NFPA 1081 Standard Knowledge Objectives

Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to:
NFPA 1081 contai ns no Inci pi ent Industri al j ob performance requi rements for thi s Li st and descri be the parts of a l adder.
chapter. Descri be the di fferent types of ladders.
Descri be how to cl ean and inspect l adders.
Descri be the hazards wi th l adders. Descri be
A dv a nc ed Ext e rior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r 6.3 .11 Set up and how to depl oy a l adder. Descri be how to
use portabl e l adders, gi ven an assi gnment, si ngl e and extension l adders, and work on a l adder.
team members as appropriate, so that hazards are asses sed, the l adder i s
stabl e, the angl e i s correct for cli mbi ng, extensi on ladders are extended to the
correct hei ght with the fl y l ocked, the top i s pl aced agai nst a reli abl e structural Skills Objectives
component, and the assi gnment i s accompli shed.
After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to perform the foll owi ng skill s:
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Parts of a l adder, hazards associ ated wi th setting up • One-person carry
ladders, what constitutes a stabl e foundati on for l adder pl aceme nt, di fferent • Two-person shoul der carry
angl es for vari ous task s, safety li mi ts to the degree of angul ati on, and what • Three-person shoul der carry
consti tutes a reli abl e structural component for top pl acement. • Two-person suitcase carry
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to carry l adders, rai se l adders, extend l adders • Three-person sui tcase carry
and l ock fli es, determi ne that a wall and roof will support the l adder, j udge • Three-person fl at carry
extensi on ladder hei ght requi rements, and pl ace the l adder to avoi d obvious • Four-person fl at carry
hazards. • Three-person fl at-shoul der carry
• Four-person fl at-shoul der carry
Inte rior St ruc tural Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r 7 .3.8 Set up and use • One-person fl at rai se for ladders under 14'
portabl e l adders, gi ven an assi gnment, si ngl e and extensi on ladders, and team • One-person fl at rai se for ladders over 14'
members as appropri ate, so that hazards are assessed, the l adder i s stabl e, the • Two-person beam rai se
angl e i s correct for cli mbi ng, extension l adders are extended to the correct hei ght • Two-person fl at rai se
• Three-person fl at rai se
wi th the fl y l ocked, the top i s pl aced agai nst a reli abl e structural component, and
• Four-person flat rai se
the assi gnment i s accompli shed.
• Ti e the hal yard
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Parts of a l adder, hazards associ ated wi th setting up • Cli mb a l adder
ladders, what constitutes a stabl e foundati on for l adder pl acement, di fferent • Wor k from a l adder
angl es for vari ous task s, safety li mi ts to the degree of angul ati on, and what • Depl oy a roof l adder
consti tutes a reli abl e structural component for top pl acement.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to carry l adders, rai se l adders, extend l adders
and l ock fli es, determi ne that a wall and roof will support the l adder, j udge
extensi on ladder hei ght requi rements, and pl ace the l adder to avoi d obvious
hazards.

Additional NFPA Standards

NFPA 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re Bri gades
NFPA 1901 Standard for Automoti ve Fi re Apparatus
NFPA 1931 Standard for Manufacturer's Desi gn of Fi re Department Ground
Ladders
NFPA 1932 Standard on Use, Mai ntenance, and Servi ce Testi ng ofl n-Servi ce
Fi re Department Ground Ladders
NFPA 1983 Standard on Fi re Servi ce Li fe Safety Rope and System Components
 You are paged out to a report of a fire alarm in the Administration Building. The building is pro-
tected by a sprinkler system, but the system has been shut down for maintenance. When you
arrive, you find heavy smoke showing from the third level. As another crew stretches handiines
into the entrance, you are assigned to ladder the roof and prepare to ventilate.
1. What size ladder do you need to access the roof?
2. What type of carry and raise will your crew use to set up the ladder?
3. What are your safety considerations when placing the ladder?

Ladders are most o ften used to p rov ide access to and

Introduction
Despite many technological advances in the fire service, one
fundamental p iece o f equip ment has not changed much. The
ladder remains one of the brigade members basic tools, car-
ried on nearly every p iece o f apparatus.
The portable ladder is one of the most functional, versatile,
durable, inexpensive, easy-to-use, and rapidly deployable tools
used by brigade members. No advanced technology can sub -
stitute for a ladder as a means of rapid, safe vertical access for
fire suppression and rescue operations. Every brigade member
must be proficient in the basic skills of working with ladders.
Functions of a Ladder
Ladders p rov ide a v ert ical path , either up o r do wn, fro m
one level to another. Ladders can provide access to an area
o r eg ress (a met h o d t o exit o r es cap e) fro m an a rea (V
Figure 12-1"). At times, a ladder can be used as a work platform
so that a brigade member can perform various functions in
locations that cannot be reached otherwise.
egress from areas above grade (the level at which the ground
intersects the foundation of a structure). Used outside a struc-
ture, ladders can enable brigade members to reach the roof for
ventilat ion ope rat ions, to enter a window fo r an interio r
search, or to rescue a victim. Exterior ladders also provide an
emergency exit for crews working inside a structure. Within
the structure, ladders can be used to access the attic or to pro -
vide a safe path between floors, avoiding a damaged stairway.
A response team can use a ladder to access and exit fro m the
top of a rail car during a hazardous materials incident.
Brigade members also use ladders to access and exit areas
below grade. Lo wering a ladder into a trench o r manhole
allows brigade members to reach the level of an incident or
to escape safely. A ladder can be used to reach an injured per-
son in a ravine o r to access a h igh way accident fro m an
overpass.

Fire Marks
;fireOn inM*arca fourh 16,-story
1993, the C hic ago Fire D epartm ent responded to a
1930s vintage hot el. T he fire rapidly made the
interior stairways and hallw ays impass able. Becaus e the building
was occ upied by approx imat ely 160 people, fire fight ers were
faced with a massiv e rescue situation. Although 19 people lost
their lives, fire fighters made over 100 successful rescues. Many
of those resc ues res ulted from the quick and effective ladder work
by the first-arriving ladder com panies.

( Figure 12-1) Ladders can provide access to or exit from a structure.

 La dders 321

Ladders are useful even at grade level. A ladder can be

used to create a b ridge across a small opening or to enable
brigade members to climb over a fence o r obstruct ion to
reach an emergency scene.
Ladders also can be used as work platforms. For example, a
brigade member who has climbed a ladder to a window can
stand on the ladder to open the window for ventilation or to
direct a hose stream into the building. Ladders also can be used
during overhaul operations, providing a platform for a brigade
member to remove ext erio r t rim in a wood -frame bu ild ing.

Secondary Functions of Ladders

Ladders serve several other functions in the fire sendee. Roof
ladders provide stable footing and distribute the weight of
brigade members during pitched roof operat ions. A
two-sect ion ladder, rigged with rope and webb ing, fo rms a
makeshift lift called a ladder gin . Ladder g ins are used to
lower a rescuer into a trench or manhole or to raise a victim
safely from a below-grade site (V Figure 12-2).
Ladders provide elevated platforms for equip ment as well
as for brigade members. They are especially useful when ele-
vation wou ld extend the reach o r enhance the operat ions of
the equipment. For examp le, a hose line attached to a ladder
section can protect exposures or confine a fire. A smoke ejector
may be mounted on a ladder to prov ide vent ilat ion. Portable
lighting also may be secured to ladders to illu minate working
areas. ( Figure 12-2) Rescuers can use a ladder gin to remove a fall victim from an
Ladders can be used as ramps for mov ing equip ment, or underground vault.
for hoisting or lo wering victims . They can be used to help
shore up a damaged wall, to support a hose line over an
opening, or to gu ide a rope up, down , o r over an obstacle.
With a tarp or salvage cover, brigade members can turn a
ladder into a channel o r chute fo r water and debris.

Ladder Construction
In its most basic design, a ladder consists of two beams con -
nected by a series of parallel rungs. Fire service ladders,
however, are specialized tools with several parts. To use and
maintain ladders properly , brigade members must be familiar
with the d ifferent types of ladders, as well as with the
different parts and terms used to describe them.

Basic Ladd er Co mponents

The basic co mponents of a straight ladder are used in most
( Figure 12-3^) Basic components of a straight ladder.
other types of ladders as well (► Figure 12-3 ).

Beams • Trussed beam: A t russed beam has a top and a bot

A beam is one of the t wo main structural co mponents that
run the entire length of most ladders or ladder sections. The
beams support the rungs and carry the load of a person fro m
the rungs do wn to the ground .
There are three basic types of beam construction: trussed
beam, I-beam, and solid beam.
tom rail, joined by a series of smaller p ieces called
truss blocks. The rungs are attached to the truss
blocks. Trussed beams are usually constructed of alu
minu m or wood.
• I-beam: An I-beam has thick sections at the top and
bottom, connected by a th inner sect ion. The rungs are
322
(Figure 12-4) Two types of beam construction are truss beam and I -beam.
attached to the thinner section of the beam. Th is type of
beam is usually made from fiberglass (A Figure 12-4 ). •
Soli d beam: A so lid beam has a s imp le rectangular cross
section. Many wooden ladders have solid beams .
Rectangular alu minu m beams, wh ich are usually hollow
or C-shaped, are also classified as solid beams.
Rail
The rail is the top or bottom section of a trussed beam. Each
trussed beam has two rails. The term rail also can be used to
refer to the top and botto m surfaces o f an I-beam.
Truss Block
A truss bl ock is a piece or assemb ly that connects the two
rails of a trussed beam. The rungs are attached to the t russ
blocks. Truss blocks can be made fro m metal or wood.
Rung
A rung is a crosspiece that spans the two beams of a ladder.
The rungs serve as steps and t ransfer the weight of the user
to the beams . Most po rtab le ladders used by fire b rigad es
have alu minu m rungs, but wooden ladders are still con -
structed with wood rungs.
Tie Rod
A tie rod is a metal bar that runs from one beam of the ladder
to the other to keep the beams fro m separating. Tie rods are
typically found in wood ladders.
Ti p
The ti p. is the very top of the ladder.
Butt
The butt is the end o f the ladder that is placed against the
ground when the ladder is raised. It is somet imes called the
heel or base.
Butt Spurs
Butt spurs are metal spikes attached to the butt of a ladder.
The spurs prevent th e bu tt fro m s lipp ing out o f pos it ion .
Butt Plate or Footpad
A butt pl ate o r footpad is an alternat ive to a s imp le butt
spur. It is a swiveling p late attached to the butt of the ladder
and incorpo rates both a spur and a cleat or pad .
Roof Hooks
Roof hooks are spring -loaded, ret ractab le, cu rved metal
pieces attached to the tip of a roof ladder. The hooks are used
to secure the tip of the ladder to the peak of a p itched roof.
Heat Sensor Label
A heat sensor l abel ident ifies when the ladder has been
exposed to specific heat cond it ions that cou ld damage the
structural integrity of the ladder. The label changes colors
when exposed to a part icu lar temperatu re. Ladders that
have been exposed to excessive heat must be re moved fro m
service and tested befo re being used again. A ladder that
fails the structural stability test should be removed fro m
service permanently.
Protection Plates
Protecti on pl ates are reinforcing p ieces placed on a ladder
at chaffing and contact points to prevent damage fro m fric-
tion or contact with other surfaces.
Extension Ladder Components
An extension ladder is an assembly of t wo o r more ladder
sections that fit together and can be extended or retracted to
adjust the length. Extension ladders have add itional parts
(►Figure 12-5).
B ed S ecti on
The bed section is the widest section of an extension ladder.
It serves as the base; all other sect ions are raised fro m the
 La dders 323

Staypole
Staypoles (or tormentors) are long metal poles attached to
the top of the bed section. They are used to help stabilize the
ladder as it is being raised and lowered. One pole is attached to
each beam of a long (40' o r longer) extension ladder with a
swivel joint. Each pole has a spur on the other end. Ladders
with staypoles are typically referred to as Bangor ladders.

