18EC652_SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

MODULE-2A

REACTANCE VARIATION AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SENSORS

STRUCTURE:

➢ Capacitive Sensors
▪ Variable capacitor
▪ Differential capacitor
➢ Inductive Sensors
▪ Variable reluctance sensors
▪ Eddy current sensors
▪ Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs)
▪ Variable transformers: Synchros, resolvers, and Inductosyn
▪ Magnetoelastic and magnetostrictive sensors
▪ Wiegand and pulse-wire sensors
▪ Saturation-core (flux-gate) sensors
▪ Superconducting quantum interference devices
➢ Electromagnetic Sensors.
▪ Sensors based on Faraday's law

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▪ Hall effect sensors,

MODULE-2B

SIGNAL CONDITIONING FOR REACTANCE VARIATION SENSORS

STRUCTURE:

➢ Problems and Alternatives

➢ Ac Bridges

➢ Carrier Amplifiers and Coherent Detection

➢ Specific Signal Conditioners for Capacitive Sensors

➢ Resolver-to-Digital and Digital-to-Resolver Converters.

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Reactance Variation and Electromagnetic Sensors

Reactance variations in a component or circuit offer alternative measurement methods from
those available with resistive sensors. Many reactance variation measurement methods do not
require any physical contact with the system to be measured, or when they do, exert a
minimal mechanical loading effect.

The inherent nonlinearity of some of the measurement methods used in this kind of sensors is
overcome through differential sensors. On the other hand, these methods limit the maximal
frequency for the measurand because it must be at least ten times lower than the excitation
frequency, which must be an alternating voltage or current. Some electromagnetic sensors are
in fact self-generating sensors, but they are discussed in this chapter because of the similarity
between their output signal and that of some variable reactance sensors.

2.1 CAPACITIVE SENSORS

2.1.1 Variable Capacitor

A capacitor consists of two electric conductors separated by a dielectric (solid, liquid, or gas)
or a vacuum. The relationship between the charge Q and the difference in voltage V between
them is described by means of its capacitance, C= Q/V. This capacitance depends on the

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geometrical arrangement of the conductors and on the dielectric material between them, C
=C( ϵ; G).

For example, for a capacitor formed by n equal parallel plane plates having an area A, with a
distance d between each pair, and an interposed material with a relative dielectric constant ϵr,
the capacitance is

where ϵ0=8:85 pF/m is the dielectric constant for vacuum. Therefore, any measurand
producing a variation in ϵr, A, or d will result in a change in the capacitance C and can be in
principle sensed by that device.

Figure.1 shows how to reduce fringe effects without changing geometrical relations. It
consists of using guards that are connected to a constant voltage so that electric field flux
lines remain confined into the volume defined by the sensing electrode. Capacitance
correction because of the finite gap width w depends on w/d (d is the electrode distance) and
on electrode thickness [4]. The guard width x needed to achieve a relative error lower than a
is x =(d ln a)/Л

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Figure:1 The outer guard ring in a capacitive sensor is kept at the same voltage as one of the
two electrode plates to reduce fringing fields.

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Capacitive sensors have high output impedance. This certainly decreases when the
supply frequency increases, but stray capacitances also cause impedance decrease at higher
frequencies.

Figure 2 shows some sensor configurations for capacitive displacement sensors based
on a change of area (a-e), electrode separation ( f ), or the dielectric g; h. Change in dielectric
is not common because of the mechanical problems posed by its manufacturing and
operation. The configuration based on a variation of the distance between electrodes is
common for measuring large and very small displacements. The configuration based on a
variation of area is more common for medium-range displacement measurement, 1 cm to 10
cm.

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Figure 2 Different arrangements for capacitive sensors based on (a-e) a variation of
area, ( f ) plate separation, and (g, h) dielectric.

Figure: 3 The capacitance strain gage consists of two arched flexible strips bonded on
the test piece. The horizontal stress in the test piece changes the bowing of the strips and
hence the vertical gap between the capacitor plates.

Figure 4.a shows a level sensor for conductive liquids (water, mercury) based upon
the variation of area. The capacitance of the system consisting of two cylindrical concentric
electrodes is

The metal container is grounded to avoid electric discharges and stray capacitance.

