WEATHERING. FORM 1-4 NOTES COMPILED BY MR K.

ROMO

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 Earth movements (plate tectonics) create and lead to the development of the
earth’s major landforms for example block mountains, volcanic cones, lava
plateaus and rift valleys.
 As soon as they are formed denudation processes attack, expose and gradually
wear these landforms away
 denudation is a term that is used to describe the forces that wear away the land
surface it includes the processes of weathering, erosion, transportation and mass
wasting.

Weathering
 Weathering refers to the weakening, breaking up, and disintegration of rocks that
form the surface of the ground and lie exposed to the weather elements in situ.
 The little phrase in situ is a Latin phrase which simply means “in its original
place” /”stationary.”
 Examiners at ZIMSEC, Cambridge and other examining bodies often ask students
to distinguish between weathering and erosion.
Mass wasting

 Is the movement of regolith and other weathered material en masse due to the
force of gravity.
 It takes place in the form of mudslides and rock falls when a semi-liquid spongy
mass falls down a slope as a single mass as opposed say to erosion when the soil
and regolith is washed down the slope instead.
 Mass wasting includes such processes as creeping, soil and rock slides, topples
and falls.
 It can take place at a slow almost imperceptible pace as in creep or quickly in the
form of sudden rock falls and landslides.
There are two types of weathering:

1. Physical/Mechanical weathering.

2. Chemical weathering.

NB Aspects of biological weathering are either grouped as being physical or chemical

depending with their nature, a criterion which ZIMSEC seems to favour at Ordinary
Level.

Chemical weathering

 Chemical weathering is the breaking down or decomposition of rocks as a result of

various chemical processes and reactions altering the chemical components of the
rock.
 Some types of rocks decompose when they come into contact with water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide and other naturally occurring acids such as in the soil.
 These acids include humic acids, carbonic acids, acid rain and smog( which is fog
laced with toxic and sometimes corrosive materials).
 Some minerals in the rocks for example calcium are susceptible to chemical
reaction.
 They undergo chemical changes and fall of the rock leading to the reduction of the
rock’s size.
 Chemical weathering processes include oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis,
carbonation, organic weathering and acid rain.
 Chemical weathering is most prevalent in humid zones, against reactive minerals
in rocks at typically at the base of slopes where it is likely to be wet and humid for
extended periods of time to allow the chemical processes to occur.

Oxidation

 Occurs when rocks or more specifically certain minerals within the rocks are
exposed to and react with oxygen in the air or water.
 The most prevalent of these is when rocks containing iron compounds react with
oxygen to in a form of oxidation called rusting as the rock is transformed from
what is known as a ferrous state to a ferric state.
 During rusting rocks change their colour and become reddish-brown (the colour of
rust).
 This compromises the integrity and structure of the rock making them crumble
easily thus aiding other forms of weathering as well.
 Reduction (the opposite of oxidation) also occurs in waterlogged areas where a
process called gleying takes place.

Hydration

 Some types of rocks for example those that contain salt minerals have the capacity
to absorb water into their structure causing them to swell and become susceptible
to future breakdown.
  Hydration is in actual fact a physical-chemical weathering processes since the
rocks swell and exert pressure in addition to changing their chemical structure.
 The rock swell during wet periods and contract during dry periods causing them to
fracture and to develope joints and weaknesses.
 For example anhydrite absorbs water to become gypsum.

Hydrolysis

 Hydrogen ions in water react with minerals ions in the rock

 That is the water reacts with minerals in the rock instead of dissolving it.
 This gives rise to different compounds.
 This is very common in granite areas
 Where the felspar in the granite/igneous reacts with hydrogen to form clay.
 Mica another rock mineral can also be affected by hydrogen in acidic water
solutions.

Carbonation

 This is when carbon dioxide dissolves with rain water to form carbonic acid.
 This weak acid reacts with rocks that are composed of calcium carbonate for
example limestone.
 The calcium is dissolved and removed in as a calcium bicarbonate solution by
running water.
 This may result in the formation of landform features such as Underground caves
such as the Chinhoyi caves as well as other limestone features such as
stalagmites and stalactites .