(Figure 12-5) Ext ension ladders have additional parts not found in
simple ladders.
bed section. The bottom of the bed section rests on the sup -
porting surface.
Fly Section
A fl y section is the part of an extension ladder that is raised
or extended fro m the bed section. Extension ladders often
have more than one fly section, each of wh ich extends fro m
the previous section.
Dogs
Dogs are mechan ical locking devices used to secure the
extended fly section(s). Dogs are also referred to as pawls,
ladder locks, o r rung locks.
Guides
Gui des are strips o f metal or wood that gu ide a fly sect ion
as it is being extended. Channels or slots in the bed or fly
section may also serve as guides.
Types of Ladders
Ladders used in the fire service can be classed into two broad
categories. Aeri al l adders are permanent ly mounted and
operated from a piece of fire apparatus. Portable ladders are
carried on fire apparatus but are designed to be removed and
used in other locat ions.
Aerial Appar atus
Aerial apparatus vary greatly in design and function. This dis -
cussion is limited to a brief overview of the basic styles of aerial
apparatus. Detailed requirements for aerial apparatus are
documented in NFPA 1901 Standard for Automotive Fire
Apparatus. This standard sets minimu m performance require-
ments for apparatus referred to as either "aerial ladders" or
"elevating platforms."
Aerial ladders are permanently mounted, power-operated
ladders with a wo rking length o f at least 50'. They have at
least two sections (▼ Figure 12-6 ). Some aerial ladders have a
perman ent ly mou nted waterway and mon ito r no zzle.
Aerial ladders are often referred to as "straight-stick" aerials.
An elevating platform apparatus includes a
passenger-carrying platform (bucket) attached to the tip of a
ladder or boom ( ► Figure 12-7 ). The ladder or boom must
have at least two sections, which may be telescoping or
articulating (jointed). An elevating platform apparatus that is
110' or less in length must also hav e a p rep ip ed waterway
and a perman ent ly

Hal yard
The hal yard is the rope or cable used to extend or hoist the
fly sect ion (s) of an extension ladder. The haly ard runs
through the pulley.

Pulley
The pulley is a s mall g rooved wheel used to change the
direct ion o f the halyard pull. A down ward pull on the halyard
creates an upward force on the fly section(s), extending the
ladder.

Stops
Stops are pieces of wood or metal that prevent the fly
sec-tion(s) of a ladder fro m overextending and collapsing the
ladder. Stops are also referred to as stop blocks.
( Figure 12 -6) An aerial ladder can be used to access the roof of a com -
mercial structure.
324 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Generally, fire service portable

ladders are limited to a maximum
length of 50'. If building heights
exceed the capabilities of portable
ladders, aerial apparatus must
be used. (►Table 12-1) shows the
various types of portable ladders,
their construction, and their weights.
Straight Ladder
A straight ladder is a single-section,
fixed -length ladder. St raight ladders
may also be called wall ladders or sin-
gle ladders. They are lightweight, can
be raised quickly , and can reach win-
dows and roofs of one- and two-story
structures. Straight ladders are co m-
monly 12' to 20' long , but can be up to
30' and longer. Longer straight lad ders
are rarely used by the fire service
because they are difficult to store and
to handle.

Roof Ladder
A roo f lad der (so met imes called a
(Figure 12 -7) An elev ated platform serv es as a sec ure w orking platform for ho o k ladd er) is a st raight
brigade members. ladd er equipped with retractable hooks at
one end. The ho o ks secure the t ip of the
(Figure 12-8) Roof
mounted monitor nozzle. An elevated platform supported by a ladder to the peak of a p itched roof, so that
ladders are commonly
boom may have an aerial ladder for continuous access to the the ladder lies flat on the roof. A roof
12't o 18'long.
platform. ladder provides stable footing and
distributes the weight of brigade mem bers and their
Portable Ladders equipment. Th is helps reduce the risk of structural failure in
Portable ladders, often called g round ladders, are carried on the roof assembly. Although roof ladders are available in
most fire apparatus. Po rtab le ladders are designed to be lengths from 10' to 30', they are usually 12' to 18' long (A
removed fro m the apparatus and used in different locations. Figure 12-8).
They may be general purpose ladders, such as straight or
extension ladders, or specialized ladders. Specialized ladders
have names that ind icate their part icu lar funct ion.
The number and lengths of portable ladders used by a fire
brigade depend on the maximu m height of buildings in the
response area. Most fire brigade engines carry 24' or 28' lad-
ders, which can reach the roof of a typical two-story building.
Ladder t rucks usually carry 35' or 40' ladders, which can
reach the roofs of most three-story buildings.

Brigade Member Safety Tips

Fire service portable ladders should be constructed and certified as
compliant with the most recent edition of the NFPA1931, Standard for
Manufacturer's Design of Fire Department Ground Ladders.

(Figure 12-9 An extension ladder can be used at any length, from I

retracted to fully extended.
 La dde rs 325

Table 12-1 Lengths and Weights of Various Ladders

Le n gt h Ty p e N o . of Se cti o n s C o ns tr u cti o n M ate ri al W ei g h
t
20' St raight 1 Solid beam Alum inum 45 I b
20' St raight 1 Solid beam F iberglas s 50 I b
20' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam Alum inum 60 I b
20' Ex t ens ion 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 76 I b
20' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam F iberglas s 95 I b
24' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam Alum inum 72 I b
24' Ex t ens ion 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 90 I b
24' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam F iberglas s 110 lb
30' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam Alum inum 107 lb
30' Ex t ens ion 3 Solid beam Alum inum 108 I b
30' Ex t ens ion 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 131 lb
30' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam F iberglas s 140 lb
30' Ex t ens ion 3 T rus s beam Alum inum 164 lb
30' Ex t ens ion 3 Solid beam F iberglas s 170 lb
35' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam Alum inum 114 lb
35' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam Alum inum 129 lb
35' Bangor 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 153 lb
35' Ex t ens ion 2 Solid beam F iberglas s 160 lb
35' Bangor 3 T rus s beam Alum inum 179 lb
35' Ex t ens ion 3 Solid beam F iberglas s 195 I b
40' Bango r 2 Solid beam Alum inum 171 lb
40' Bango r 3 Solid beam Alum inum 193 lb
40' Bangor 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 210 lb
40' Bango r 3 T rus s beam Alum inum 245 I b
45' Bango r 2 Solid beam Alum inum 182 I b
45' Bango r 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 255 I b
45' Bangor 3 T rus s beam Alum inum 265 I b
45' Bango r 3 Solid beam Alum inum 280 I b
50' Bango r 2 T rus s beam Alum inum 229 I b
50' Bangor 3 T rus s beam Alum inum 297 I b
Extension Ladder
An extension l adder is an ad justable-length ladder with
mu lt iple sections. The bed o r base section supports one or
more fly sections. Pulling on the halyard extends the fly sec-
tions along a system of brackets or grooves (■< Figure 12-9 ).
Brigade Member Safely Tips
The fly sections lock in place at set intervals so that the rungs Roof ladders are not free -hanging ladders. The roof hooks will not
are aligned to facilitate climb ing. support the full weight of the ladder and any one on it when the ladder
An extension ladder is usually heavier than a straight lad - is in a v ertic al position.
der of the same length and requires more than one person to
set up. Because the length is adjus table, an extension ladder
 326 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 12-11) Staypoles are used to stabiliz e a Bangor ladder while it is
being raised or lowered.
can rep lace several straight ladders, and can be stored in
places where a longer straight ladder wou ld not fit.
B ang or Ladder
Bang or ladders are extension ladders with staypoles for
added stability during rais ing and lowering operations.
Staypoles are required on ladders of 40' or greater length and
can be found on 35' ladders. The poles help keep these heavy
ladders under control during maneuvers (Figure 12-10).
When the ladder is positioned, the staypoles are p lanted in
the ground on either side for additional stability.
Combi nati on La dder
A combination ladder can be converted fro m a straight lad-
der to a stepladder configuration (A -frame), or fro m an
extension ladder to a stepladder configurat ion. Co mbinat ion
ladders are conven ient fo r indoor use and for maneuvering
in t ight spaces. Co mb inat ion ladders are generally 6' to 10'
in the A-frame configurat ion and 10' to 15' in the extension
configuration (Figure 12-11).
Fol di ng La dder
A fol ding ladder (or attic ladder) is a narrow, collapsible lad-
der designed to allow access to attic scuttle holes and confined
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
( Figure 12-11 ) Com bination ladders can be us ed in sev eral different
configurations.
areas (Figure 12-12). The two beams fold in for portability.
Fold ing ladders are co mmon ly available in 8' to 14' lengths.
Fres no Ladder
A Fresno l adder is a narro w, t wo-section extension ladder,
designed to provide attic access. The Fresno ladder is gener-
ally short, just 10' to 14', so it has no halyard; it is extended
manually (Figure 12-13). A Fresno ladder can be used in t ight
space applicat ions, such as bridg ing over a damaged section
of an interior stairway.
Pompi er Ladder
A pompier l adder , also kno wn as a scaling ladder, is a
light weight , s ing le -beam ladder. Mun icip al fire fighters
o nce used po mp ier ladd ers to climb up th e ou ts id e o f a
Brigade Member Safety Tips
It is very easy to pinc h your hands when opening and closing a
folding ladder. Always w ear glov es when w orking w ith folding
ladders.
328 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

the ladder is in the bedded posit ion, to ensure that

upper sections will align properly during operation.
• Ladder Slides: Check the ladder slide areas for chaffing.
Also check for adequate wax, if the manufacturer
requires wax.
• Dogs: Check the dog (pawl) as semblies for proper
operation.
• Butt Spurs: Check the butt spurs for excessive wear
or other defects.
• Heat Sensors: Check the labels to see if the sensors
indicate that the ladder has been exposed to excessive
heat.
• Bolts and Rivets: Check all bolts and rivets for t ight
ness; bolts on wood ladders should be snug and t ight
without crushing the wood.
• Welds: Check all welds on metal ladders fo r cracks or
apparent defects. (Figure 12-15) Ext ension ladder dogs must operat e smoothly.
• Roof Hoo ks: Check the roo f hooks for sharpness and
proper operat ion.
• Metal Surfaces: Check metal surfaces for signs of sur
face corrosion.
• Fiberg lass and Wood Surfaces: Check fiberg lass lad
ders for loss of gloss on the beams. Check for damage
to the varn ish fin ish on wooden g round ladders.
If the inspection reveals any deficiencies, the ladder must
be removed fro m s erv ice unt il rep airs are mad e. M inor
repairs that require simp le maintenance can often be per-
formed by p roperly t rained b rigade members at the fire
station. Repairs involving the structural or mechanical co m-
ponents of a ladder must be performed on ly by qualified
personnel at a p roperly equ ipped repair facility.

