ABSTRACT

The subject of relationship between the sexes that are partners in the gender discuss has
been with us for as long as one can remember, probably since the creation, formation or even
the evolution of man and woman, depending on which school of thought one subscribed to, on
how human beings came into existence. Until recently before the emergence and recognition of
the third group regarded as gender neutral seeking the widening of the scope on the need of
balance and equity, within gender related matters, the balance of roles and responsibilities has
always been skewed to favor the male member of the gender. Within the African set up, this
imbalance appears more pronounced and tasking due to the cultural and traditional practices that
tends to propagate the hegemonic and superiority of male over the female gender.  
A discussion on balancing and achieving equitable assignment of roles and responsibilities
which gender entails; especially, in Africa require identification and  examination of perceptions,
the reality and the way forward by noting what has been done so far in the drive towards
achieving equality and then dwell on the practical steps the superstructures that dictates and
supervise the affair of the society  can take to complement the efforts of the feminists in Africa.  
To impact positively on how equality drive can be improved, complement and sustained
will require an examination of gender in Africa from the cultural perspective in terms of
role definition and expectations of the female gender, the steps taken by governing structures
(the government and semi-governmental organizations) to achieve equality within the
gender groups, what role the religious and traditional institutions, who are the custodians of
culture can play to complement the governing structures so that the goals and objectives of
feminism movement in are by the way lofty and desirable can be achieved.
INTRODUCTION
Role definition, ascription and distribution among the gender groups favoring the male
members of the gender groups has been a long fight, perhaps, dating back to the beginning of
creation if the narration of the origin of man is anything to go by. With such phrases a“...yet you
will be subject to him.” (Genesis 3:16 GNT) and “…Women have rights similar to those of
men equitably, although men have a degree ˹of responsibility˺ above them…(Sura 2:228)
seemed to give a tacit support and a ground from where disparity on roles is seen in the male
gender being favored above the female gender especially as “religion being the opium of the
people” becomes a ground to propagate and perpetuate all kinds of agendas imagined and
unimagined.
We have gone to this length to established the fact that the gender disparity in roles cannot
be traced from origin because even cultures like the Yoruba culture that Lugman, Abdulkareem
says “is gender-neutral and gender-silent, women are seen as complementary and not subordinate
to men”, they still have practices that discriminates against the female gender like Oro cult that
puts the female gender in the same category with the stranger on one hand and to lay the
foundation for the stiff focus on re-invigorating the Feminist determination to achieving equality
by changing the operating modus of traditional institutions, ethos and practices.  
However, gender inequality is not exclusive to Africa, but global. It is how come the agitation
for equality propelled the gathering of women from across the globe in China tagged Beijing
Conference with 17000 women in attendance in 1995.
Understanding the key Components
GENDER
Understanding what gender means and represents is required to have an adequate grasp of
what it means when it is mentioned or used in any given context. This is so because a great
number of persons thinks the word, when used, is about refers only to the sexes of either man or
woman and not about role definition and assignment.  
The starting point to begin this journey will have to do with finding out the meaning of the
term. The Oxford English Dictionary, a widely used search instrument for definitions and
fining meaning or meanings of words sees gender as “the state of being male or female as
expressed by social or cultural distinctions or differences rather than biological ones
(https://www.oed.com). This definition provides a good pointer to interrogate further into what
gender is all about. World Health Organization (WHO) went in to say that gender is “the
characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed.”
We need to take note of the phrase “socially constructed” as it will be understood better when
it is realized that it belongs to a branch of study known as social constructionism, a field of
knowledge in sociology that “proposes that certain ideas about physical reality arise from
collaborative consensus, instead of the pure observation of physical reality”. (Wikipedia:
Social constructionism). Thus, the perception that the different members of the gender has about
each other including their expectations may or may not be true. Consequently, WHO concludes
in their explanation of gender as a function of social construct that “gender varies from society
and can change overtime” (WHO).