Solution

 Some minerals like rock salt are soluble in water

 When they come in contact with water they just dissolve in situ.
 As the rocks dissolve in water they may form clints and grikes/grykes which are
collectively known as limestone pavements.
Organic Weathering

 Decomposing vegetation (humus) releases humic acid.

 This acid attacks calcium, magnesium and iron minerals within rocks in a process
called chelation.
 The respiration of bacteria and plant root increases carbon dioxide levels within
the soil thus accelerating the process of carbonation.
 Lichen extracts iron from rocks via reduction.

Acid rain

 Human and economic activities are realising more and more carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere together with other chemicals such as sulphur dioxide and nitric
oxide.
 These gases then dissolved into rain water to form acidic solutions.
 Acid rain attacks and corrode limestones and at a lesser rapid rate sandstones.
 Also the acidic solutions tend to free up oxygen ions thus fueling the process of
hydrolysis.

Physical weathering
  Physical weathering is the disintegration of a rock into smaller particles by
mechanical processes and without any changes in the chemical composition of the
rock.
 It is more likely to occur in arid climates such as deserts, arctic regions and areas
that have little to no vegetation.
 Physical weathering typically produces sand soils.
 Physical weathering is also known as mechanical weathering.
 Physical weathering processes include exfoliation, frost shattering, pressure
release and thermal shattering.

Exfoliation

 Rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled much like all solid
materials.
 In deserts and areas with scant vegetation, diurnal temperatures can exceed 50°C.
 During the excessive day heat the rocks expand.
 The outer layers of the rocks expand faster than the inner layers.
 At night the when temperatures drop, in deserts evening temperatures can and
usually fall to below freezing point, the rock contracts and again the outer layers
cool faster than the inner layers.
 This results in stresses being set up within the rock causing outer layers of the
rock to peel off like the rings of an onion.
 Thus the process is sometimes called onion weathering.
 Also several different minerals within the rock expand and contract at different
rates depending on their physical characteristics.
 This will result in granular disintegration with the rock.
 This is the process that was thought to result in the creation of exfoliation domes
like Domboshava.
 This form of weathering is also known as thermal expansion or insolation
weathering.
NB At Ordinary Level you are supposed to accept this method of weathering as fact. The
occurrence of this method of weathering in the real world is nowadays seriously doubted
after a series of experiments by people like David Griggs and others.

Frost shattering

 It occurs in rocks that have crevices and joints and where there is limited
vegetation cover and temperatures revolve fluctuate around 0°C.
 During the day when temperatures are warmer, water enters the crevices or joints.
 When temperatures fall at night the water freezes leading to breakdown:
 Ice occupies more space than water i.e as the temperature of water falls below 4°C
it starts to expand.
 As the water freezes within the rock it attracts more small particles of water which
forms more ice crystals and expands further, fuelling the process.
 With each freeze and thaw cycle the joints expand until the rocks shatter and fall
off the main rock as blockfields, scree and talus.
 The process is also known as frost wedging

Salt crystallization

 Saline (water containing salt) water enters pore spaces in rocks.

  As it evaporates salt crystals are likely to form.
 This process usually occurs in deserts where water is drawn to the surface of
rocks (sandstone rocks) by capillary action.
 As the crystals become larger they exert stress upon the rocks causing it to
disintegrate ( granular disintegration).
 Salt crystallization occurs on costs where there is a ready supply of salt water.
 The process results in the development of weathering pits.