Maintenance
All brigade members should be ab le to perform routine lad der
maintenance. Maintenance is simply the regular process of
keep ing the ladder in p roper operat ing condit ion. Funda-
mental maintenance tasks include:
• Clean and lubricate the dogs, fo llo wing the manufac
turer's instructions (► Figure 12-15).
• Clean and lubricate the slides on extension ladders in
accordance with the manufacturer's reco mmen
dations.
• Rep lace wo rn halyards and wire rope on extension
ladders when they fray or kink (►Figure 12-16).
• Clean and lubricate hooks. Remove rust and other
contaminants and lub ricate the fold ing roof hook
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Brigade members should perform routine ladder m aintenanc e.
Repairs to portable ladders should be performed ONLY by trained
repair personnel.
(^Figure 12-16 ) Replac e the haly ard if it is worn or damaged.
assemblies on roof ladders to keep them operat ional
(►Figure 12-17).
• Check the heat sensor labels. Remove a ladder that
has been exposed to high temperatures fro m service
for testing.
• Maintain the fin ish on fiberglass and wooden ladders in
accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
• Portable ladders should NOT be painted except fo r the
top and bottom 18" of each section. Paint can hide
structural defects in the ladder. The t ip and butt are
painted for purposes of identification and visibility.
Ladde rs that are in storage should be placed on racks or
in brackets and protected fro m the weather. Fiberg lass lad -
ders can be damaged by pro longed exposure to d irect sun -
light (►Figure 12-18).
 La dders
329

( Figure 12-17) Roof hooks m ust operate sm oot hly. ( Figure 12-18) Portable ladders s hould be stored on racks or in brack ets,
out of the weather or direct sunlight.

Cleaning
Ladders must be regularly cleaned to remove road grime and
dirt that bu ild up during storage on the apparatus. Ladders
should be cleaned before each inspection to ensure that any
hidd en fau lts can b e observed . Ladders shou ld also be
cleaned after each use to remove d irt and debris.
Use a soft -brist le b rush and water to clean ladders. A
mild , diluted detergent may be used, if allo wed by the
manufacturer's recommendations (► Figure 12-19). Remove
any tar, oil, or grease deposits with a safety solvent as rec-
ommended by the manufactu rer.
Rinse the cleaned ladder before rep lacing it on the
apparatus.

Service Testing
Service testing is performed annually to evaluate the continued
usefulness of a ladder during its life. Service tests should be
performed on new ladders as well as on ladders that have been
in use for some time. Service testing is different from design ( Figure 12-19) Ladders should be cleaned regularly, as well as after each
verification testing. Design verification tests are conducted by use, wit h a mild detergent.
testing laboratories to ensure that new ladders are constructed
in compliance with manufacturing specifications. Service tests
measure the structural integrity of a portable ladder. Service tests should be conducted before a new ladder is
Service testing of portable ladders must follow NFPA used and annually wh ile it is in serv ice. A ladder that has
1932, Standard on Us e, Maintenance, and Service Tes ting of been exposed to ext reme h eat , overload ed, imp act - o r
In-Service Fir e D epar tment Ground Ladders. shock-loaded , v isib ly damaged, o r is suspected o f being
unsafe for any other reason must be removed fro m service
until it has passed a service test. A repaired ladder must also

Brigade Member Safety Tips
Do not get any solvent on the halyard of an extension ladder.
Contact with solvents can damage halyard ropes.
pass a service test before it can be returned to service, unless a
halyard rep lacement was the on ly repair.
The ho rizon tal-bend ing test evaluates the st ruct ural
strength of a ladder. The ladder is placed in a ho rizontal
position across a set of supports. A weight is then put on the
ladder, and the amount of deflect ion or bend ing caused by
330 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 12-20) Horizontal bend test evaluates the structural strength of a
ladder.
the weight is measured to evaluate the strength of the ladder (
Figure 12-20). Add itional tests are performed on the
extension hardware of extension ladders. The hooks on roof
ladders are also tested.
Service testing of ground ladders requires special training
and equip ment and must be conducted only by qualified
personnel. Many fire brigades use outside contractors to per-
form these tests. The results of all service tests must be
recorded and kept for future reference.
Ladder Safety
Several potent ial hazards are associated with ladder use.
These risks are easily overloo ked during emergency opera-
tions. Many brigade members have been seriously injured or
killed in ladder accidents, both on the fireground and dur ing
train ing sessions.
Ladders must be used with caution; follow standard pro -
cedures and regularly reinforce your skills through training.
Many safety precautions should be followed fro m the time a
ladder is removed fro m the apparatus until it is returned to
the apparatus. Basic safety issues include:
• general safety
• lift ing and mov ing ladders
• placement o f g round ladders
• wo rking on th e ladder
• rescue operations
• ladder damage
These issues are exp lained in general here and will be
revisited under the specifics of using ladders.
General Safety Requirements
In any firefighting operation, full turnout clothing and protec-
tive equipment are essential for working with ground ladders.
Turnout gear provides protection from mechanical injuries, as
well as fro m fire and heat in ju ries. Helmets, co ats, pants,
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
gloves, and protect iv e footwear prov ide p rotect ion fro m
falling debris, impact injuries, or pinch injuries. Brigade mem-
bers must be able to work with and on ladders while wearing
self-contained breathing apparatus. You should practice work-
ing with ladders and tying knots while wearing all of your pro-
tective equipment, including gloves and eye protection.
Lifting and Moving Ladders
Teamwo rk is essential when working with ladders. So me
ladders are heavy and can be very awkward to maneuver,
particularly when they are extended. Crew members must
use proper lifting techniques and coordinate all movements.
Never attempt to lift o r move a ladder that weighs more than
you are capable of lifting safely. Because of their shape,
ladders may be awkward to carry, especially over uneven ter-
rain , through gates, or over snow and ice. It is better to ask
for help to move a ladder, rather than risk in jury or delay the
placement o f the ladder.
Placement of Ground Ladders
Brigade members working on the fireg round should survey
the area where a portable ladder is going to be used before
placing the ladder or beginning to raise it. If possible, inspect
the area befo re ret riev ing the ladder fro m the apparatus. If
you note any hazards, consider changing the position of the
ladder. Work in the safest available location.
So metimes a ladder has to be placed in a potentially haz-
ardous location. If you are aware of the hazard, you can take
corrective act ion and special precautions to avoid accidents.
The most impo rtant check is the locat ion of overhead
utility lines. If a ladder co mes in contact with an electrical
wire, the brigade members who are handling it can be elec-
trocuted. If the line falls, it can electrocute other brigade
members as well. Avoid placing a ladder against a surface
that has been energized by a damaged or fallen po wer line
Do not assume that it is safe to use wood or fiberg lass
ladd ers around po wer lines. Metal ladders will conduc
electricity, but a wet or dirty wood or fiberglass ladder can
also conduct electricity.
If possible, do not raise ladders anywhere near overhead
wires. At a min imu m, keep ladders at least 10' away fro m
any power lines while using or raising them. If a power I is
nearby, make sure that there are enough brigade member: to
keep the ladder under control as it is raised. One brigade
member should watch to make sure that the ladder does n:
co me too close to the lin e. If t he ladder falls into a po line,
the results can be deadly.
Other types of overhead obstructions can also be hazard
during a ladder raise. If the ladd er h its so meth ing as it is
bei ng raised, the weight and mo mentu m o f the ladder will
shift . Th is can cause the brig ade members to lose cont ro l
and drop the ladder.
Ladders must be placed on stable and relatively level sur- j
faces (Figure 12-21 ). The shifting weight of a climber can]

( Figure 12-21^) Ladders must be placed on stable and relatively level
surfaces.
easily t ip a ladder p laced on a slope or unstable surface.
Always evaluate the stability of the surface before p lacing the
ladder, and check it again during the course of the
firefight-in g operat io ns. A ladd er p laced o n sno w o r mud
may become unstable as the snow melts or as the base of the
ladder sinks into the mud. Water fro m the firefighting
operations can make soft ground even mo re unstable.
Ladders should not be exposed to direct flames or extreme
temperatures. Excessive heat can cause permanent damage or
catastrophic failure. Check the heat sensor labels immediately
after a ladder has been exposed to high temperatures.
Work ing on a L adder
Before climbing a ladder, be sure it is set at the proper climb ing
angle (appro ximately 75°) for maxi mu m load capacity and
safety. The p roper ang le can be qu ickly determined by
placing the butt of the ladder one foot away fro m the wall, for
every four feet of vertical distance. Dogs must be locked and
the halyard t ied before anyone climbs an extens ion ladder.
To prevent slipping, another brigade member should secure the
base by heeling (footing) the ladder (►Figure 12-22). This
technique uses the brigade member's weight to keep the base
of the ladder from slipping. The base of the ladder also can be
La dder s 331
( Figure 12-22 ) To prevent a ladder from slipping, brigade m embers
should secure the base by heeling the ladder.
mechanically secured to a solid object. An alternative to secur-
ing the base is to use a rope or strap to secure the tip of the ladder
to the building.
All lad ders hav e weight limits. Most po rtab le ladders
are designed to support a weight o f 750 lbs. In a rescue
situation , th is weight limit is equ ivalent to one person and
two brig ade memb ers with fu ll p rotect ive cloth ing and
equ ip men t. Th is weigh t li mit wou ld also acco mmod ate
two b rigade members climb ing o r wo rking on the ladd er
along with th eir equ ip ment .
The weight should be distributed along the length of the
ladder. Only one brigade member should be on each section
of an extension ladder at any t ime.
While climb ing the ladder, be prepared for falling debris,
misguided hose streams, or people ju mping fro m the building
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Always maintain a minimum 10' clearanc e between a ladder and
utility lines to prevent electrocution.
33Z I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Brigade Member Tips
Operators of aerial equipm ent are trained to extend the bucket or tip of
the aerial ladder above a trapped individual during a rescue. They then
lower it down to the person. This generally prev ents the individual from
jum ping onto the ladder.
that could knock you off the ladder. This is another reason
why brigade members should wear fu ll turnout gear when
working on ladders. It will help protect a b rigade member
who is knocked to the ground. It is even more important that
brigade members working fro m ladders near the fire wear pro-
tective clothing and equip ment.
If fire conditions should change rapidly wh ile you are
working on a ladder, you must be prepared to climb down
quickly. For example, if the fire suddenly flashes over or if
flames break out through a windo w near the ladder, you
must be prepared to move qu ickly out o f danger. Tu rnout
gear will not protect you fro m direct exposure to the flames
for more than a few seconds.
A brigade member working from a ladder is in a less stable
position than one working on the ground. You must constantly
adjust your balance, especially when swinging a hand tool or
reaching for a trapped occupant. There is the danger of falling
as well as the risk to people below if something falls or drops.
Brigade members who are working fro m a ladder should use a
safety belt or a leg lock to secure themselves to the ladder.
Rescue
Rescue is a brigade member's most impo rtant and unpre-
dictable duty. Po rtable ladders are often used to reach and
remove trapped occupants from the upper stories of a build-
ing. However, brigade members must address several impor-
tant safety concerns befo re going up a ladder to rescue
someone.
A person who is in ext reme danger may not wait to be
rescued. Jumpers risk their own lives and may endanger the
brigade members try ing to rescue them. Several brigade
memb ers h ave b een serious ly in ju red by persons who
ju mped befo re a rescue cou ld be co mp leted .
A trapped person might try to jump onto the tip of an
approaching ladder, or to reach out for anything or anyone
nearby. You might be pulled or pushed off the ladder by the
person you are trying to rescue. If several people are trapped,
they might all t ry to climb down the ladder at the same time.
It is important to make verbal contact with any person
you are trying to rescue. You must remain in charge of the
situation and not let the indiv idual panic. Tell the person to
remain calm and wait to be rescued . If there are enough
brigade members, one cou ld maintain contact with the per-
son while others raise the ladder.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
After you reach the person, you still have to get him or her
down to the ground safely. Try to make the person realize that
any errat ic movements could tip over the ladder. It is o ften
helpfu l to have one brigade member assist the person, while a
second brigade member acts as a guide and back-up to the
rescuer. Modern fire ladders are designed to support this load,
but a ladder that is overloaded during a rescue operation must
be removed fro m service fo r inspection and service testing.
See Chapter 13 for specific ladder rescue techniques.
Ladder Damage
Ladders may easily be damaged while in use. A ladder might
be overloaded or used at a low angle during a rescue. An
unexpected shift in fire condit ions could bring the ladder in
direct contact with flames. Whenever a ladder is used outside
of its reco mmended limits, it should be taken out of service
for inspection and testing, even if there is no visible damage.
Using Portable Ladders
Portable ladders are often urgently needed during emergency
incidents. Because an accident o r error in handling o r using a
ladder can result in death or serious in jury, all b rigade
members must kno w ho w to wo rk with ladders.
Using a ladder requires that brigade members co mp lete a
series of consecutive tasks. The first step is to select the best
ladder fo r the job fro m those availab le. Brigade members
must then remove the ladder fro m the apparatus and carry it to
the location where it will be used. The next step is to raise and
secure the ladder. At the end o f the operat ion, the lad der
must be lowered and returned to the apparatus. Each o f these
tasks is impo rtant to the safe and successful co mp le tion of
the overall object ive.
Ladder Selection
The first step in using a portab le ladder is to select the
appropriate ladder fro m those availab le. Brigade members
must be familiar with all of the ladders carried on their appa-
ratus. Eng ine and ladder co mpany apparatus usually carry
several portable ladders of various lengths. Many other types
of apparatus, such as tan kers (water t enders) and rescue
units, often carry addit ional portable ladders. NFPA 1901,
Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus, provides minimu m
requirements for portable ladders fo r each type of apparatus (
Table 12-2)
Select ing an app rop riate ladd er requires that b rigade
members estimate the heights of windows and rooflines.
Facility preplanning will improve ladder selection efficiency
and identify potential safety hazards.
Ladder placement will also affect the size and length of the
ladder needed. When the ladder is used to access a roof, the
tip of the ladder should extend several feet above the roofline.
This provides a handhold and footing for brigade members as
they mount and d is mount. The ext ra length also makes the
 la dde rs 333