Exploring the differentiation from the femininity and masculinity of gender further, Wikipedia
explained that “gender includes the social, psychological and behavioral aspects of being a man,
woman or other gender identity” (Wikipedia: gender characteristics). The introduction or
identification of the “other gender identity” widen the circle of people to be taken into
consideration when discussing the subject matter of gender. It equally lines up with the aspect of
WHO's conclusion that, the categorization of gender is not cast on stones and so, may change
overtime. Explaining further by Wikipedia, “depending on the context, gender may include sex
based, social structure (i.e. gender roles and gender expression).”
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The introduction of psychology and behavioral aspects in the gender discussion needs
special attention as what forms the basis of the behavior of the members of the gender are
purely psychological perception as we shall see during the writing.  
Coming closer home which is Africa, Nugbane writing on the impact of culture in the
curtailing of aids, said, “in African culture and African traditional life, gender is defined
according to the roles and functions in the society. It is what it means a male or female in a
certain society shapes opportunities that one is offers in life (12). This point feature prominently
across a wide spectrum of discussants on the subject matter of gender in Africa. Culture, no
doubt is a defining determinant in gender role ascription and are even couched under the toga of
religion as pointed out by Okolo and Nwachuckwu “in some cultures however, gender roles are
permeated with religious overtones and up the scale to divine mandate in order to give them
legitimacy and ensured, they are not altered” (134)
With this at the back of our mind, let’s now take look at the second component
under examination which is feminism in Africa. However, taking a look at the feminism
movement and types in Africa, a brief look at it global origin may be necessary as feminism like
every aspect of African liife is not isolated nor insulated from foreign influence particularly as
the world continue to become more and more a global village  
In the words of Nwaura “the word feminism was first used by Hubertine Auclert in France
in 1812 to the struggle of women to gain political rights’ (9). However, there seemed to be
a dispute about this claim as Dictionary.com attributed the origin of the word to another
source. According to Dictionary.com, “The word feminism itself was first coined in 1837 by
French philosopher, Charles Fourier (as féminisme). It originally referred to “feminine qualities
or character”. Although, Dictionary.com agrees, viewing feminism from the feminine
perspective have changed as  “toward the end of the century, the word came to refer to equal
rights for women and became inextricably linked to the suffragist movement”.
The argument about the first user of the feminism was traced farther to 14th century to early
15th century when writing under the History of Feminism: The Ancient World in Britainca.com,
Burkett and Brunnel noted that “in 14th – 15th century France, the first feminism philosopher,
Christine de Pesin challenges the prevailing attitudes toward women with a bold call for female
education”. One thing to note though is that, the origin of the Feminism movement can be
traceable to France despite differing opinions with regards to who first use the word and the date
it was first used.
Irrespective of who is it that first use the word and it’s origin, the preponderance of opinions
today regarding the meaning of word is that, it is used to refer to the female member of the
gender that are out fighting for the cessation of discrimination against the female gender, a
campaign for equality amongst the gender family.
Feminism, as defined by Nwaura “is a movement which is geared towards exposing and
eradicating the variety of injustices that women suffer on the basis of their gender (10). This
definition is worth paying attention to as the variety of injustices is inclusive enough to cover the
multifaceted challenges, obstacles, and limitations placed against them comparatively to the male
gender; be it discrimination, lack of equal opportunities, violence and other litany of issues that
forms the agendas of the gender movements; can be seen and addressed collectively as acts that
borders on injustice  
These issues raised across the spectrum of the feminism groups may be responsible for their
resurgent even after many waves and phases. This is a point noted by Wikipedia as well when
under Feminism movement and ideologies, Wikipedia wrote “a variety of movements of feminist
ideology have developed over the years. They vary in goals, strategies, and affiliations” noting
further that some of these groups overlap and can be grouped into three main school of thought.
The ‘big three’ as they are tagged are the liberal/mainstream feminism, the radical feminism and
the socialist/Marxist feminism with focus on gender reform, gender resistant or revolution
feminism. All their efforts are pointed towards addressing injustices perpetuated against the
women.
Nwaura in her definition of feminism concluded that feminism “seeks to liberate women from
sexist structures, subordination and oppression. It asserts that women are fully human” quoting
Anne Clifford to conclude her definition of feminism.  