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liquids.
Figure 4 Capacitive level sensors for (a, b) conductive liquids and (c) nonconductive

. The level sensor in Figure 4.b is based on the variation in distance, and it works
when the conductivity for the liquid is very high (mercury, water, etc.) so its surface acts as
an ``electrode plate.'' The resulting capacitive voltage divider yields an output voltage

where C1 is constant and C2 changes inversely with the liquid height h. The output is
therefore nonlinear, but it can be linearized by means of a feedback system that displaces the
measuring and reference electrodes, so that their distance to the liquid remains constant. Then
the output is the displacement of the measuring electrode.

The level sensor shown in Figure 4.c is based on a variation in the dielectric material.
If the conductive cylinders are coaxial, the total capacitance will be

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2.1.2 Differential Capacitor

A differential capacitor consists of two variable capacitors so arranged that they undergo the
same change but in opposite directions.

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Figure 5 Differential capacitor based on the variation of the distance between plates.

The respective drop in voltage across each capacitor is

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Substituting for the capacitances their values as given equations yields

When we subtract both voltages we obtain

Therefore, an appropriate output signal conditioning yields a linear output that has an
increased sensitivity compared to a single capacitor.

If the measurand changes the area of C1 and C2 instead for example, as in Figure 6 we have

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Figure: 6 Differential capacitors based on the variation of effective plate area.

Here too, measuring the difference between capacitances yields a result proportional to z. The
sensor in Figure 6 b has the same equation.

Figure 6 c shows a linear rotary differential capacitance sensor (LRDC) . It consists of two
equal-size parallel circular plates, each divided by an insulating gap along a diameter.

One pair of the resulting two-pair set of semicircular plates is the rotor, and the other pair is
the stator. The area between the plates is proportional to the angular displacement y measured
with respect to the zero displacement position, which occurs when the insulating gaps of the
stator and rotor are perpendicular. If stray capacitances are ignored, we have four capacitors
whose respective values are

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Arranging these four capacitors in a bridge, with C1 and C3 (and C2 and C4) in opposite
arms, yields an output voltage proportional to y.

The angular displacement sensor in Figure 6d has two fixed plates and one movable plate
(rotor). This defines two capacitors whose sum is constant but whose values increase and
decrease by the same amount when the rotor turns.

The inclinometer in Figure 7 includes two pairs of electrodes whose cross capacitance
changes when the dielectric moves inside the vial because of a tilt. The external surface is
aluminium and shields the four sensing electrodes from external electric fields.

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Differential capacitor sensors have the same limitations described for the variable capacitor,
except nonlinearity, because we can obtain a proportional output even when the variable is
the distance between plates. A particularly important source of error here is the capacitance
of output cables because they shunt C1 and C2, thus resulting in a nonlinearity and in a loss
in sensitivity.

2.2 INDUCTIVE SENSORS

2.2.1 Variable Reluctance Sensors

Variable reluctance speed sensors measure the position and speed of moving ferrous objects.
Their versatility, simplistic design, and relatively low cost of manufacturability make them
attractive for use in the aerospace industries. The variable reluctance sensor consists of a
permanent magnet and a ferromagnetic pole piece surrounded by a coil of wire. The sensor
generates an analog voltage output signal when a ferromagnetic material passes by the tip of
the pole piece. The magnitude of the induced voltage is therefore a direct function of the flux
linkage in the coil as a function of time. The voltage signal is sent to the control unit where it
is often converted to a digital signal to support the controlling function.

The reluctance of a circuit indicates the amount of magnetic flux it links, due to an electric
current. If it is a current flowing along the circuit itself, we call it self inductance L.
Otherwise we call it mutual inductance M.

The inductance can be expressed as

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where N is the number of turns in the circuit, F is the magnetic flux, and i is the current in the
circuit. Magnetic flux is related to the magnetomotive force Fm and to the magnetic
reluctance R by

Because Fm = Ni, finally, we have

For a coil having a cross section A and a length l much longer than its transverse dimensions,
R is given by

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where μr is the magnetic permeability for the magnetic core inside the coil, l0 is the path of
field lines through the air (outside the coil), and A0 is the path cross section. The
approximation made is valid when A0 is very large, which is the usual case.

For the magnetic circuit shown in Figure 8, for example, if leakage ¯ux in the armatures and
air gaps are considered negligible, the total reluctance is

Figure: 8 Variable reluctance sensor with

magnetic flux paths in air and in a ferromagnetic
material.