Table 12-2 Minimum Ladder Complement for

Apparatus as Specified in NFPA1901; Standard
for Automotive Fire Apparatus (2003 ed)
Pu mper
1 Attic Ladder 1 Roof Ladder 1 Extension Ladder
Quick Attack
1 Extension Ladder m ust be 12' or longer
Aeria l/La d der
Port able ladders that have a total length of 115' or more and
contain a minim um of:
• 1 Attic Ladde • 2 R oof Ladders • 2 Extension Ladders
Quint
Portable ladders that have a total lengt h of 85' or more and
contain a minim um of:
• 1 Attic Ladder • 1 Roof Ladder • 1 Extension Ladder
( Figure 12-23 ) The tip of the ladder should extend above the roofline during
roof operations.

tip of the ladder v isible to brigade members working on the

roof (V Figure 12-23). A common rule of thumb is to be sure
at least five ladder rungs show above the roofline.
Ladders used to p rov ide access to windo ws must be
longer than those used in rescue operat ions. During access
operations, the ladder is p laced next to the window, with the
lad d er t ip ev en wit h t h e t o p o f t h e win d o w o p en in g (V
Figure 12-24^). However, during rescue operations, the tip of ( Figure 12-24) T he fip of the ladder should be even with the top of the
the ladder should be immed iately belo w the windowsill. This window opening to provide access through the window.
prevents the ladder fro m obstructing the window open ing
while a t rapped occupant is removed ( Fig ure 12-25 ).
The final factor in determining the correct length to use is
the angle formed by the ladder and the placement surface
(ground). A portable ladder should be placed at an angle o f
approximately 75° for maximu m strength and stability. Th is
means that the ladder will have to be slightly longer than the
vertical d istance between the ground and the target point.
Generally, a ladder requ ires an addit ional 1' in length fo r
every 15' of vertical height.
To reach a window 30' above g rade level, the ladder
would have to be at least 32' long. Because ladders used in
roof operations need to extend at least above the roofline,
accessing a roof that is 30' above grade level requires a ladder
at least 35' long.

Removing the Ladder from Apparatus

Ladders are mounted on apparatus in various ways. Ladders (Figure 12-25 ) For rescue operations, the tip of the ladder s hould be just
sh ou ld b e mou nt ed in lo cat ions wh ere th ey will n o t b e below the windowsill.
 VOICES OF EXPERIENCE
" If they had not placed their feet in the proper
position against the ladder, one or both could
have received a serious cr ushing injur y."

D
uring a "rookie" academy, brigade members were
practicing raising and lowering extension
ladders. One member was having trouble getting
a good grip on the
halyard because his gloves were wet. To improve his grip, he wrapped the halyard
around his hand. The instructor told him to unwrap his hand to prevent an injury.
When the student unwrapped the halyard from his hand, he lost his grip and the two
sections of the ladder slammed into the ground.
The two students who were keeping the ladder steady had a foot against the outside of the
beam on each side of the ladder. If they had not placed their feet in the proper position
against the ladder, one or both could have received a serious crushing injury.
It is important to remember that long ladders can be difficult to control. Proper raising and
lowering techniques should always be followed. Maintain control at all times and follow
safety rules. A crushed foot or serious hand injury is a bad way to end a training session.

Scott Dornan
ConocoPhillips Anchorage,
Alaska Kuparuk Fire and
Rescue Kuparuk, Alaska
 La dde rs 335
exposed to excessive heat, engine exhaust, or mechanical
damage. Brigade members must be familiar with ho w lad -
ders are mounted on their apparatus and pract ice removing
them safely and quickly.
Lad d ers are o ft en nes ted one ins id e anot her and
mounted on brackets on the side of a pumper. Brigade mem-
bers should note the nesting order and locat ion o f the lad -
ders relat ive to the brackets when remov ing o r rep lacing
them. Ladders that are not needed s hould not be p laced on
the ground in front of an exhaust pipe because they could be
damaged by the hot exhaust.
Ladders can also be stored on overhead hydraulic lifts
(V Figure 12-26). The hydraulic mechanism keeps them out
of the way until they are needed, when they can be lowered
to a convenient height.
On so me veh icles, portab le ladders are stored in co m- (Figure 12-26) This hy draulic mechanism lowers the ladders to a
part ments under the hose bed o r aerial dev ice. The ladders convenient height when they are needed.
may lie flat or vertically on one beam (► Figure 12-27^).
Brigade members slide the ladders out the rear o f the vehicle
to remove o r rep lace them.

Lifting Ladders
Many ladders are heavy and awkward to handle. As noted in
Table 12-1, some ladders weigh mo re than 200 lbs. To pre vent
lifting injuries while handling ladders, brigade members must
work together to lift and carry long o r heavy ladders.
When brigade members are working as a team to lift or
carry a ladder, one brigade member must act as the leader, pro-
viding direction and coordinating the actions of all team mem-
bers. The lead brigade member needs to call out the intended
movements clearly, using standard commands and terminol-
ogy. For example, when lowering a ladder, the lead should say
"Prepare to lower," followed by the command "Lower." Team
members have to communicate in a clear and concise fashion,
using the same terminology for co mmands. There should be (Figure 12 -27 ) Ladders in rear compartm ents can be stored flat or vertically.
no confusion about the specific mean ing of each co mmand.
A pre-arranged method should exist for determin ing the
lead brigade member fo r ladder lifts. In so me fire brigades,
t he b rigad e memb er on th e right s id e at th e but t end o f
the ladder is th e standard lead er. In other b rigades , the
brigade member at the tip of the ladder on the right side may
be the leader. The depart mental policy should be consistent
for all ladder operations.
Additionally, brigade members must use good lifting tech-
niques when handling ladders. When bending to pick up a lad -
d er, b en d at t he kn ees an d keep t h e b ack st raig h t
(►Figure 12-28). Lift and lower the load with the legs rather
than the back. Take care to avoid twisting motions during lifting
and lowering, because these motions often lead to back strains.

Carrying Ladders
Once the ladder has been removed fro m the apparatus or (Figure 12-28) Bend the knees and keep the back straight when lifting or
lifted fro m the ground, it must be carried to the placement lowering a ladder.
site. Ladders can b e carried at shou lder height or at arm's
336 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

length, and on edge or flat . The most co mmon carries are
explained in the fo llo wing sections.
One-Person Carry
Most straight ladders and roof ladders less than 18' long can
be safely carried by a single person. The steps involved in the
one-person carry are outlined in ( Skill Drill 12-1).
1. Start with the ladder mounted in a bracket o r stand
ing on edge (on one beam). Locate the center o f the
ladder. (Step 1)
2. Place an arm between two rungs of the ladder just to
one side of the middle rung. (Step 2 )
3. The top beam o f the ladder rests on the brigade mem
ber's shoulder as it is carried. (Step 3)
A straight ladder is carried with the butt end first and
pointed slightly downward. A roof ladder should be carried
tip first. Most ladders are carried with the butt end forward,
because the placement of the butt determines the position ing
of the ladder. Roof ladders are carried with the hooks toward
the front. A roof ladder usually must be carried up another
ladder to reach the roof. Then , the roo f ladder is usually
pushed up the pitched roof slope fro m the butt end until the
hooks engage the peak.
T wo-Pers on S houl der Carry
The t wo person shou lder carry is generally used with
extens ion ladd ers u p to 35' long . It can also be used to
carry straight ladd ers or roo f ladders that are too long fo r

One-Person Carry

Locate the center of the ladder. Place one arm through two rungs, just to Bring the top beam to rest on the brigade
one side of the middle rung. member's shoulder.
 La dder s 337

one person to hand le. To perform the t wo -person shoulder

carry, fo llo w the steps in ( Skill Drill 12-2).
1. Start with the ladder mounted in a b racket o r stand
ing on edge. Both brigade members stand on the same
side o f th e ladder, facing the butt , on e near the butt
and one near the tip. (Step 1)
2. Facing the butt end of the ladder, each b rigade mem
ber p laces an arm between t wo rungs and lifts the
ladder onto the shoulder. The ladder is carried butt
end first. (Step 2)
3. The brigade member closest to the butt covers the butt
spur with a g loved hand to prevent in ju ry to other
brigade members in the event of a collision. (Step 3 )
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Industrial structures with metal roofs may not provide a safe and secure
placem ent of roof ladder hooks. Careful consideration of the risk versus
gain should be m ade before operating on met al roofs.
Three-Person Shoulder Carry
Three brigade members may be needed to carry a heavy lad -
der. This carry is similar to the two-person shoulder carry,
wit h th e add it ion al b rigad e memb er at th e midd le o f th e

Two-Person Shoulder Carry

Both brigade mem bers approach the ladder from the sam e side, Each brigade m ember plac es an arm between two rungs and lifts the
facing the butt. One brigade member stands near the butt and the ladder onto the shoulder.
other near the tip.