The assertion of Anne Clifford that “women are fully human” is an apt point as it indeed
captures the absurdity of gender discrimination and inequality. The physiological composition of
the male and the female gender besides the genitals, are similar. Both the man and the woman
have a mind that they think and reason with, can distinguished between two or more options and
alternatives. They know the differences between good and bad, truth and falsehood. They have
senses that can feel, sight, taste and smell. Both of them have one head, one mouth, one nose, a
pair of eyes and ears, hands, legs, and any other thing that makes a human being. Thus, what
really is the basis or justification for the inequality and discrimination of the genders.
Feminism, as we noted earlier went through series of stages christened as waves some of which
are women suffrage of 19th Century and early 20th century, prominent for promoting the right of
women to vote; the liberation movement of 1960 whose thrust is campaign for legal and social
equity for women; then the third wave that was a phase of feminism in or around 1992 that
focused on individuality and diversity and the final phase that came to existence around 2012
that uses the social media to combat sexual harassment, violence against women and rape
culture. Me two movement is regarded as part of this wave of Feminism movement  
In summary, in all the phases and waves of the feminism movements, the thrust and central focus
of feminism campaigns and activities are geared toward securing the  women the right to vote,
run for public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter into contract,
have equal rights within marriage, protect women and the girl child from rape, sexual
harassment, domestic violence and other practices that limit the right of the female gender”
(feminism: equity agenda, Wikipedia).
FEMINISM IN AFRICA
Worthy of note as well is that African Feminism is one that was innovated by African women
that specially address the conditions and needs of continental African women (African women
who reside in the continent) (Wikipedia)
Since 2006 when over two hundred feminists met and crafted a charter of principles for African
Feminists in Accra, a lot has been done in the feminist campaign for equality in Africa. The
charter is an ideological entity in African body politic (Ahikire 8) aimed to galvanize and
feminism in Africa. Judging from the various possible perspectives outlined to prosecute the
feminist agenda, it will be wise to note that Feminism in Africa has been a boiling pot of diverse
discourses and courses of action (8).
Amaefula echoed this fact as well, saying, Feminism in Africa comprise the differing brands of
equalist theories and efforts geared towards enhancing the condition of the African woman.
African feminists presuppose that man is privileged with patriarchal dividends at woman’s
expense (290). Patriarchy here being a system of society or government where the father or the
eldest male is the head of the family and descent is reckoned through the male line (bing.com).
Its dominant ideology confers power in men and women are excluded.
Patriarchy as mentioned earlier, is one of the dominant topics in the list of things that is the focus
of the Feminists in Africa. Confirming this, the editorial of Perspective: analysis and
commentary said “Throughout the history of social and political movements in African societies,
generations of women have, in one way or another, worked to oppose patriarchal domination,
laws and practices in the pursuit of gender equality; advocating for their equal participation in all
aspects of social, economic and political life (4).

Quoting Bressler Amaefula pointed out that feminism seeks to understand the way in which
women are oppressed – socially, economically, politically, psychologically in order to reduce, if
not eliminate their oppression (290-291).
Although feminism is a subject that resonates and feature prominently among writers, theorists
and critics, probably due to the predominantly male society that African continent is know to be,
consciously disassociate themselves from feminist movement even though their works advance
the goals of feminism (Amaefula 293). Citing Nkealah, Amaefula continued “feminism is often
interpreted as being anti-male, anti-culture and anti-religion in its theoretical framework” (292).
A brief survey of the major theories propounded for adoption for the African feminism are
therefore, probably framed to assay the feelings and perception of the other members of the
gender. One of them especially Motherism clearly advocates partnering with interested members
of the male gender. Godono, in African postcolonial literature, explained that Motherism is about
motherhood. The motherist is the man or woman committed to the survival of mother earth in a
hologrammatic entity. The weapon of Motherism is love, tolerance, service and mutual
cooperation of the sexes.