Pressure release

 Intrusive granite landforms such as batholiths are formed deep below the surface
and under intense pressure due to the weight of the overlying overburden.
 If the overburden is removed by denudation processes there is a substantial
reduction in pressure.
 The reduction in pressure causes fractures to develop especially on the top layers
of the rock.
 These cracks develop parallel to the surface in a process that is referred to as
sheeting.
 This results in the formation of exfoliation domes like Domboshava

Factors affecting weathering

  The rate and prevailing type of weathering at any given place is affected by:

1. Climate

2. Relief

3. Vegetation

4. Rock type

Climate
 Weathering types are distributed according to the prevailing climate of given areas
especially when considering.
 Temperature and rainfall have the greatest effect on weathering.
 In cold areas especially regions where temperatures fluctuate around 0°C physical
weathering in the form of frost shatter (freeze-thaw) is dominant.
 In hot areas such as deserts where there are large diurnal temperature ranges
exfoliation insolation weathering (heating and cooling) is dominant.
 In hot and wet areas like the savannah and rainforest chemical weathering takes
place in aided by the easily available moisture and high temperatures which
favour chemical reactions.
 In rain forests the decomposition of humus creates humic acid leading to organic
weathering.

Mechanical weathering processes.

 Thus chemical weathering occurs is dominant in hot and humid climate areas
 Climate also indirectly affects weathering by affecting the amount of vegetation
and presence of organisms that can lead to chemical weathering.

Relief

 Mountain regions have steep slopes which mean that in the event of rain they
drain quickly leaving the dry.
 As a result physical weathering is dominant at mountain topics especially when
considering how some peaks tend to have temperatures that fluctuate around the
freezing point even if temperatures are quite higher at the start of the slopes.
 Moisture tends to accumulate at the base of mountains aiding chemical
weathering processes.
 Granite regions sometimes lead to the development of vleis which are water logged
since granite is impermeable thus favouring chemical weathering in the moist
conditions.

Vegetation

 Tree roots penetrate into rocks, widening cracks, release carbon dioxide during
respiration resulting in biological weathering. These processes are naturally
dominant in areas where there are more trees.
  When tree roots decay humic acids are produced causing biological weathering a
process which more readily occurs in areas with dense vegetation cover and
moisture such as in rainforests and in the tropics.
 Lichen and moss grow on rock plateaus and domes aided by moisture from rain
and at the base of slopes forming acids that eat into rocks.

Rock type

 Limestone is very soft and porous (being porous is not the same thing as being
impervious/impermeable) and therefore more easily affected by processes such as
carbonation, more so given the chemical composition of the rock.
 Granite rock is hard and non-porous and thus less susceptible to chemical
weathering processes which require a certain amount of moisture in order to
occur.
 Different rock types are composed or different chemicals that stand on different
places of the reactivity series.
 Chemicals found in limestone readily react with weak acids while granite rocks are
more resistant.

Exposure

 Rocks that are exposed to the surface tend to be weathered faster than bedrock
which is covered.
 However mechanical weathering processes such as pressure release can still occur
if the overburden is being removed by denudation processes.


Landforms resulting from weathering

 Weathering processes and usually in conjunction with other denudation processes

such as water and wind erosion and mass wasting results in the formation of
various landscapes.
 In temperate and tropical latitudes these include:
 1. Inselbergs/Monadnocks
 The word inselberg is German for “island mountain”
 Monadnock is West Indian for isolated mountain.
 An inselberg or monadnock is an isolated rock hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain
that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain.
 They are hills made up of rock piles or blocks of rocks that rise from an area of
relatively flat and/or lower terrain.
 If the monadnock is dome-shaped and formed from granite-gneiss, it can also be
called a bornhardt.
 Common inselbergs include: castle kopjes, tors , balancing rocks and conical hills
with rectangular sides.

Weathering also forms:

2) Ruwares/Dwalas/Whalebacks

3) Karst landscapes

4) Mountain peaks that are usually made up of rocks when the mountain core is
exposed.

 Known as ruware in Shona, dwala in Ndebele (Nguni languages) and whaleback in

English.
 An example is Domboshava where several such landforms can be found.
 It is a hill or rock which is dome shaped and rises several metres from the ground.
 It is a near level rock outcrop, that develops where the basal surface is undulating.
 Dwalas are gently sloping, low lying and rounded or elongated hills.
 They are about 2-5m in height.
 They have a gentle, convex summit that is usually smooth but can have sheet
joints as a result of pressure release and regolith that is onion-peel shaped as a
result of exfoliation.
 Its slopes are convex/rectilinear and gentle.
  Might also have vertical joints which begin as fractures as a result of pressure
release but are further widened weathering processes.
 They are surrounded by deeply weathered regolith
 They are usually bare of vegetation but can be lightly populated by shrubs and
bushes.

