PETROLOGY

Pétros: 'rock' and Lógos: 'study':

Definition of Petrology: The study of science that deals with the origin, history, occurrence,
structure, chemical composition, and classification of rocks.

The field of petrology is traditionally split into three subcategories:

1. IGNEOUS PETROLOGY

2. SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY
3. METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY

Sedimentary petrology is the study of Rock that has formed through the deposition and
solidification of sediment, especially sediment transported by water (rivers, lakes, and oceans),
ice (glaciers), and wind. Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in layers, and frequently contain
fossils. Sedimentary petrology also concern with their occurrence, composition, texture, and
other overall characteristics, while sedimentology emphasizes the processes by which sediments
are transported and deposited.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks where Sedimentary rocks are the product of:

1. weathering of pre-existing rock

2. transport of the weathering products,
3. deposition of the transported material, followed by
4. compaction, and cementation of the sediment to form a rock.
5. The latter two steps are called diagenesis and lithification.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks may be divided into two basic categories:

1) Clastic (detrital) Sedimentary rocks

2) Non-Clastic Sedimentary rocks
a. Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks,
b. Chemically Precipitated Sedimentary Rock
c. Evaporite Sedimentary Rock

1) Clastic (detrital) Sedimentary rocks:

Clastic (detrital) sedimentary rocks are composed of the solid products of weathering (gravel,
sand, silt, and clay) cemented together by the dissolved weathering products.

2) Non-Clastic Sedimentary rocks:

Biogenic (biochemical) sedimentary rocks are those composed of materials formed by the
activity of living organisms such as coal (compacted un-decayed plant matter) and many
limestones which are made up of the shells or other skeletal fragments from marine organisms.

Chemically precipitated (chemical) sedimentary rocks are those such as halite and gypsum, and
some limestones, which form direct precipitation (crystallization) of the dissolved ions in the
water.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks may first be classified according to their grain size. Clay-sized
particles are too small and to be seen with a microscope. Rock formed from clay-size particles
are called shale. Silt-sized particles are visible with a microscope. Rock formed from these are
called siltstone. Sand-sized grains are visible to the naked eye and range from 1/16 mm to 2
mm. Sand is further subdivided into very fine, fine, medium, coarse, and very coarse. Rock
formed from these are called sandstone. "Gravel"-sized grains range from > 2 mm granules to
very large boulders. Rock containing these large size particles are called conglomerate and are
typically very poorly sorted (e.g., they may contain sand, gravel, and boulders all in one rock).
If the gravel particles are little weathered and are still angular (un-rounded) the rock is called
breccia.

Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks

Carbonate Rocks (based on CO3). While some carbonate rocks form as simple chemical
precipitates most carbonate rocks are the product of marine organisms such as molluscs and
corals. They precipitate calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) or other similar carbonate minerals
directly from the dissolved chemicals in the water to create their shells. Limestone is the product.
At some later time (e.g.,. after burial) calcite may be transformed into dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2.
Calcite will react vigorously with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl). Powdered dolomite will react
sluggishly with HCl.

Coal is also formed by biological activity but in this case the material is organic matter from
decaying plants that may accumulate if plant growth is faster than the rate of decay. The organic
matter will be buried and compacted by layer upon layer of partially decayed plants, eventually
becoming coal.

Chemically Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks

Where the dissolved ions encounter supersaturated conditions they come out of solution and
combine together forming an orderly arrangement of atoms (that's right - minerals). They are
said to precipitate - go from the liquid, dissolved state to the solid crystal state. Rocks formed
in this way include halite, gypsum, anhydrite, and some limestones. Layers of precipitated rocks
are called evaporite deposits because they typically form where evaporation is high in arid
regions like the desert.

Weathering

The process of disintegration of exposed materials (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) at

or near the earth's surface through various geological agents to form secondary rock called
sedimentary rock.
Mechanical weathering

In mechanical weathering rocks are broken up into smaller pieces by frost-wedging (the freezing
and thawing of water inside cracks in the rock), root-wedging (tree and other plant roots growing
into cracks), and abrasion caused by, for example, sand-blasting of a cliff face by blowing sands
in the dessert, or the scouring of water transported sand, gravel, and boulders on the bedrock of
a mountain stream. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller and smaller pieces but
without otherwise altering the minerals.