Other theoretical frameworks propounded by the African Feminism are, femalism developed by
Opara that has its core focus of the female body as an essential biological site … A transcendent
mechanism of constructive and generative nature (190), Nego-feminism by Nnaemeka is the
feminism of negotiation, second, negotiation stands for ‘no ego’ feminism and is structured by
cultural imperatives and modulated by ever shifting local and global exigencies (29). The
concept is to take advantage of ‘give and take' nature of African culture.
Others are Snail-sense feminism by Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo that is an afro-centric feminist
models that target the eradication of male domination and female subjugation in Nigeria in
particular and Africa in general…women should adopt snail-like patience and efficiency in
negotiating their ways around and over “boulders, rocks, thorns, crags, and rough terrain littered
along their ways when dealing with men in the very hash patriarchal environment which they
find themselves in (29)
Finally, you have the woman-woman pavalering African womanism, an emerging model of
female discourse, is at the heart of feminist African writers. In their work, female resistance
shifts from the idea of palava, or trouble, to a focus on consensus, compromise, and cooperation;
it tackles sexism, totalitarianism, and ethnic prejudice. In all of these theories propounded here,
you see an underlying desire of the feminists courting their understanding and tacitly soliciting
for their support
From the foregone, no doubt, African feminism had taken root from the struggles of known
feminists like Adelaide Casely-Hayford a Sierra Leonean women’s right activist, Charlotte
Maxeke, the founder of Bantu Women’s league is South Africa, Huda Sharaawi who established
Egyptian Feminist Union, to other who stood side by side with their male counterparts that
fought for independence especially in Angola, Algeria, Guinea, Mozambique, and Kenya to the
modern to date, African feminist movement has expanded in policy, legislation, and culture
(MSAFROPOLITANS July 2013).
The 2006 feminist sitting in Accra with over 200 feminists in attendance that developed
principles for African Feminists, seeking to re-energize and reaffirm African Feminism in its
multiple dimensions (Ahikire 7) is an attestation of the progress made by African feminists.
Today, the new generation of African Feminists like Adichie and other are boldly and openly
declaring their stand unlike the older generation (MSAFROPOLITANS).
ISSUES IN AFRICAN FEMINISM
Nkealah, writing on conceptualizing African Feminism pointed out that African Feminism
strives to create a liberal, productive and self reliant African woman with the heterogeneous
cultures of Africa. Feminism in Africa ultimately aim at modifying culture as it affect women in
different countries (133 -141). Despite the myriad challenges, varying from one country to the
other due to the heterogeneity of the African continent, there is a commonality to the struggles
women face in the world since the common factor is male privilege (Kolawole, 92-98)
Some of the things that Africa Feminism challenge seeks to eradicate are patriarchy, use of law,
tradition, rituals, customs, force women governed by men in both public and private places,
female genital mutilation, women unequal access to education, sexual abuse, and so on.
African feminists pay attention to the way patriarchy is used, the psychological and political
system that values the male higher than the female. The African feminism seek that men and
woman could have mutually beneficial, transformative and progressive relationship in private
and public life if our relationship were non-patriarchal and egalitarian.
The feminist believes that, rather than waiting for a ‘father Christmas’ to grant their desires, the
feminist would rather frontally take up the mantle to ensure that those desires translate to reality.
Traditions – whether it has to do with the household, marriage customs, production methods or
sexual freedom, the patriarchal tradition makes distinction that favors the male and put the
female at disadvantage. Polygamy, marriage custom, widow abuse, female genital cutting, witch-
hunting, lack of access to power and property and a host of other ways tradition is used to put the
female under the male subjugation and subordination are some of the main issues on the table of
African feminism.
Under Development – development challenges affect the women more than men as they can be
regarded as dependent of dependents seeing that the male are the ones looked upon to provide
the needs of the family. They are most vulnerable especially in times of crises. They are involved
in striving for peace, seek equal opportunities in work places and other field of human endeavor
(MSAFROPOLITANS 2014)
Culture – The Third Leg
African culture is as varied as there are countries and tribes. The culture defines the outlines of
how human being coexist and socialize with one another (Ibang). UNESCO defines it as a
complex whole which include knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals laws, customs and any
capabilities and habits acquired by (human) as a member of society. Wikipedia added by saying
“it is a collective mass of distinctive qualities belonging to certain groups of people”.
