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Pressure L m
Symbol Quantity
C Discharge coefficient
Ks Screen loss coefficient
S Bottom slope
z Ratio of the side slope for a channel cross-section (horizontal to vertical)
h Efficiency
l Friction factor
p 3.1416
f Velocity coefficient
y Contraction coefficient
(2.1)
where
R= = hydraulic radius, m
A = cross-sectional area of the channel, m2
Pw = wetted perimeter of the channel, m
S = slope of the channel
n = roughness coefficient
Discharge formula
m3/sec (2.2)
, m (2.3)
Slope formula
(2.4)
where
Table 3 Allowable Mean Velocities against Erosion or Scour in Channels of various Soils
and Materials
Description v, m/sec
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Table 4 Allowable Side Slopes for Trapezoidal Channels in various Soils (Davis, 1952)
Type of soil z
Light sand, wet clay 3:1
Wet sand 2.5:1
Loose earth, loose sandy loam 2:1
Ordinary earth, soft clay, sandy loam, gravelly loam or loam 1.5:1
Ordinary gravel 1.25:1
Stiff earth or clay, soft moorum 1:1
Tough hard pan, alluvial soil, firm gravel, hard compact earth, hard moorum 0.5:1
Soft rock 0.25:1
Side slope
where:
h = water depth, m
b = bottom width, m
B = surface width, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
R = hydraulic radius, m
A = cross-sectional area, m2
Example 1
Solution;
Using Figure 1 first we mark off the length of the 1.0 m3 /sec discharge on the edge of a
sheet of paper. Next, keeping the line horizontal we place the paper's edge on the upper
graphs, moving it upward along the corresponding slope S = 0.001 and shape (1.5:1)
lines. Where the distance between the lines equals the discharge length we note the
magnitude of the hydraulic radius R.
R = 0.40 m
v = 0.70 m/sec
A = 1.43 m2
Entering the left bottom graph along the R = 0.40 curve, we find the intercept with the
radial line indicating optimum conditions. In this case for
R = Ropt = 0.40 m
we get
b = 0.50 m
and
h = 0.82 m
Example 2
Design a channel in firm loam, for a discharge of 1 500 l/sec, at maximum permissible
velocity.
Solution
From Table 3, the maximum allowable velocity in firm loam is v = 1,0 m/sec. From Table
4 assume side slopes of 1.5:1. From Table 2 the roughness coefficient is defined as n =
0.025.
Canal properties
From Table 5
m3/sec (3.1)
where
f = velocity coefficient
Hl= contracted water depth, m
b = width of the gate, m
Types of gate f
Broad crested gate 0.85 - 0.95
Uncrested gate 0.95 - 1.00
H1 = y ×a (3.2)
y y y y
, m3/sec (3.3)
where
, m (3.4)
where
(3.5)
(3.6)
where
k = coefficient (Figure 3)
Q = free discharge, m3/sec (see Equation (3.1))
(3.8)
where
Bligh's method
Lf = C × HFS-b, m
where
C = Bligh's coefficient
HFS-b = difference between the full upstream supply level and the
downstream bed level of the channel
Type of soil C
Soft clay and silt 3.0
Medium clay 2.0
Loam 5.0
Light sand and mud 8.0
Peat 9.0
Coarse grained sand 12.0
Fine micaceous sand 15.0
Example 3
A 3.0 m wide vertical uncrested gate discharges into a feeder channel in which the
water level is 1.2 m. The upstream water level is 2.0 m and the gate opening is 0.70 m.
The approach velocity is 0.75 m/sec. Determine the discharge through the structure and
the length of the required apron.
Observing the location of the point described, we note that the outflow is free. Therefore
the free discharge is obtained using Equation (3.1)
f = 0.97 and
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from Table 8
y = 0.628
then
H1 = y ×a = 0.628×0.70 = 0.44 m
therefore
where
H0 = 2.03 m
ds = 0
H1 = 0.44 m
then
therefore
Calculating formulas
m3/sec (3.9)
where
C = discharge coefficient
A = pipe cross-sectional area, m2
h = head, difference in upstream and downstream water surface levels, m
(3.10)
where
Protection length on the downstream side is determined from the following formula:
(3.11)
where
Example 1
Determine the discharge of the intake and the required protection length on its
downstream side with the data below
D = 45 cm
l = 12.5 m
Ho = 2.0 m
H2 - 1.6 m
Solution
where
From Table 3 the allowable velocity is defined as vs = 0.8 for sandy loam.