The butt spurs are cov ered with a glov ed hand while the ladder is
transported.
338 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
ladder. All three brigade members stand on the same side of
the ladder. To perform the three -person shoulder carry, fo llow
the steps in (Skill Drill 12-3).
1. Start with the ladder mounted in a b racket o r stand
ing on edge. All three brigade members stand on the
same s ide of the ladder, facing the butt, one near each
end and one at the midd le. (Step 1 )
2. Each b rigade member p laces an arm bet ween t wo
rungs and hoists the ladder onto the shoulder. (Step 2)
3. The brigade member closest to the butt covers the butt
spur with a g loved hand to prevent in ju ry to other
brigade members in the event of a collision. (Step 3 )
Three-Person Shoulder Carry
All three brigade members approach the ladder from the same side
and face the butt end. Two brigade members stand at each end and
one in the middle.
The butt spurs are covered with a glov ed hand while the ladder is
transported.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Two-Person Straightarm Carry
The two -person straightarm carry is co mmon ly used with
straight and extension ladders. The ladder is carried at arm's
length. To perform the t wo-person straightarm carry, follow
the steps in (Skill Drill 12-4).
1. Beg in with the ladder resting on the g round on one
beam. Both brigade members stand on the same side of
the ladder, at opposite ends, and face the butt. (Step 1 )
2. The brigade members reach do wn and g rasp the
upper beam of the ladder. (Step 2)
3. Pick the ladder up fro m the ground and carry it with
the butt end forward. (Step 3)
Each brigade member places an arm between two rungs and lifts the
ladder onto the shoulder.
 La dders 339

Three-Person Straightarm Carry member at the center of the ladder. All three brigade
A three-person straightarm carry can be used for heavier members remain on the same side of the ladder. To per-
ladders. This carry is similar to the two-person form the three-person straightarm carry, follow the steps in
straightarm carry, with the addition of a third brigade (Skill Drill 12-5).

Two-Person Straightarm Carry

Both brigade mem bers face the butt of the The upper beam of the ladder is gras ped. Pick up the ladder us ing good lifting
ladder, at opposite ends. techniques.

Three-Person Straightarm Carry

Three brigade members stand on one side of the ladder, facing the Pick up the ladder using good lifting techniques.
butt. All three brigade members grasp the upper beam.
340 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
1. The carry beg ins with the ladder resting on the ground
on one beam. One b rigade member stands near th e
butt of the ladder, one near the center, and the th ird
near the t ip . A ll three b rigade memb ers stand on the
same s ide and face the butt o f the ladder. A ll 3
brigade members reach down and grasp th e upper
beam of the ladder. (Step 1)
2. Pick the ladder up fro m the ground and carry it at
arm's length with the butt forward. (Step 2)
Three-Person Flat Carry
The three-person flat carry is typically used with ext ension
lad ders up to 35' long. To p erform t he th ree -person flat
carry, follow the steps in (▼ Skill Drill 12-6).
1. The carry beg ins with the bed sect ion of the ladder
flat on the ground. Two b rigade members stand on
one side of the ladder, one at the butt and one at the
tip. The third b rigade memb er stands on the opposite
side of the ladder near the center. (Step 1)
2. All three brigade members kneel down , facing the butt
end, and grasp the closer beam at arm's length. (Step 2)
3. The brigade members rise to a standing position lift
ing the ladder to arm's length. (Step 3)
Four-Person Flat Carry
This carry is similar to the three-person flat carry described
above except that two brigade members are positioned on
each side of the ladder. On each side, one brigade member is
Three-Person Flat Carry
Two brigade members stand at the ends of All three face the butt of the ladder and kneel
the ladder on one side, and the third stands and grasp the closer beam at arm's lengt h.
in the middle on the opposit e side.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
at the tip and the other is at the butt end of the ladder. To per-
fo r m t h e fo u r-p ers o n flat carry , fo llo w t h e s t eps in (►
Skill Drill 12-7),
1. The carry begins with the bed section of the ladder flat
on the ground. Two brigade members stand on each
side of the ladder, one at the butt and one at the tip .
(Step 1)
2. All four brigade members kneel down, facing the butt
end of the ladder and g rasp the closer beam at arm's
length. (Step 2)
3. The brigade members rise to a standing position lift ing
the ladder at arm's length and walk with th e butt end
forward. (Step 3)
Three-Person Flat Shoulder Carry
The three-person flat shoulder carry is similar to the
three-person flat carry. The d ifference is that the ladder is
carried on the shoulders instead of at arm's length. The
brigade members face the tip of the ladder as they lift it, then
pivot into the ladder as they raise it to shoulder height. Th is
cam-is useful when b rigade members must carry the ladder
over short obstacles . Because rais ing th e ladder to
shoulder height increases the potential for back strain,
brigade members must fo llo w proper lift ing techniques. To
perform the th ree-person flat shou lder carry , fo llo w the
steps in (►Skill Drill 12-8),
1. The carry begins with the bed section o f the ladder flat
on the ground. On one s ide o f the ladder, a
The brigade mem bers rise and carry the
ladder at arm's length.
 La dder s
341

Four-Person Flat Carry

Two brigade mem bers stand on each side of All four kneel down, facing the butt end, and The ladder is raised to arm's length.
the ladder facing the butt, one at the butt and grasp the closer beam at arm's lengt h.
one at the tip.

Three-Person Flat Shoulder Carry

Two brigade members are positioned on the As the ladder approaches chest height, the The ladder is carried on the shoulders
same side at the ends of the ladder, facing brigade mem bers all pivot into the ladder. facing the butt.
the tip. The t hird is on the opposit e side at
the middle. All three brigade m embers kneel
and grasp the closer beam.
342 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Four-Person Flat Shoulder Carry
Two brigade members are positioned on All four brigade m embers kneel and gras p
each side of the ladder at the ends. All four the closer beam.
face the tip.
brigade member is located at the butt and another is
located at the t ip . On the other sid e o f th e ladder, a
brigade member is positioned near the center o f the
ladder. All three brigade members face the t ip of the
ladder. The brigade members kneel and grasp the closer
beam. (Step 1)
2. The brigade members stand, raising the ladder. As the
ladder approaches chest height, the b rigade memb ers
all pivot into the ladder. (Step 2)
3. The ladder rests on the shoulders of the brigade mem
bers, with all three facing the butt o f the ladder. The
ladder is carried in th is posit ion with the butt mov ing
forward. (Step 3)
Four-Person Flat Shoulder Carry
This carry is similar to the three -person flat shoulder carry
described above, except that there are t wo brigade members
on each side of the ladder. On each side, one brigade mem ber
is at the t ip and the other at the butt end o f the ladder. To
perform the four-person flat shoulder carry , fo llo w the steps
in (A Skill Drill 12T).
1. The carry begins with the bed section of the ladder flat
on the ground. On each side of the ladder a brigade
member is located at the butt and another is located at
the tip. All four brigade members face the tip of the
ladder. (Step 1)
2. The brigade members knee l and g rasp the closer
beam. (S tep 2)
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
As the ladder approac hes chest height, the
brigade mem bers all pivot tow ard the ladder,
bringing it to rest on the shoulder. The ladder is
carried on the s houlders facing the butt.
3. The b rigade members stand, raising the ladder. As the
ladder approaches chest height, the b rigade memb ers
all p ivot toward the ladder. The ladder ends at rest on
the shoulders of the b rigade memb ers, with all four
facing the butt of the ladder. The ladder is carried at
this position with the butt moving forward. (Step 3)
Placing a Ladder
The first step in raising a ladder is selecting the proper location
for the ladder. Generally, a brigade leader o r senior brigade
member will select the general area for ladder place ment, and
the brigade member at the butt of the ladder will determine the
exact site. Both the brigade leader ordering the ladder and the
brigade member placing the ladder need to consider several
factors in their decisions.
A raised ladder should be at an angle of appro ximately
75° to p rovide the best co mb ination o f strength, stability,
and vertical reach . Th is angle also creates a co mfortable
climb ing ang le. When a b rig ade member is stand ing on a
Brigade Member Safely Tips
Do not plac e chocks or wood blocks under one beam of a ladder to
pos ition it on sloping ground. T he ladder could slip off the block s and
overturn.

( Figure 12-29 ) A ladder placed on an unev en surfac e can easily tip over.
rung, the rung at shou lder height will be about an arm's
length away. The ratio of ladder height (vertical reach) to dis -
tance fro m the structure should be 4:1. For examp le, if the
vertical reach o f a ladder is 20', the butt of the ladder should
be placed 5' out fro m the wall. Most new ladders have an
inclinat ion gu ide on the beams so that the ladder will be set at
the proper ang le.
When calculating vertical reach, remember to add addi-
tional footage for rooftop operations. If the butt of the ladder is
placed too close to the building, the climb ing angle will be too
steep. The tip of the ladder could pull away fro m the build ing
as the brigade member climbs, making the ladder unstable. If
the butt is too far fro m the structure, the climb ing angle will
be too shallow, reducing the load capacity of the ladder and
increasing the risk that the butt could slip out fro m under the
ladder.
The ladder should be p laced on a stable and relat ively
level surface. Ladders p laced on uneven surfaces are p rone
to tipping (A Figure 12-29). As a brigade member climbs the
ladder, the mov ing weight will cause the load to shift back
and forth between the two beams. Unless both butt ends are
firmly p laced on so lid g round , th is can st art a rocking
mot ion that will t ip the ladder over.
Ladders should not be placed on top of manholes or trap
doors. The weight of the ladder, brigade members, and
equip ment cou ld cause the cover o r doo r to shift o r fail,
in juring the brigade member(s).
Ladders should only be placed where there are no over-
head obstructions. If a ladder co mes into contact with over -
head ut ility lines, part icu larly elect ric po wer lines , the
brigade members working on it, as well as those stabilizing
it, could be injured or killed. This is true for all ladders,
regardless of their co mposition (fiberg lass, wood, or metal).
A ladder can be energized even if it does not actually touch
an electric line. A ladder that enters the electromagnetic field
La dders 343
surrounding a power line can beco me energ ized. Ladders
should stay at least 10' away fro m energ ized po wer lines.
Finally , portab le ladders should not be p laced in h igh t raffic
areas unless no other alternat ive is availab le. For example,
because the main entrance to a structure is heavily used, a
ladder should not be placed where it would obstruct the door.
Raising a L adder
Once the posit ion has been selected, the ladder must be
raised. Two co mmon techniques for raising portable ladders
are the beam raise and the flat raise. A beam raise is usually
used when the ladder must be raised parallel to the target
surface. A flat raise is often used when the ladder can be
raised fro m a posit ion perpendicu lar to the target surface.
The nu mber o f b rigade members requ ired to raise a lad der
depends on the length and weight of the ladder, as well as on
the availab le clearance fro m obstructions. A single brigade
member can safely raise many straight ladders and lighter
extension ladders. Two or more brigade members are requ ired
for longer and heavier ladders.
One-Person Flat Raise
There are t wo variat ions of a one-person flat raise. One is
used by a single brigade member to raise a small, straig ht
ladder, typically 14' or less in length. To perfo rm th is raise,
follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 12-10).
1. Start with the b rigade memb er carrying a ladder using
the one-person carry described earlier. Check fo r
overhead hazards. (Step 1)
2. The brigade member p laces the ladder flat on the
ground. The heel o f the ladder should be posit ioned
appro ximately where it will be when the ladder is in
the raised position.
3. Standing at the t ip, the brigade member raises the
ladder to chest level.
4. The brigade member walks hand-over-hand down the
rungs until the ladder is vert ical. (Step 2)
5. The brigade member p laces one foot against the beam
of the ladder and leans it into p lace. (Step 3)
The other variat ion of the one-person flat raise is generally
used with straight ladders longer than 14' and with extension
ladders that can be safely hand led by the b rigade member.
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Brigade members must recognize their individual lim its. If you need
assistanc e, do not try to rais e the ladder alone. The fireground is no
plac e to prove your strength or daring. If you overex ert and injure
yours elf, your team w ill be a m em ber short, mak ing it more difficult to
perform necessary tasks.
344 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

