hot and almost smokeless. It is used in the
production of high grade steel.

Shale is one of the most common sedimentary rocks. It is composed of silt or clay that has
been compacted or squeezed together to form a solid rock. Shale is usually found in thin
layers. The silt or clay that composes shale is made of very small pieces of weathered rock.
The pieces are from 1/16 to 1/256 of a millimeter in diameter. The color of a sample of shale
is that of the clay or silt that it was formed from.

Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the cementing together of sand
sized grains forming a solid rock. Quartz is the most abundant mineral that forms sandstone.
Calcium carbonate, silica, or iron has been added to the water that is in contact with the
sand grains. These minerals grow crystals in the spaces around the sand grains. As the
crystals fill the gaps the individual sand grains are now transformed into a solid rock.

Limestone is the most abundant of the non-clastic sedimentary rocks. Limestone is

produced from the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate) and sediment. The main source of
limestone is the limy ooze formed in the ocean. The calcium carbonate can be precipitated
from ocean water or it can be formed from sea creatures that secrete lime such as algae and
coral.
Chalk is another type of limestone that is made up of very small single-celled organisms.
Chalk is usually white or gray in color.

Limestone can easily be dissolved by acids. If you drop vinegar on limestone it will fizz. Put a
limestone rock into a plastic jar and cover it with vinegar. Cover the jar and watch the
bubbling of the calcium carbonate and also the disintegration of the rock over a few days.

Limestone caves are an interesting geological feature. They form because the limestone
deposits located under the ground are chemically dissolved by moving ground water. The
ground water contains minerals that make the water slightly acidic. When an acid comes
into contact with a rock that is composed of calcium carbonate a chemical reaction takes
place. The acid "eats" the limestone. The calcium carbonate then goes into the ground
water which moves down farther into the cave. The water will find its way into small crack
and crevasses. The dripping water will create formations called stalactites and stalagmites.

Stalactites (they grow from the ceiling) and stalagmites (they grow from the floor) are not
technically limestone. They form in caves because as the limestone is dissolved calcium
carbonate is put into solution in the ground water. This solution drips through crack and
slowly forms stalactites and stalagmites.

Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms the cementing of rounded cobble and
pebble sized rock fragments. Conglomerate is formed by river movement or ocean wave
action. The cementing agents that fill the spaces to form the solid rock conglomerate are
silica, calcite, or iron oxides.

Notice in the photo above the rounded rock particles in the conglomerate. These rounded
particles make conglomerate different from the next rock you are about to study, breccia.

Breccia is formed in a very similar fashion to conglomerate. The difference between the two
rocks is that breccia's rock fragments are very sharp and angular. These rock fragments have
not been transported by water, wind, or glaciers long enough to be rounded and smoothed
like in the conglomerate. The cementing agents silica, calcite (CaCO3), and iron oxides are
the same as in conglomerate.