Then
therefore
(3.12)
where
Figure 7. Discharge coefficient m for flow through free fall pipe inlet
Example 2
Determine the discharge of the free fall inlet with a diameter of 15 cm if its length is 4.0
m and the water depth in the feeder channel is 50 cm.
Solution
then
where
B in cm C
6 to 10 0.0160
10 to 15 0.0164
over 15 0.0166
Example 3
Design an open flume inlet for a discharge of 150 l/sec if the water depth in the feeder
canal is 45 cm and 1.50 m in the pond.
Solution
The corresponding width of the throat to the water depth of 150 l/sec is defined from
Figure 9.
then
B = 30 cm
dg = 0.5×H = 0.5×0.45 = 0.23 m
lc = 0.8×H2 = 0.8×1.50 = 1.20 m
dc = 0.1×H2 = 0.1×1.50 = 0.15 m
The insertion of the stoplogs into the outlet creates over-shot flow conditions. The
discharge formula (neglecting the approach velocity), for over-shot flow is:
where
(3.13)
where
Example 4
Determine the emptying time of 2 ha pond having its water depth of 1.5 m if the
diameter of the outlet is 45 cm.
Solution
where
A1 = 2 ha = 20 000 m2
H1 = 1.5 m
H0 = 0
then
The formulas given for pipe intake can be used, but the following entrance friction
coefficients should be used to calculate the discharge coefficient C.
Entrance condition ke
Sharp-edged projecting entrance 0.9
Flush entrance, square edge 0.5
Well rounded entrance 0.08
(3.14)
where
Entrance head:
(3.15)
where
(3.16)
where
The critical depth can be obtained from the formulas (3.5) and (3.6).
B) Submerged discharge
(3.17)
where
Lb = 5 (H×h)1/2 , m (3.18)
where
1/
In case the failure of the dam would create danger to human life or would
cause great property damage, Q0,1% has to be used to design the spillway
2. Overfall spillway
3. Shaft spillways
4. Siphon spillway
3.6.3 Discharge formulas
(3.20)
where
To prevent erosion in the earthen channel the calculated velocity should be less than the
scouring velocity of the material concerned as shown in Table 3.
(3.21)
where
The side channel has to be lined when the valley side has such great gradient that the
calculated velocity in the side channel is higher than the scouring velocity concerned.
Example 5
Design a side earthen channel spillway for a discharge of 12 m3/sec in stiff clay soil if
the gradient of the valley side along the axis of the channel is 4 percent.
Solution
The scouring velocity of stiff clay soil is defined as vs =1.4 m/sec from Table 3.
Assuming that the water depth over the crest is h = 0.30 m the length of the crest is
determined by the use of Equation (3.20).
where
vs = 1.4 m/sec
h = 0.30 m
To check the velocity in the channel first the measurements of the channel are defined
as follows:
Assume that the channel has a bottom width of 30 m and its side slope of 1:1 then the
normal water depth can be calculated by the following formula:
(3.22)
where
with
b = 30 m
z=1
A = 8.6 m2
then
Since this velocity is higher than the scouring velocity, therefore, the channel should be
lined or its gradient can be lowered by some falls. The slope of the bottom in the
channel is obtained from Equation (2.1)
where
where
The velocity of the flow at the toe of the spillway may be computed by
(3.24)
where
e = g×q
and
The head loss along the glacis can be determined by the formula
(3.25)
where
(3.26)
ds = h2 - h3, m
(3.27)
Example 3.6
Q = 30 m3/sec
h = 1.0 m
P = 5.0 m
gradient of the glacis = 2:1
n = 0.012
h3 = 1.20 m
Solution
The head loss along the glacis is obtained from Equation (3.25)
where
Q = 30 m3/sec
n = 0.012
l = 11.18 m
then
The velocity of the flow at the toe of the spillway is defined from Equation (3.24)
where
P = 5.0 m
hc = 0.66 m
h0 = 1.63 m
then
now
then
The subcritical conjugate depth in the stilling basin is defined from Equation (3.26)
where
then
1. Circular crest
(3.28)
where
h/r 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
C1 1.82 1.78 1.63 1.33 1.12 0.93 0.80 0.70 0.62 0.57
2. Standard crest
3. Flat crest
(3.31)
where
C = discharge coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of the throat, m
h = head, m
(3.32)
where
In order to determine the approximate size of the siphon the value of C can be
considered as follows:
Calculating formulas
(3.33)
where
C = discharge coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe, m2
H = head, m
(3.34)
where
(3.35)
where
Water temperature °C 10 20 30
0.123 0.24 0.43
(3.36)
where
(3.37)
where
v D h
(m/sec) (m) (m)
1.5 0.1 - 0.3 2 D, but min. 0.3
1.5 - 2.5 0.3 - 0.8 1D 0.7
> 2.5 > 1.0 1.7 D 2.0
(3.38)
where
(3.39)
Example 7
Design the siphon shown in Figure 17 for a discharge of 350 l/sec if water temperature
is 30°C.