One-Person Flat Raise for Ladders Under 14'

Carry the ladder to the structure. Check for By the tip, raise the ladder to chest level. Heel the ladder and lean it into place.
overhead hazards before raising the ladder. Walk hand-over-hand dow n the rungs until
the ladder is vertic al.

Each brigade member will have a different safety limit,
depending on his or her strength and the weight of the ladder.
To perform this variat ion of the one-person flat raise, follow
the steps in ( ► Skill Drill 12-11)
1. Start with the b rigade memb er carrying a ladder using
the one-person carry described earlier. Check fo r
overhead hazards. (Step 1)
2. The brigade member p laces the butt of the ladder on
the ground d irectly against the structure and rotates
the ladd er so both spurs contact the g round and
structure. Then the b rigade member lays the ladd er
on the ground. If the ladder is an extens ion ladder,
the base section should be against the ground (fly
section up). (Step 2)
3. The brigade member takes ho ld o f a rung near the t ip ,
brings that end of the ladder to chest height and then
steps beneath the ladder and pushes up ward on the
rungs. (Step 3)
4. The ladder is raised using a hand-over-hand motion as
the brigad e member walks to ward the structu re unt il
the ladder is vertical and against the structure. (Step 4)
5. If an extension ladder is being used, the brigade mem
ber ho lds the ladder vert ical against the structu re and
extends the fly sect ion by pu lling the halyard
 La dde rs 345

One-Person Flat Raise for Ladders Over 14'

Place the butt against the base of the structure and rotate ladder so both
spurs contact the ground and structure. Lay the ladder flat on the ground.

Carry the ladder to the structure. Check for overhead haz ards before Grasp a rung near the tip, bring that end of the ladder to chest
raising the ladder. height, step beneath the ladder, and push upw ard on the rungs.

Walk toward the structure, lifting the rungs hand-

over-hand until t he ladder is vertical against the Pull the butt away from the structure.
structure.
346 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Tying the Halyard
Wrap the excess halyard around two rungs Tie a clove hitch around the upper rung.
and pull it tight ov er the upper rung.
smoothly , with a hand-over-hand mot ion, until
desired height is reached and the dogs are locked .
6. The butt of the ladder is then pu lled out fro m the
structure to create the proper climb ing angle. To move
the butt away fro m the structure, the brigade member
grips a lo wer rung and lifts slight ly while pulling
outward . At the same time, p ressure should be
applied to an upper rung to keep the t ip o f the ladder
against the structure. (Step 5)
7. If the ladder is an extension ladder, it will be necessary
to rotate the ladder so the fly section is out. The hal
yard should be tied as described in Skill Drill 12-12.
Tying the Halyard
The halyard of an extension ladder should always be tied after
the ladder has been extended and lowered into place. A t ied
halyard stays out of the way and provides a safety back-up to
the dogs for securing the fly section. To tie the halyard, follow
the steps in (Skill Drill 12 -12).
1. The brigade member wraps the excess halyard rope
around t wo rungs o f th e ladder and pu lls the rope
tight across the upper of the two rungs. (Step 1)
2. The brigade member t ies a clove h itch around the
upper rung and the vert ical section o f the halyard .
Refer to Chapter 9, Ropes and Knots, to review how
to tie a clove hitch. (Step 2)
3. Pull the clove hitch tight and p lace an overhand safety
knot as close to the clove h itch as possible to p revent
slipping. (Step 3)
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Pull the knot tight and add a safety knot.
Two-Person Beam Raise
The two-person beam raise is used with midsized extension
ladd ers up to 35' long . To p erfo rm the t wo -person beam
raise, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 12-13).
1. The two -person beam raise begins with a shoulder o r
straightarm carry. One b rigade memb er is near the
butt of the ladder and one near the tip . The brig ade
members check for overhead hazards. (Step 1)
2. The brigade member at the butt of the ladder places the
butt of the lower beam on the g round, while the
brigade member at the tip of the ladder holds the other
end. The b rigade memb er at the butt of the ladder
places a foot on the butt of the beam that is in contact
with the ground and grasps the upper beam. (Step 2)
3. The brigade member at the tip of the ladder begins to
walk toward the butt, while raising the beam in a hand
over-hand fashion until the ladder is vertical. (Step 3)
4. The two b rigade members p ivot the ladder into posi
tion as necessary. (Step 4)
5. The brigade members face each other, one on each
side of the ladder, and heel the ladder by each p lacing
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Pull the halyard of the extension ladder straight down in line with the
ladder to avoid pulling the ladder over.

Two-Person Beam Raise
Begin with one brigade mem ber at the butt
of the ladder and one at the tip. Check for
overhead hazards.
The two brigade mem bers stand on oppo-
site sides and piv ot the ladder into pos i-
tion, as necessary.
The brigade mem ber at the butt lowers the
ladder until one beam is on the ground. T he
brigade mem ber at the butt of the ladder
plac es a f oot on the butt of t he beam that is in
contact w ith the ground and gras ps the
upper beam.
Each brigade m ember plac es one foot
against the butt of a beam to brac e the
ladder. The brigade m ember with his back
to the building extends and locks t he fly
section.
La dders 347
The brigade mem ber at the tip walks toward
the butt of the ladder, raising the beam
hand-ov er-hand unt il it is vertical.
The brigade mem ber on the outside heels
the ladder while bot h lean it into place.
Secure the halyard before climbing the
ladder.
348 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
the toe of one boot against the opposing beams of the
ladder.
6. One b rigade memb er extends the fly section by
pulling the halyard s moothly with a hand-over-hand
mot ion until the fly section is the height desired and
the dogs are locked. The other brigade member stabi
lizes the ladder by hold ing the outside o f the t wo
beams—so that if the fly co mes down suddenly it
will not strike the b rigade member's hands.
(Step 5)
7. The brigade member facing the structure p laces one
foot against one beam of the ladder and then both
Two-Person Flat Raise
Each brigade mem ber places one foot against the butt of a beam to
brace the ladder. The brigade mem ber with his back to the structure
extends and locks the fly section.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
brigade members lean the ladder into place. The hal-
yard is tied as described previously. (Step 6 )
Two-Person Flat Raise
The two-person flat raise is also commonly used with midsized
extension ladders up to 35' long. To perfo rm the two -person
flat raise, follow the steps in (T Skill Drill 12-14).
1. The two -person flat raise beg ins fro m a shoulder carry or
straightarm carry, with one brigade member near the butt
of the ladder and one near the tip . Check fo r over head
hazards. The b rigade memb er at the butt of the ladder
places the butt of the lo wer beam on the
Begin with one brigade mem ber near the butt of the ladder and one at
the tip. Check for overhead haz ards. The brigade m ember at the butt
plac es the butt of the low er beam on the ground. The brigade m ember
at the tip rotates the ladder until both beams are in contact with the
ground. The brigade m ember at the butt places both feet on the bottom
rung, gras ps a higher rung, crouches, and leans back ward. The
brigade mem ber at the tip swings under the ladder and w alks tow ard
the butt, rais ing the rungs hand -ov er-hand until the ladder is vertical.
On opposite sides, the brigade mem bers pivot the ladder int o position, if
necess ary.
The brigade mem ber on the outside heels the ladder while both lean it
into place. Secu re the haly ard bef ore climbing the ladder.

Brigade Member Safety Tips
When raising the fly section of an extension ladder, do not wrap the
haly ard around your hand. If the ladder falls or the fly section
unex pectedly retracts, your hand could be caught in the halyard, and
you could be seriously injured. Also, do not place y our foot under the
f ly sections. If the rope slips, your foot will be crus hed.
ground, while the b rigade member at the tip ho lds the
other end.
2. The brigade member at the tip rotates the ladder so
that both beams are in contact with the g round.
3. The brigade member at the butt o f the ladder stands
on the botto m rung, g rasps a h igher rung with both
hands, crouches down and leans backward.
4. The brigade member at the tip o f the ladder swings
under the ladder and walks toward the butt, advancing
down the ladder and lifting the rungs in a hand-over
hand fashion until the ladder is vertical. The t wo
brigade members stand on opposite sides of the ladder
and pivot it into position as necessary. (Step 1)
5. The brigade members face each other, one on each side
of the ladder, and heel the ladder by each placing the
toe of one boot against the opposite beams of the lad
der. If using an extension ladder, one brigade member
extends the fly section by pulling the halyard smoothly
with a hand-over-hand mot ion until the t ip is at the
desired height and the dogs are locked. The other
brigade membe r stabilizes the ladder by hold ing the
outside of the base section's beams —so that if the fly
comes down suddenly it will not strike the brigade
members hands. (Step 2) The brigade member facing
the structure places one foot against one beam of the
ladder and then both brigade members lean the ladder
into place. The halyard is tied as described in Skill
Drill 12-12. (Step 3)
Three- and Four-Person Flat Raises
The three- and four-person flat raises are used for very heavy
ladders. The basic steps in these raises are similar to the
two-person flat rais e. In a th ree -person flat raise, th e th ird
brigade member assists with the hand-over-hand rais ing of
the ladder.
When four b rigade members are raising the ladder, t wo
anchor the butt of the ladder wh ile the other t wo raise the
ladder. The two brigade members at the butt each place their
inside foot on the bottom rung of the ladder and bend over,
grasp ing a rung in fron t o f them. To perform the
three-person flat raise, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 12-15
).
1. The th ree -person flat raise beg ins fro m a shoulder carry
or straightarm carry, with one b rigade member
La dders
348
near the butt o f the ladder, one in the midd le, and
one near the tip. (Step 1)
2. The brigade members check fo r overhead hazards.
(Step 2)
3. The b rigade member at the butt o f the ladder p laces
the butt o f the lo wer beam on th e g round, wh ile the
brigade member at the t ip ho lds the other end . The
brigade member in the midd le mov es to the t ip.
The brigade members at the tip rotates the ladder so
that both butts are in contact with the ground. (Step 3)
4. The brigade member at the butt o f the ladder stands
on the botto m rung, grasps a h igher rung with both
hands, crouches down and leans backward. (S tep 4)
5. The brigade members at the t ip of the ladder beg in to
walk to ward the butt , advancing do wn the ladder and
lift ing the rungs in a hand-over-hand fashion until the
ladder is vertical. (Step 5)
6. The three b rigade members p ivot the ladder into posi
tion as necessary. (Step 6)
7. Two b rigade members face each other, one on each
side of the ladder, heel the ladder by each p lacing the
toe of one boot against the opposite beams o f the
ladder, and grasp the outsides of the beams. (Step 7)
8. One b rigade memb er extends the fly section by
pulling the halyard s moothly with a hand-over-hand
mot ion unt il the t ip is at the des ired height and the
dogs are locked. (Step 8)
9. One b rigade memb er heels the ladder wh ile the other
two lean the ladder into p lace.
10. The halyard is tied as described previously. (Step 9)
To perform the four-person flat raise, follo w the steps in (
Skill Drill 12-16 ).
1. The four-person flat raise begins with a four-person
flat carry. Two brigade members are at the butt o f the
ladder and t wo brigade members are at the t ip. Check
for overhead hazards.
2. The brigade members at the butt of the ladder p lace
both butts on the ground while the b rigade memb ers
at the t ip o f the ladder ho ld the other end .
3. The brigade members at the butt of the ladder stand
side-by-side, facing the ladder. Each brigade member
places the inside foot on the bottom rung and the other
foot on the ground outside the beam. Both then crouch
down, grab a rung and the beam, and lean backward.
4. The two brigade members at the tip o f the ladder begin
to walk toward the butt of the ladder, advancing down
the rungs in a hand-over-hand fashion until the ladder
is vertical.
5. The brigade members pivot the ladder into posit ion as
necessary.
6. Two b rigade members heel the ladder by p lacing a
boot against each beam. Each b rigade member places
the toe of one boot against one o f the beams . The
350 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