Therefore, any variation in N, m (magnetic

permeability of the material inside and around the
coil) or in the geometry (l or A) can in principle be applied to sensing. Nevertheless, most

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inductive sensors are based on a variation of reluctance and it is a displacement that modifies
it, usually modifying l0 or m. Those that modify l0 are called variable gap sensors, and those
that modify m are called moving core sensors. R can also change because of eddy currents.

One main advantage of inductive sensors is that they are not affected by the ambient
humidity or by other contaminants that can have a noticeable influence on capacitive sensors.
Also their mechanical loading effect is very small, although higher than that of a variable
capacitor. In addition, they have a very high sensitivity.

Figure 9 shows several configurations used in measurement sensors. In Figures 9a, b, c, and
d, a wiper changes the number of turns of the coil defined between a fixed contact and the
sliding or rotary contact.

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Different configurations for variable reluctance sensors. (a) to (d ) rely on a variation in the
number of coil turns; (e) to (g) rely on a magnetic core movement; (h) and (i) rely on a gap
variation. The sensors in (c), (d ), ( f ), (g), and (i) are differential.

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Figure 9 e, f, and g; L changes because of the displacement of the magnetic core. In Figures
4.10h and i; L changes because of a gap variation. Differential models (Figures 9c, d, f, g,
and i) are less sensitive to external magnetic fields, temperature variations, and drifts in the
supply voltage and frequency.

Variable reluctance sensors can also sense other quantities if an appropriate primary sensor
converts them into a displacement. This is the case for the pressure sensor shown in Figure
10, where the diaphragm is assumed to be ferromagnetic. An inductive measurement of the
displacement of the central point of the diaphragm could still be used to sense pressure if the
diaphragm were not ferromagnetic.

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Figure 10 Variable reluctance pressure sensor based on a ferromagnetic diaphragm and two
fixed coils.

Thickness measurement using variable reluctance sensors is based on the variation of the
magnetic flux depending on the thickness of the part. The reluctance changes depend on the
dimensions of the flux path and these can be made thickness dependent. For a magnetic part,
configurations such as those shown in Figure 11 are common. The core must be
ferromagnetic and have a reluctance well below that of the part to be measured. Further it
must be laminated in order to reduce eddy currents. Nonmagnetic parts can be placed on a
thick ferromagnetic base as shown in Figure 12. Measurement ranges for steel, for example,
are from 0.025 mm to 2.5 mm.

Figure 11 Different methods for thickness measurement of a ferromagnetic part based on a

variation in reluctance.

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Figure 12 Thickness measurement of a nonferromagnetic part based on a variation in

reluctance.

2.2.1 Eddy Current Sensors

The inductive reactance of a coil supplied by alternating current decreases if a nonmagnetic

conductive target is placed inside its magnetic field. This is because the varying magnetic
field induces eddy currents on the target surface that produce a secondary magnetic field,
which induces an opposing voltage in the coil. The closer the target is to the coil, the larger
the change in impedance. Ferromagnetic target materials first increase the coil reactance

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because of the magnetic field increase resulting from their higher permeability. However, if
eddy currents are strong enough to overcome that effect, the coil inductive reactance
decreases.

Figure 4.13 (a) Eddy current proximity sensor. (b) Eddy current displacement sensor.

Figure 14 Liquid metal level measurement based on eddy currents. Figure 15 Drag-cup-type
eddy current tachometer.
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Figure 14 shows a system for liquid metal level measurement. The tube walls are from
nonmagnetic steel. The inductance of each coil depends on eddy currents induced in the
liquid and therefore changes when the level does.

Figure 15 shows a drag cup tachometer, where we measure the velocity of a shaft that spins a
magnet. The magnet induces eddy currents in the non-ferromagnetic conductive cup, which
produces its own magnetic field that interacts with that of the magnet. The cup is held by a
torsion spring that twists to an angle at which its torque balances the dragging torque, thus
converting a speed into a torque. The twist angle is given on a scale. This sensor has a second
order dynamic response.

Figure 16 Sliding ring displacement sensor based on eddy currents. The conductive ring
defines the path for magnetic flux lines because of the currents induced in it.

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. There is a copper ring that slides along an axis so that its position is at the edge of the
magnetic field produced by another coil having a magnetic core (with an E-shape in this
case). Eddy currents induced in the ring create an opposite field. This way the ring acts as a
magnetic insulator and its position determines coil inductance. One application is the
measurement of linear positions and angles in cars in laboratories.