Solution
3 Considering the designed discharge Q = 0.35 m3/sec the siphon is a large one. The
velocity is calculated by the following formula assuming that its diameter is 400 mm.
As this velocity is higher than the recommended minimum one in Table 14 hence, the
selected diameter is satisfactory.
The next step is to determine the water depth above the entrance of the siphon by using
Equation (3.38)
v = 2.79 m ke = 0.1
then
l = 0.02
l = l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 + l5 + l6 = 1.80 + 14.0 + 8.70 + 13.0 + 5.0 + 1.50 = 44 m
d = 0.40 m
The allowable suction head of the siphon is obtained if we use Equation (3.35)
where
then
where
then
The allowable downstream head of the siphon is determined from Equation (3.37)
where
then
The design of the siphon is satisfactory because both Heffs and HeffT are below their
allowable values.
where
C = 0.47
A = 0.126 m2
H = 545 - 543 = 2.0 m
then
4. DISCHARGE OF WELLS
Thiem's method
(4.1)
where
Dupuit's method
(4.2)
(4.3)
where
s = drawdown = h0 - hw, m, m
To ensure a long service life of the well, movement of the finer fractions of the aquifer
material, resulting in subsequent clogging of the screen openings, has to be minimised.
Therefore, the screen entrance velocities have to be kept below the values
recommended in Table 15.
In order to install the required pumping equipment properly in the well, the diameter of
the well should be determined on the basis of the well discharge as recommended in
Table 16.
Example 1
Determine the discharge of a well with the diameter of 20 cm and the length of the
screen of 30 m if k equals 10 m/day, the thickness of the unconfined aquifer is 40 m and
the water table is at the depth of 6 m below the ground level.
In order to determine the well discharge the approximate value of drawdown is chosen
as 4.0 m.
where
s = 4.0 m
k = 10 m/day = 1.2×10-4 m/sec
hence
where
h0 = 34 m
hw = 30 m
rw = 0.10 m
The open area of the screen is assumed as 15 per cent of the total surface area of the
screen. Then the screen entrance area is obtained by
As = 0.15×2rw×p ×Ls
where
Ls = 30 m
now
As = 0.15×2×0.10×3.14×30 = 2.82 m2
The effective open area accounting for blockage by grains is estimated to be 50 per cent
of the actual open area i.e. 1.41 m . Hence the entrance velocity for a discharge of
0.015 m/sec is defined as
Since ve is equal to the optimum screen velocity, the selected screen is adequate.
Diameter of well:
As this value is almost equal to the pumping rate of 60 m3/sec, hence, the selected
diameter of 20 cm is adequate.
Example 2
Design a well for an indoor hatchery with a peak discharge of 700 1/min in an
unconfined aquifer of 20 m. The fluctuation of the water table level is 4.0 m with a
maximum level of 3.0 m below the ground level. Assume the value of k as 100 m/day.
Q = ve×Asef
where
then
where
k = 1.16×10-3 m/sec
h0 =13 m, considering the minimum water table level
hw =11.5 m
r0 =153 m
rw 0.075 m
Since the calculated discharge is larger than the required one, the above calculations
have to be repeated with a lowered value of the drawdown.
Assume s = 1,0 m
then
This is equal to the peak water demand of the hatchery, hence the tube well with a
diameter of 15 cm and a screen length of 10 m as well as a drawdown of 1.0 m yields
the required 700 1/min for the hatchery.
Kirschmer's formula
(5.1)
where
hs = loss of head, m
Ks = screen loss coefficient
t = thickness of bars, m
b = clear spacing between bars, m
v = velocity of approach, m/sec
a = angle of bar inclination, degree
Example 1
Design a Screen chamber for a pumping station with the following data
Procedure:
Ks = 1.79
t = 0.01 m
b = 0.02 m
v = 0.70 m/sec
sin a = sin 70° = 0.9397
The width of the pumping chamber is calculated first without any screens as
below
now
(6.1)
where
Example 1
Design a filter box of a feeder channel against trash fish for a discharge of 200 l/sec.
The thickness of the filter gravel with average grain size of 7 mm is 35 cm and the head
is 30 cm.