Three-Person Flat Raise

Begin with one brigade member at the butt of the ladder, one in the Check for overhead hazards.
middle, and one at the tip.

The brigade mem ber at the butt lowers the ladder until the butt of The brigade mem ber at the butt of the ladder places both feet on the
one beam is on t he ground. The brigade m ember in the middle bottom rung, gras ps a higher rung, crouc hes, and leans backw ard.
moves to the tip. The brigade mem bers at the tip rotate the ladder
until bot h butts are on the ground.

The brigade mem bers at the tip walk tow ard the butt of the ladder,
raising the rungs hand -ov er-hand unt il the ladder is v ertic al.
 La dders
351

The three brigade members piv ot the ladder Two brigade members stabilize the ladder, One brigade member extends and locks the
into position, as necessary. each placing one foot against the butt of a fly section.
beam and grasping the outsides of the
beams with both hands.

The brigade mem ber on the outside heels the ladder w hile two brigade
members lean it into place. The haly ard is secured before climbing the
ladder.
352 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

third brigade member stabilizes the ladder by hold ing it

on the outside o f the rails.
7. The fourth b rigade member extends the fly section by
pulling the halyard s moothly with a hand-over-hand
mot ion unt il the t ip reaches the desired height and
the dogs are locked.
8. The two brigade members facing the structure each
place one foot against one beam of the ladder wh ile the
other two brigade members lo wer the ladder into
place.
9. The halyard is tied as described prev iously.

Fly Section Orientation

When raising extens ion ladd ers , b rigade members must
know whether the fly section should be p laced toward the
building (fly in) or away from the build ing (fly out). The lad der
manufacturer and brigad e standard operat ing proce dures
will specify whether the fly should be facing in or out. In
general, manufacturers of fiberglass and metal ladders
reco mmend that the fly sections be placed away fro m the
structure. Wood fire-service ladders are often designed to be
used with the fly in.

Securing the Ladder

There are several ways to prevent a ladder from moving once it
is in p lace. One option is to have a brigade member stand
b et ween the ladder and th e st ructu re, g rasp the beams ,
an d lean b ack t o pu ll t h e ladd er in to th e s t ru ctu re
(►Figure 12-30). This is called heeling the ladder. A brigade
member(s) on the outside of the ladder, facing the structure,
can also heel the ladder by p lacing a boot against the beam(s)
of the ladder (►Figure 12-31~).
A rope, a rope-hose tool, or webbing also can be used to
secure a ladder in place. The lower part of the ladder can be
tied to any solid ob ject to keep the base fro m kicking out.
The base should always be secured if the ladder is used at a
low angle. The tip o f the ladder can be t ied to a secure object
near the top to keep it fro m pu lling away fro m the build ing.
Climbing the Ladder
Climbing a ladder at the fire o r emergency scene should be
done in a deliberate and contro lled manner. A lways make
sure the ladder is secure (tied or heeled). Before climb ing an
extension ladder, verify that the dogs are locked and the hal-
yard is secured.
The proper climb ing angle should be checked as well.
Some ladder beams have level guide stickers placed there by
the manufacturer. The bottom line of the indicator will be
parallel to the ground when the ladder is positioned properly.
Stand ing on th e botto m rung o f the ladder and extend ing
the arms straight out is another way to check the climb ing
angle (► Figure 12-32)). The hands should comfortably reach
the beams or rungs if the angle is appropriate. Finally , the
angle can be measured by ensuring that the butt of the ladder
( Figure 12-30) T he brigade member's weight pulls the ladder against the
structure to secure the ladder.
is one-fou rth of the working height out fro m the base of the
structure.
Keep bounce and shifting to a minimu m while climb ing.
Eyes should be focused forward with only occasional glances
upward. This will prevent debris such as falling glass fro m
injuring the face or eyes. Lower the protective face shield for
additional p rotection.
Use a hand-over-hand mot ion on the rungs of the ladder,
or slide both hands along the underside of the beams wh ile
climbing.
If tools must be moved up or down, it is better to hoist
them by ropes than to carry them up a ladder. Carrying tools
on a ladder reduces the brigade member's grip and increase;
the potential for in jury if a tool slips or falls. To climb a lad der
wh ile ho ld ing a hand tool, the brigade member should ho ld
the tool against one beam with one hand and maintain
contact with the opposite beam with the other hand. Too li
such as p ike po les can b e hoo ked onto th e lad der and
moved up every few rungs. To climb a ladder wh ile carrying a
tool, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 12-17 ).
1. The brigade member p repares to climb the ladder by
placing the tool in one hand and hold ing it against th :
beam of the ladder. (Step 1)
 La dde rs
353

(fFigure 12-31 ) A brigade mem ber can push against the ladder to heel it. ( Figure 12-32 ) T he clim bing angle can be checked by standing on the
bottom rung and holding the arms straight out.

Climbing the Ladder While Carrying a Tool

Hold the tool in one Slide t he tool up the
hand and place it beam, while sliding the
against the beam. opposite hand up the
other beam.
 354 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
( Figure 12-33) C heck the stability of the roof before dismounting f rom the
ladder.
2. The b rigade member wraps th e other h and around the
opposite beam and begins climb ing. Contact is main tained
between the free hand and the beam by s liding the tool along
the beam wh ile climb ing. (Step 2) Be sure not to overload the
ladder. There should be no more than two brigade members on a
ladder at one time. A properly placed ladder shou ld b e ab le to
support two rescuers (with their protective clothing and
equipment) and one victim.
Dismounting the Ladder
When a ladd er is used to reach a roo f o r a windo w ent ry,
the b rigad e memb er will have to d is mount the lad der.
Brigade memb ers can min imize the risk o f s lipp ing and
falling by making sure that the surface is stable befo re d is -
mounting. Test the stability with a tool before dis mounting.
For examp le, brigade members who dis mount fro m a lad der
onto a roof typ ically s ound the roof with an axe before
stepping onto the surface (Fig ure 12 -33).
Try to maintain contact with the ladder at three po ints
when dismounting. For example, a brigade member who steps
onto a roof should keep two hands and one foot on the ladder
while checking the footing. This is particularly important if the
surface slopes or is covered with rain, snow, or ice. Do not shift
your weight onto the roo f until you have tested the footing.
P R I N C I P L E S AN D P R A C T I C E
(Figure 12 -34) A ladder belt has a large hook that is des igned to sec ure a
brigade member to a ladder.
It is also impo rtant to check the foot ing when entering a
window fro m a ladder positioned to the side of the window.
Before stepping into the window, be sure that the interior
surface is structurally sound and offers secure footing. The
three p o ints o f cont act ru le also app lies in th is situ at ion .
Under heavy fire and s mo ke condit ions, brigade mem-
bers so met imes d is mount by climbing over the ladder tip
and s lid ing over th e windo wsill into the bu ild ing . Sound
the floor inside the window befo re entering to be sure it is
solid and stable. To remount a ladder under these cond i-
tions, back out the window feet first and rest your abdomen
on the sill unt il you can feel the ladder under your feet.
Under better condit ions, sit on the windowsill with legs out
and ro ll onto the ladder.
Working from a Ladder
Brigade members must often work fro m a ladder. To avoid
falling wh ile wo rking fro m a ladder, the brigade member
must be secured to the ladder. Two d ifferent methods are
used by brigade members to secure themselves to a ladder.
The first method is a ladder belt . A ladder belt is specifically
designed to secure a brigade member to a ladder or elevated
surface (Figure 12-34). Brigade members must be s u re to
us e o n ly lad der b elts d es ig ned and cert ified to
 La dde rs
355

Working from a Ladder

The brigade mem ber clim bs the ladder to The brigade member notes the side where the The knee is bent around the rung and the
the desired work height and then one rung work will be performed. The opposite leg is foot is brought back under the rung.
higher. extended between the rungs.