2.3 Linear Variable Differential Transformers

The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential Transformer” is LVDT. Generally,
LVDT is a normal type of transducer. The main function of this is to convert the rectangular
movement of an object to the equivalent electrical signal. LVDT is used to calculate
displacement and works on the transformer principle.

The above LVDT sensor diagram comprises a core as well as a coil assembly. Here, the core
is protected by the thing whose location is being calculated, while the coil assembly is
increased to a stationary structure. The coil assembly includes three wire-wound coils on the
hollow shape. The inside coil is the major, which is energized by an AC source. The
magnetic flux generated by the main is attached to the two minor coils, making an AC
voltage in every coil.

The main benefit of this transducer, when compared with other LVDT types, is toughness. As
there is no material contact across the sensing component.

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Because the machine depends on the combination of magnetic flux, this transducer can have
an unlimited resolution. So the minimum fraction of progress can be noticed by an
appropriate signal conditioning tool, and the transducer’s resolution is exclusively determined
by the declaration of the DAS (data acquisition system).

LVDT comprises a cylindrical former, which is bounded by one main winding in the hub of
the former and the two minor LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces. The amount of
twists in both the minor windings is equivalent, but they are reversed to each other like
clockwise direction and anti-clockwise direction.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer Construction

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For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in voltages among the two minor coils.
These two coils are denoted with S1 & S2. Esteem iron core is located in the middle of the
cylindrical former. The excitation voltage of AC is 5-12V and the operating frequency is
given by 50 to 400 HZ.

Working Principle of LVDT

The working principle of the linear variable differential transformer or LVDT working theory
is mutual induction. The dislocation is nonelectrical energy that is changed into electrical
energy. And, how the energy is altered is discussed in detail in the working of an LVDT.

Working of an LVDT

The working of the LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into three cases based on the
position of the iron core in the insulated former.

In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both the minor windings
flux will equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the windings. So for no dislocation, the
output value (eout) is zero because both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus, it illustrates that no
dislocation took place.

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LVDT Working Principle

In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted up to the null point. In this case, the flux
involving minor winding S1 is additional as contrasted to flux connecting with the S 2
winding. Due to this reason, e1 will be added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output voltage)
is positive.

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In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point, In this case, the
amount of e2 will be added as that of e1. Due to this eout output voltage will be negative plus
it illustrates the o/p to down on the location point.

What is the Output of LVDT?

The output of the measuring device like LVDT or linear variable differential transformer is a
sine wave through amplitude that is proportional to off-center location & 0⁰ otherwise 180⁰ of
phase based on the located side of the core. Here, full-wave rectification is used to
demodulate the signal. The highest value of the engine out (EOUT) happens at the highest
core displacement from the middle position. It is an amplitude function of the main side
excitation voltage as well as the sensitivity factor of the specific type of LVDT. In general, it
is quite considerable at RMS.

LVDT Graph

The LVDT graph diagrams are shown below which shows the variations in the shaft as well
as their result in terms of the differential AC output’s magnitude from a null point & output
of direct current from electronics.

The utmost value of shaft displacement from the core location mainly depends on the
sensitivity factor as well as the amplitude of the main excitation voltage. The shaft stays at
the null position until a referenced main excitation voltage is specified to the main winding of
the coil.

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LVDT Shaft Variations

As shown in the figure, the DC o/p polarity

or phase shift mainly defines the position of
the shaft for the null point to represent the
property like the o/p linearity of the module
of LVDT.

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2.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC SENSORS

Sensors discussed so far in this chapter, other than Wiegand sensors and SQUIDs, can be
described by one or two variable capacitors or by one or two variable inductances or mutual
inductances. There are other devices where a physical quantity can result in a change in a
magnetic or electric ®eld without implying a change in inductance or capacitance. This
section describes some of the more frequently used sensors.

2.3.1

Electromagnetic Flowmeters

Electromagnetic flowmeters rely on a conductive, nonmagnetic liquid that moves inside an

exciting magnetic field created by two external coils. Then a small induced voltage (1 mV at
1 m/s) result is detected by two electrodes placed at 90 with respect to the flow and the field,
as shown in Figure.

Figure: In an electromagnetic flowmeter, the

magnetic field is vertical, the output electric field
is horizontal, and the flow is into the page.