The formation of dwalas

Overburden

The diagrams below detail the possible formation of a dwala.

Kopje, Tor and Balancing rocks

  Tors/kopjes/castle kopjes are inselbergs.
 Tors the same as kopjes even though some books make an attempt to distinguish
between the two.
 Different names are applied in different localities to what are essentially the same
landforms.
 Kopje is an Afrikaans word meaning a small and isolated hill made of granite rock
piles.
 Tor is a Scotish word meaning hill.
 They appear appear as a large, free-standing rock outcrop that rises abruptly from
the surrounding smooth and gentle slopes of a rounded hill summit or ridge crest.
 They are resistant rock features that have been made by weathering.
 They are usually less than 5 meters in height.
 They are a result of marginal subsurface weathering of domed landforms.
 Granite intrusions are weathered beneath the surface due to acidic water
penetrating joints in the rock.
 When the rock is exposed the rotten parts are washed away by erosion.
 Weathering continues in the form of both mechanical and chemical weathering.
 Because these rocks have rectangular joints, chemical and mechanical weathering
takes place in these joints.
 The regolith (weathered/rotten parts of the rock) is stripped away by erosion to
form a kopje/tor.
 If the joints are close together the whole mass collapses and is washed away
 However if the joints a wider blocks of rocks fall away from the main rock creating
tors/kopjes.
 They are sometimes remnants of dwalas and bornhardts such as Dwalas /
Bornhadts and inselbergs/Monadnocks.
 They are usually found in temperate latitudes.
 Because of their morphology (shape) kopjes are known is some localities as castle
kopjes.

Balancing rocks

 These are a result of continued weathering on kopjes and tors.

 If the joints in the rocks that form kopjes and tors are further apart massive
chunks of rock may withstand the denudation processes to remain balancing one
on top of another.
An example are the Balancing Rocks in Epworth.

Limestone pavements

 Limestone pavements are flat areas of exposed limestone rocks.

 They are part of the dissolved bedding plate which may have been exposed
because the surface soil may have been removed by glacial activity and never
replaced.
 Where the pavement has joints that reach the surface, these joints may be
widened by acid rain water.
 This process is called carbonation.
 The widening of the joints leaves deep incisions/gashes/fissures called grikes.
 Some grikes such as found in the Limestone regions of England can be about half
a meter wide.
  Separating the grikes are flat-topped yet dissected blocks referred to as clints.
 As time passes these clints are levelled by denudation processes including the
widening of the grikes until a lower bedding plane is exposed.
 This bedding plane’s joints are in turn attacked by weathering in the form of
carbonation forming grikes and thus repeating the process all over again.
 Grikes can also be formed by subsurface weathering in much the same way as
tors are formed.
 Acidic water may seep into the ground into joints in the underlying limestone
bedding rock.

People and Weathering

How humans influence weather?

 Human activities such as industrialization and driving of cars produce emissions

such as sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon dioxide leading to increased
incidences of acid rain which in turn accelerates chemical weathering processes
such as carbonation.
 These industries sometimes dump acidic chemicals into drains and rivers leading
to chemical weathering.
 Deforestation increases runoff and reduces the moisture retention of certain areas
leading to a decrease in biological and chemical weathering and an increase in
mechanical weathering.
 Humans are also indirectly affecting weathering through the process of global
warming. The effects depend on the ensuing climatic conditions in each given
area.
 Plating of trees can lead to increased chemical weathering.
 Blasting and mining operations can lead to seismic movements that can create
fractures that can be exploited by weathering processes such as freeze and thaw
and crystallization thus aiding weathering.

Benefits of weathering to people.

 Creates tourist attractions for example the balancing rocks in Epworth draw
regular crowds bringing in much needed income to the community dwellers.
 It produces soil which is essential for agricultural activities, biodiversity and
development of vegetation.

The End