Chemical Weathering

In chemical weathering minerals are changed into new minerals and mineral byproducts. Some
minerals like halite and calcite may dissolve completely. Others, especially silicate minerals,
are altered by a chemical process called hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is the reaction of minerals in
weakly acidic waters. Most natural surface waters are slightly acidic because carbon dioxide
from the air dissolves in the water. Some of the dissolved CO2 reacts with the water forming
the chemical compound carbonic acid.

By complete weathering maximum end product yielding will be silicate rocks.

Transportation

As the process of weathering proceeds the products are carried off. The most important
transporting agent is water. Water carries or rolls particles in rivers, from the smallest suspended
clay particles to the largest boulders. Boulders and smaller rock fragments continue to be broken
up and chemically altered as they tumble downstream. Water also carries dissolved minerals,
such as silica and cations downstream as well as in the groundwater. Other transporting agents
include wind which blows dust and sand, glaciers, which carry large amounts of gravel and huge
boulders in addition to smaller particles, and mass wasting on hillslopes. In addition to
decreasing the particle size, as sedimentary material is transported it is also sorted into similar
sized particles as a result of changing energy (velocity) in the transporting medium (water or
wind), and rounded by continued abrasion.

Deposition

Sediments are transported only when there is enough energy in the transporting medium, for
example, when a stream is flowing rapidly enough to carry a given size of sedimentary particle.
Steep mountain streams can move large boulders during spring flood but these boulders will
never be transported out into a placid lowland river. So the largest sediments (boulders, cobbles,
and pebbles) which survive the weathering process, tend to be deposited near to their source,
for example at the point where a mountain stream flows out onto a valley floor. Sediments of a
given size are deposited whenever they move into an environment with insufficient energy to
transport them. For example, silt carried by a flooding river will settle out in the quiet backwaters
outside the river banks (perhaps enriching someone's farmland - while wrecking their home).

Sediments are deposited layer upon layer. The layers are deposited horizontally.

Sorting

When a river encounters the ocean it begins to deposit its suspended sediments. Progressively
finer sediments are deposited moving away from the shoreline. All fine materials are winnowed
out leaving sands in the wave-dominated beach and nearshore environment. The sands remain
in this high energy environment. In deeper/calmer water silt settles out. In water deep enough
not to be affected by surface wave action the clay fraction begins to settle out.

The dissolved load in water will precipitate out (crystallize) if it encounters a supersaturated
environment. Gypsum, halite, and other salts, precipitate out of seawater in arid areas, like the
eastern Mediterranean, where evaporation is high (thus increasing the salinity) and influx of
fresh seawater is low.

Compaction and Cementation

As sedimentation continues, the earlier deposited sediments are laden with an increasing
overburden. They are compacted, reducing the available pore space and expelling much of the
pore-water.
Dissolved minerals in the ground water precipitate (crystallize) from water in the pore spaces
forming mineral crusts on the sedimentary grains, gradually cementing the sediments, thus
forming a rock. Calcite (calcium carbonate), silica, and hematite (red iron oxide) are the most
common cementing agents. You may be familiar with calcite (or lime) encrustation on old
plumbing fixtures, showerheads, and inside hot water heaters.

Sedimentary Cycle Diagram

Application of sedimentology

Sedimentology is the scientific study of sedimentary rocks and the processes by which they
were formed. It is concerned with the composition and genesis of sediments and sedimentary
rocks and the creation of predictive models that resemble and predict sedimentation. It's used to
describe sedimentation processes by interpreting the facies in order to know the characteristics,
methodology and principles of sedimentation.

Sedimentology is applied in:

1. Ceramics and industrial materials: clay for pottery and ceramics including bricks;
cement and lime derived from limestone.

2. Economic geology: sedimentary rocks host large deposits of SEDEX ore deposits of
lead-zinc-silver, large deposits of copper, deposits of gold, tungsten, Uranium, and many
 other precious minerals, gemstones and industrial minerals including heavy mineral
sands ore deposits.

3. Energy: petroleum geology relies on the capacity of sedimentary rocks to generate

deposits of petroleum oils. Coal and oil shale are found in sedimentary rocks. A large
proportion of the world's uranium energy resources are hosted within sedimentary
successions.

4. Groundwater: sedimentary rocks contain a large proportion of the Earth's groundwater

aquifers. Our understanding of the extent of these aquifers and how much water can be
withdrawn from them depends critically on our knowledge of the rocks that hold them
(the reservoir).

5. Architectural uses: stone derived from sedimentary rocks is used for dimension stone
and in architecture, notably slate, a meta-shale, for roofing, sandstone for load-bearing.

6. Art: used in carving stones to manufacture idoles.