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The output voltage is proportional to liquid flow only when the velocity profile is symmetric
with respect to the flow axis and the magnetic field is uniform in the cross section that
includes the electrodes. The dependence of the output voltage on the velocity profile depends
on the size of the electrodes. In principle, the larger the electrodes, the better the system
works. To prevent the electrodes from getting dirty and from deteriorating, they may be
covered by an insulating material, thus resulting in a capacitive coupling to the liquid and an
increased output impedance. Alternatively, they can be externally cleaned by ultrasound. The
pipe must be completely filled for the measure to be valid.

The pipe must be nonmetallic and nonmagnetic so that the exciting magnetic field is not
distorted, and it must have an inner lining with a wear-resistant material.

Search coil magnetometer

The search coil magnetometer or induction magnetometer, based on an inductive sensor (also
known as inductive loop and inductive coil), is a magnetometer which measures the varying
magnetic flux. An inductive sensor connected to a conditioning electronic circuit constitutes a
search coil magnetometer. It is a vector magnetometer which can measure one or more
components of the magnetic field.

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A classical configuration uses three

orthogonal inductive sensors. The
search-coil magnetometer can measure
magnetic field from mHz up to
hundreds of MHz.

Principle
The inductive sensor is based on Faraday's law of induction. The temporal variation of the
Magnetic Flux ϕ through a N turns circuit will induce a voltage е which follows

which can be expressed in a simpler way

by assuming that the induced magnetic field B is homogeneous over a section S (the
Magnetic flux will be expressed ϕ =B*S

•
•
•
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The induced voltage e may be increased several ways:

increase the surface (S),

increase the turn number (N),
use a ferromagnetic core.

When a coil is wound around a ferromagnetic core, that increases the sensitivity of the sensor
thanks to the apparent permeability of the ferromagnetic core.

Apparent permeability
The magnetic amplification, known as apparent permeability μ is the result of the
magnetization of the ferromagnetic core response to an external magnetic field. The
magnetization is reduced by the demagnetizing field.

The demagnetizing coefficient can easily be computed

The demagnetizing coefficient can easily be computed in the case of simple shapes (spheres and
ellipsoids).

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2.3.2 Hall Effect Sensors

Hall Effect Sensors are devices which are activated by an external magnetic field. We know
that a magnetic field has two important characteristics flux density, (B) and polarity (North
and South Poles). The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic field
density around the device. When the magnetic flux density around the sensor exceeds a
certain pre-set threshold, the sensor detects it and generates an output voltage called the Hall
Voltage, VH. Consider the diagram below.

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Hall Effect Sensor Principles

Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide
(InAs) passing a continuous current through itself. When the device is placed within a
magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor material which
deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the semiconductor slab. This
movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing through
the semiconductor material.

As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between the
two sides of the semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge carriers. Then the
movement of electrons through the semiconductor material is affected by the presence of an
external magnetic field which is at right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat
rectangular shaped material.

The effect of generating a measurable voltage by using a magnetic field is called the Hall
Effect after Edwin Hall who discovered it back in the 1870’s with the basic physical principle
underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz force. To generate a potential difference across the

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device the magnetic flux lines must be perpendicular, (90o) to the flow of current and be of
the correct polarity, generally a south pole.

The Hall effect provides information regarding the type of magnetic pole and magnitude of
the magnetic field. For example, a south pole would cause the device to produce a voltage
output while a north pole would have no effect. Generally, Hall Effect sensors and switches
are designed to be in the “OFF”, (open circuit condition) when there is no magnetic field
present. They only turn “ON”, (closed circuit condition) when subjected to a magnetic field
of sufficient strength and polarity.

Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or digital outputs. The output signal for
linear (analogue) sensors is taken directly from the output of the operational amplifier with
the output voltage being directly proportional to the magnetic field passing through the Hall
sensor. This output Hall voltage is given as:

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Hall Effect Applications

Hall effect sensors are activated by a magnetic field and in many applications the device can
be operated by a single permanent magnet attached to a moving shaft or device. There are
many different types of magnet movements, such as “Head-on”, “Sideways”, “Push-pull” or
“Push-push” etc sensing movements. Which every type of configuration is used, to ensure
maximum sensitivity the magnetic lines of flux must always be perpendicular to the sensing
area of the device and must be of the correct polarity.

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