The phrase “any capabilities and habits acquired by human” is important. Webster defines habits
as “settled tendency or usual mode of behavior that has become nearly or completely
involuntary” concluding that habit is “behavior pattern acquired by frequent repetition or
physiologic exposure that shows itself in regularity”. The relevance of this is fundamental to the
struggle of the feminists that is essentially directed at changing some of the acquired traits that
has become discriminatory habits of the male gender against the female gender.
Despite the varied nature of culture, as has been seen from one country to another including
ethnicity and tribe in African continent, “all African people share a series of dominant traits from
the rest of the world” (Wikipedia). In other words, while “African cultures are widely diverse
they are also, when closely studied seem to have many similarities for example, the morals they
uphold, their love and respect for their culture, as well as the strong respect they hold for the
aged and the important, i.e, kings and chiefs” (ibid).
African culture, it should be noted is a “heritage that can be passed on from one generation to
another” (Ibang 97) which means it can be sieved such that “while the positive dimensions of our
(African) culture ought to be practiced and passed to succeeding generations, the negatives of
our culture can be dropped in order to promote a more progressive and dynamic society (Ibang
ibid). The suggestion by Ibang provides a possible and positive pathway towards collaborating
and supporting the goals and objectives of the feminism movement in Africa.
Baecker sees culture as “a memory and control device of the society. It may be conceived of
providing the distinction of correct versus the incorrect behavior”. Meaning, culture is what
defines correctness or incorrectness of action, behavior or practice. The challenge with culture
then is the question Baecker posed “who decides on the correctness or incorrectness of this
distinction?”. To him, this is where sociological thinking come to play, and it’s a matter for
another day.
A quote of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie by Guardian African Network sums up how we should
view, relate and react to culture “just because your culture says something, doesn’t mean that is
right. People create culture and we are responsible for making things right”. Consequently, if
certain aspects of the culture that has been created are disadvantageous, injurious and inimical to
the growth, progress and well being of any member of the society, be it the female or male
gender, that culture is wrong and should be made right or it should be forsaken altogether.
To change the unreasonable aspects of our culture can be reckoned when as Msuya said “Culture
is not static, but always changing as each generation contributes its experience of the world,
discarding things that are no longer useful”. Culture is not insulated from time factor that affects
all things in life. “Time is the basis upon which all cultures rest and around which all activities
revolve' which entails that as the dynamics of life progresses by moving forward, culture has to
evolve adapting to the dynamics of time as well. This us where we proceed to appraising what
the has done by the feminists and the governing superstructures that controls the rein Power.
The reality and the perception
The Reality
Today, African feminist scholars activists, and politicians such as Leymah Gbower, Joyc Banda,
Simphiwe Dana and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichi we well as feminist organisations asuch Africa
feminist forum and Gender institute are at the forefront of using activism, knowledge and
creativity to change situations that affect women negatively”
With majority of African countries having one or two feminist Associations, some even having
political parties dedicated to women courses, Development organisations like African Women
Developnent and communication Network (FEMNET), African Women Development Fund
(ANDF) to give grant, Akima Mama Africa (AMwA), Pan African Leadership Development
Organisation, NGO

https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2005/african-women-battle-equality
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·Muraina, Luqman & Ajímátanraẹjẹ, Abdulkareem Jeleel, 2022. "Gender Relations in
Indigenous Yoruba Culture: Questioning Feminism Action and Advocacy," AfricArxiv x6vma,
Center for Open Science.Handle: RePEc:osf:africa:x6vma
DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/x6vma
From Suffrage To Sisterhood: What Is Feminism And What Does It Mean?
Published March 6, 2023 dictionary.com https://www.dictionary.com/e/womens-movement-
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%20was,Charles%20Fourier%20(as%20f%C3%A9minisme).
https://philanthropycircuit.org/insights/5-african-organizations-empowering-women-for-
development/ - Feminist organisations in Africa