Solution
where
A = l×w = 3.0m
L = 0.35 m
Q = 0.2 m3/sec
h = 0.30 m
then
so
Therefore, the required width of the filter box with the selected length of 3.0 m shall be
2.0 m.
Calculating Formulas
(7.1)
(7.2)
(7.3)
where
Minor losses along the pipe may be expressed in the equivalent length of pipe that has
the same head loss for the same discharge. The chart in Fig. 23 shows a convenient
method of estimating these losses
Example 1
Determine the discharge of a 200 mm diameter galvanized pipe if the length of the pipe
is 1 000 m and the head loss is 5.0 m.
Solution
L = 1 000 m
D = 200 mm
H = 5.0 m
Figure 23. Minor losses of valves and fittings to flow of water (Coronel, 1978)
from which
From Table 18 K for the galvanized pipe of 200 mm in diameter is 476.9 l/sec.
Example 2
Determine the required head loss for a discharge of 50 l/sec in the pipe described in
Example 1.
Solution
where
L = 1.0 km
From Table 18
Then
H = 502×1.0×0.0044 = 11.0 m
In the hydraulic design of pipelines the energy loss through friction along the pipe is
dominant for pipes of 50 m or longer. For shorter pipe lengths the aggregate of local
energy losses at elbows, valves, inlet devices etc., may be equal or more than the
frictional losses along the pipe. Local losses in piping fixtures were found to be
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proportional to the amount of kinetic energy entering the fixture. The configuration of the
fixture determines the constant of proportionality. Accordingly, local loss in a pipe fixture
is computed by
in which k is the so-called local loss coefficient and v is the velocity in the pipe before
the fixture, unless otherwise specified. Table 19 lists local loss coefficients for a variety
of fixtures.
Pipe diameter (mm) Velocity (m/sec) Pipe diameter (mm) Velocity (m/sec)
25-50 0.60 400 1.25
60 0.70 500 1.40
100 0.75 600 1.60
150 0.80 800 1.90
200 0.90 900 1.95
250 1.00 1 000 2.00
300 1.10 1 200 2.20
1. Propeller pumps
2. Centrifugal pumps
3. Turbine pumps
where
HSS = suction static head is the vertical distance in metre between the downstream
water surface and the centreline of the pump. It may be either positive or negative,
depending upon the location of the pump centreline with respect to the water surface
suction velocity head is the equivalent head through which the water would have to fall
to acquire the velocity it has in the suction.
HDS = discharge static head is the vertical distance in metre between the centerline of
the pump and the point of discharge
If the suction and discharge openings are of equal diameter, the discharge velocity head
will be zero.
(8.2)
where
Specific speed n is a widely used criterion for pump selection. It is the impeller speed
corresponding t §a discharge of 1.0 m3/sec at 1.0 m of head for the most efficient
design. The recommended design range of ns is shown in Table 24.
Type of pump ns
Centrifugal pumps radial flow with
narrow impeller 10 - 30
medium impeller 30 - 45
wide impeller 45 - 80
Centrifugal pumps mixed flow 80 -150
Propeller pumps 135 -320
(8.3)
where
To prevent cavitation, the pump should be placed such that the total suction head HST is
less than the head available, based on the local atmospheric pressure minus the vapour
pressure of the water.
(8.4)
where
Efficiency of a pump varies with Q and H. The value is included in the manufacturer's
characteristic curves of the pumps available in pump catalogues, an example of which is
shown in Figure 25.
1 horsepower = 0.7457 kW
(8.5)
Efficiency of the motor depends upon the type of the driven motors as follows:
To ensure the minimum operation cost and the amortization of a pump station having a
longer pipeline, its most economical pipe diameter can be defined by the following
function as Agroszkin (1952) recommended.
(8.6)
where
Example 1
A pump with the designed arrangement as shown in Figure 24 delivers 175 l/sec.
Determine the total dynamic head and the required brake horsepower.
Solution:
HT = HST + HDT
where
and
The first step is to determine the various heads which are computed as follows:
ke = 5.5
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From Figure 24
D = 300 mm
then
hence
HSS = 4.0m
From Figure 24
HDS = 3.0 m
As the discharge and suction pipes have the same diameter, hence
HDV = 0
kv = 0.07
for two 90° bends with R/d = 1
kb = 2×0.53 = 1.06
then
where
g = 1 000 kg
Q = 0.175 m3/sec
HT = 10.20 m
Assuming
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then
Example 2
Determine the most economical pipe diameter for the pump station described in
Example 1 with the following data
Rc = US$ 0.07
pa = 10%
Cp = US$ 175
D = 500 mm