The foot is secured around the lower rung or the beam. The brigade The brigade mem ber is now free to work with both hands.
member moves the other leg dow n one rung.
356 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

NFPA 1983, Standard on Fire Service Life Safety Rope and

System Co mponents. Utility belts designed to carry tools Brigade Member Safety Tips
should never be used as ladder belts. The alternate method is
to apply the leg lock. The leg lock is simple, secure, and |Working with ladders requires attention to basic safety precautions,
Brigade members should alw ays check these im portant safety items: •
requires no special equipment. To work fro m a ladder, follow Choos e t he proper ladder for the job. • W ear protectiv e gear, including
the steps of (Skill Drill 12-18), glov es, when working with ladders. • Use the proper num ber of brigade
1. The brigade member climbs to the desired work members f or each raise. • Us e leg muscles, not back or arm muscles,
height and steps up to the next h igher rung . when lifting ladders. • Nev er raise ladders i nto or near elect ric al wires.
(Step 1) • Check the ladder for proper angle. • Check the ladder locks to be sure
they are seated ov er the rungs. • Check staypoles to be sure they are
2. The brigade member notes the s ide o f the ladder set properly. • Mak e sure t he ladder is sec ure at the top or the bottom
where the work will be perfo rmed . The leg on the before c lim bing. • Clim b sm oot hly and rhyt hmically. • Always tie in
opposite side is extended bet ween the rungs. with a leg lock or a ladder belt w hen working fronr a ladder. • Do not
(Step 2) overload the ladder. • Inspect ladders for damage and wear after eac h
3. Once the leg is between the rungs, the brigade member use.
bends the knee and brings that foot back under the
rung and through to the climb ing side of the ladder.
(Step3)
4. The foot is secured against the next lo wer rung o r the
beam o f the ladder. The b rigade member uses the
thigh fo r support and steps do wn one rung with the
opposite foot. (Step 4)
5. The brigade member is now free to lean out to the side
of the ladder and work with two hands on the tool.
(S tep 5)

Mastering the leg lock and using a ladder belt enable
brigad e members to acco mp lish sev eral adv anced tas ks
while on a portable ladder. A mong these tasks are placing a
roof ladder fo r vent ilation or using a hose stream to apply
water to a hard-to-reach locat ion.
Placing a Roof Ladder
Several methods can be used to p roperly posit ion a roof
ladder on a slop ing roof. The most co mmon method is
described in (Skill Drill 12-19).
1. The brigade member carries the roof ladder to the
base of a ladder that is already in p lace to p rovide
access to the roofline.
2. The brigade member p laces the roo f ladder on the
ground and rotates the hooks o f the roo f ladder to the
open position.
3. The brigade member uses a one-person beam o r flat
raise to lean the roof ladder against one beam of the
other ladder with the hoo ks oriented out ward.
4. The brigade member climbs the lo wer ladder unt il
reaching the mid po int of the roo f ladder. The brigade
member then slips one shoulder bet ween two rungs of
the roof ladder and shoulders the ladder.
La dders 357
5. The brigade member climbs to the roofline of the
structure carrying the roof ladder on one shoulder.
6. The brigade member then uses a ladder belt to secure
to the ladder or applies a ladder leg lock (described in
Skill Drill 12-18).
7. The brigade member p laces the roo f ladder on the
roof surface with hoo ks down. The ladder is pushed
up toward the peak o f the roo f with a hand over hand
motion.
8. Once the hooks have passed the peak, the b rigade
member pu lls back on the roof ladder to set the hoo ks
and checks to ensure they are secure.
9. A roof ladder is removed fro m the roo f by reversing
the process described above. After releasing the hooks
fro m the peak, it may be necessary to tu rn the ladder
on one of its beams so that it can slide do wn the roof
without catch ing the hoo ks on the roo fing material.
 • The prim ary f unction of ladders is to provide s afe ac cess
to and egress from ot herwis e inacc ess ible areas.
• Ladders can be used f or s ev eral auxiliary purpos es
inc luding c hanneling debris, s erving as a lift point, and
holding ot her firef ight ing equipm ent.
• To ins pect and maint ain ladders, the brigade mem ber m ust
bec ome f amiliar wit h ladder c onst ruction and the t ermi
nology used t o desc ribe ladders.
• Ladders must be regularly ins pected, cleaned, and
maintained.
• To s elect t he appropriat e ladder for a job, the brigade
m em ber m ust k now w hat types of ladders are available as
: well as t heir us es and lim it at ions.
• Ladders us ed in the fire s ervic e c an be class ed int o two
broad cat egories: aerial ladders and portable ladders.
• Com m unic ation is k ey to c oordinating eff orts w hen work
ing w ith ladders.
• To deploy a port able ladder, brigade m em bers must be
able t o carry, place, rais e, and clim b the ladder s afely,
using c om m on tec hniques.
• Brigade m em bers must be able to w ork s af ely from
ladders.
Aerial la dde r A pow er-operat ed ladder perm anent ly
mounted on a piec e of apparat us.
Ba n g or la d der A ladder equippe d wit h t orm ent or poles or
stay poles that st abilize t he ladder during raising and low er ing
operations.
Bea m One of t he tw o m ain st ruct ural piec es running t he entire
length of eac h ladder or ladder s ection. T he beams s upport the
rungs.
Be d secti on T he low es t and widest s ect ion of an ext en sion
ladder. T he fly sections of the ladder ext end from the bed
section.
Butt Often c alled t he heel or bas e, t he butt is t he end of t he
ladder that is plac ed against t he ground w hen the ladde r is
raised.
Butt plate (als o ref erred t o as f oot pad) An alt ernativ e t o a
sim ple butt s pur; a s wiv eling plate wit h both a s pur and a cleat
or pad t hat is attac hed to t he butt of t he ladder.
B utt sp urs T he m et al s pik es att ac hed t o t he butt of a
ladder. T he spurs help prev ent the butt from slipping out of
posit ion.
C o mb i nat i o n la d de r A lad der t hat c onv ert s f rom a
straight ladder to a step ladder configuration (A-f ram e) or
from an ext ension ladder t o a step ladder c onf iguration.
Do gs (als o ref erred t o as pawls, ladder locks, and rung lock s)
A m ec hanic al lock ing devic e us ed t o secure the fly section(s ) of
a ladder after t hey hav e been extended.
Egress A m et hod of ex iting from an area or a building.
Exte n si o n la d d er A n adjus t abl e -len gt h,
m ult iple -section ladder.
Fly sectio n A s ect ion of an ext ens ion ladder t hat is rais ed or
extended f rom t he bas e s ection or from another fly s ection.
Som e ext ension ladders hav e more than one fly s ection.
F ol di n g la d de r A ladder t hat c ollaps es by bringing t he tw o
beam s toget her f or portability. U nf olded, t he f olding ladder is
narrow and us ed for acc ess to attic sc uttle holes and c onfined
areas.
Fres no lad der (als o ref erred t o as at tic ladder) A narrow,
two-section ext ens ion ladder that has no haly ard. Bec ause of its
lim it ed lengt h, it c an be ext ended m anually.
Gra de T he lev el at w hic h t he ground inters ects t he founda tion
of a struct ure.
Gui des St rips of m et al or w ood t hat s erv e t o guide a f ly
section during extens ion. C hannels or slots in t he bed or f ly
section may also serv e as guides.
Halyar d T he rope or c able us ed t o ext end or hois t t he fly
section(s) of an ext ension ladder.
Heat se nso r lab el A piec e of heat-s ens it iv e m at erial on
eac h s ect io n of aladder t hat identifies w hen t he ladder has
been ex pos ed t o high heat condit ions.
I-bea m A ladder beam c onst ruct ed of one c ontinuous piec e
of l-shaped m et al or fiberglass to w hic h the rungs are attached.
Lad de r belt A belt s pecific ally des igned t o s ec ure a brigade
mem ber to a ladder or elevat ed surfac e.
Lad der gi n An A-s haped st ruct ure f orm ed w it h t w o ladder
sect ions. It c an be us ed as a m akes hift lift w hen raising a
trapped pers on. One f orm of the devic e is called an A-f ram e
hoist.
Po mp i er l ad d er (s c aling ladder) A light w eight , s ingle
beam ladder.
Po rta ble la d de r L adder c arried on f ire apparat us, but
designed to be rem oved from the apparat us and deploy ed by
brigade m em bers w here needed.
Pr ote cti o n p late s R einf orc ing m at erial plac ed on a ladder
at chaffing and c ontact points t o prevent damage from friction
and c ont act wit h ot her s urf ac es.
Pulley A s m all, groov ed w heel t hrough w hic h t he haly ard
runs. T he pulley is us ed to change t he direction of the haly ard
pull, s o t hat a dow nw ard pull on the haly ard c reat es an upw ard
forc e on the fly s ect ion(s).
Rail T he t op or bott om piec e of a t russ ed -beam as s embly
us ed in t he c onstruct ion of a t russ ed ladder. T he t erm rail is
als o som etim es used to des cribe the top and bott om s urf ac es of
an I-beam ladder. Eac h beam w ill hav e tw o rails.
Ro of h ooks T he s pring -loaded, ret ract able, c urv ed m et al
piec es t hat allow the tip of a roof ladder t o be s ec ured t o the
peak of a pitc hed roof. T he hooks fold outw ard from eac h beam
at the top of a roof ladder.
R oof l ad der (hook ladder) A st raight ladder equipped wit h
retract able hooks so t hat t he ladder can be s ec ured to the peak
of a pitc hed roof. Onc e secured, the ladder lies flat against the
surfac e of t he roof, providing s ec ure f ooting f or brigade
mem bers.
Rung A ladder c rosspiece t hat provides a clim bing step for the
user. The rung transf ers the w eight of the us er out to the beams of
the ladder or back to a center beam on an I-beam ladder.
Soli d bea m A ladder beam c onst ruct ed of a s olid rect an gular
piec e of m aterial, t ypic ally wood, t o w hic h the ladder rungs are
attached.
Staypole (t orm ent or) A long piec e of m et al att ac hed t o t he t op
of the bed s ect ion of an ext ension ladder and used t o hel p
stabiliz e t he ladder during rais ing and low ering. The pole
attaches t o a s wiv el point and has a s pur on the other end. One
pole is att ac hed t o each beam of long (40' or longer) extension
ladders.
Stop A piec e of m at erial t hat prev ents t he f ly s ection(s) of a
ladder from ov erextending and c ollaps ing t he ladder.
Tie r od A m et al rod t hat runs f rom one beam of t he ladder t o
the ot her t o k eep t he beam s from s eparating. Tie rods are
typic ally f ound in w ood ladders.
Tip T he v ery t op of t he ladder.
Tr uss bl ock A piec e of w ood or m et al t hat t ies t he tw o rails
of a truss ed beam ladder toget her and s erv es as the att ac hm ent
point for the rungs.
Tr us se d bea m A ladder beam c ons t ruct ed of t op and
bottom rails joined by t russ blocks t hat tie t he rails together and
support the rungs.
 Your fire brigade is dispatched to a processing building for a report of a fire inside
a filter system. The filter system is mounted to the flat roof of the 2 1/2-story
industrial building. When your first-due engine arrives on scene, you find heavy
smoke coming from the filter system. The best area in which to locate the ladder
for access is in a narrow alley, where the adjacent building is less than 10 feet
from the fire building. You and your crew are assigned to the task of placing the
ladder and stretching a line to the roof area. Your engine carries a 24-foot
extension ladder, a 35-foot extension ladder, and a 16-foot roof ladder.

1. Based on your assignm ent, w hat w ould be y our f irst ladder of c hoic e for the operation?
A. 16-f oot roof ladder
B. 24-f oot ext ension ladder
C. 35-f oot ext ension ladder
D. Special-c all m utual aid f or a 75-f oot aerial truc k

2. Bas ed on the loc ation in w hic h t he ladder m ust be rais ed, w hic h of t he f ollowing t echniques w ould be the m ost
useful?
A. One-pers on flat rais e
B. Two-pers on flat rais e
C. Two-pers on beam raise
D. Three-pers on flat raise
3. W hic h of t he following angles s hould t he ladder be set t o bef ore y ou c lim b it ?
A. 45°
B. 75°
C. 90°
D. 180°

4. W hic h of the follow ing m aneuv ers should be c onduct ed w hen dism ounting t he ladder at t he roof lev el?
A. Sound t he roof area wit h a t ool prior t o dis m ount ing.
B. Att empt t o m aint ain t hree points of c ont act w it h the ladder w hen dis m ount ing.
C. Do not s hift y our w eight f rom t he ladder until y ou c heck y our foot ing.
D. All of t he abov e.