COMPRESSIBILITY OF CLAYS: FUNDAMENTAL AND

PRACTICAL ASPECTS·

By S. Leroueil1

ABSTRACT: The compressibility of natural clays is influenced by numerous factors: strain rate, temperature,
sampling disturbance, stress path, and some restructuring factors. The first part of the paper reviews the effects
of these factors, in particular of strain rate and temperature. The influence of drainage conditions on the effective
stress-strain curves followed in various sUbelements of a consolidating clay layer is also discussed. In a second
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part, in-situ conditions are considered. In the overconsolidated range, and at the preconsolidation pressure, the
behavior is influenced by most of the aforementioned factors, and can be compared with laboratory test results
only on the basis of a serniempirical approach. In the normally consolidated range, major factors are strain rate
and temperature, and their effect can be evaluated. In some cases, however, structuring phenomena can exist
and decrease the viscous effects. Finally, practical conclusions concerning the evaluation of long-term settlements
are given.

INTRODUCTION ship. This rheologic model, originally proposed by Suklje

Compressibility of clays has always been a topic for lively
discussions among soil engineers. Those involving Bjerrum
(1967, 1972) and Leonards (Leonards and Altschaeffl 1964;
Leonards 1972) are particularly famous. In fact, both were
right, but they were not talking about or referring to the same
aspect of clay behavior. Leonards (1972) was mostly referring
to his work on very recent materials in which "structuring
effects" are important, whereas Bjerrum (1967, 1972) was re-
ferring to clays which were formed thousands of years ago
and in which creep becomes a major factor when they are
loaded. The materials of main practical interest fall in this
second category. The paper will be divided into two main
parts, the first one describing the fundamental aspects of clay
behavior and the second giving the views of the writer on how
to estimate settlements of clay deposits.
FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF CLAY BEHAVIOR
Clay behavior in one-dimensional or nearly one-dimen-
sional conditions is mainly influenced by strain rate (£v), tem-
perature (T), disturbance, the stress path followed, and restruc-
turing phenomena. The influence of these factors is briefly
described hereafter.
Strain-Rate Effects
The influence of time and strain rate on the compressibility
of clays has been evidenced for decades (Taylor 1942; Craw-
ford 1965; Bjerrum 1967). Studying in detail the rheologic
behavior of natural clays tested in different types of oedometer
test, Leroueil et a1. (1985) showed that during one-dimensional
compression, the behavior is controlled by a unique effective
stress-strain-strain rate (a~, £v, tv) [or (a~, e, e)] relation-
(1957), was recently confirmed by Imai and Tang (1992) for
the Yokohama Bay mud. There last authors showed in partic-
ular that the model remains valid when a clay specimen is
reloaded during primary consolidation. Leroueil et al. (1985)
also showed that the (a~, £v, tv) relationship can be simply
described by two curves, one giving the variation of the pre-
consolidation pressure a; with strain-rate [a; = j(t v )] and the
other presenting the normalized stress-strain curve [a ~/a ;(tv )
= g(£v)]. Figs. l(a) and (b) show a~/a; = j(t v) curves for
Champlain Sea clays and Finnish clays, respectively. They are
very similar, even if the scatter is more important for the or-
ganic [organic matter (OM) > 3%] Finnish clays, and seem to
reflect the behavior of most natural clays.
These strain-rate effects have important implications, which
have been discussed by Leroueil et a1. (1985) and Leroueil
(1988). One of them is that constant rate of strain (CRS)
oedometer tests give stress-strain curves that are generally dif-
ferent from those obtained in conventional 24 h oedometer
(a) 1 . 3 , r - - - - -......-------r-----r-----:'~
c"..",,* S.. c"".
~'" 1.1l-----+-----+---:,ttf,o;r-.:.;.-::.--=-I
~
>C
~
i 0.91-------7--r---,---:>lI!II!R~!Ib:.,..."---I--O------l
~
•
(b) 1.3 •matter
Deplh(m Ref.

"This paper was originally published in "Vertical and Horizontal De- PaImIo 5.7
PIcku-lluclpolabl 8.2 •• 0
formation of Foundations and Embankments." Under a special program, •
-
TorpparIn_ 2.1-2.7 D
the paper was nominated for potential republication, was reviewed in the 'co v_ 4.3-4.8 0
" 1.1 Ota_ 2.0-2.4 D
same manner as all other journal papers, and was accepted for republi-
cation. This paper differs from the original paper to incorporate sugges-
~ 2.0 - 2.8
8.0-8.3 ••
tions of the reviewers and to recognize more recent developments, most ~
>C
T_ 3.0-3.4 •
of which were presented at the 1995 International Symposium on Com- i 0.9
pression and Consolidation of Clayey Soils in Hiroshima, Japan. ~
'Prof. of Civ. Engrg., Universite Laval, Sainte-Foy, Quebec, G IK 7P4,
Canada.
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 1996. To extend the closing
date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager
of Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
possible publication on June 9, 1995. This paper is part of the }ouTluzl FIG. 1. Strain Rate Effect on Preconsolldatlon Pressure:
of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 122, No.7, July 1996. ©ASCE, ISSN (a) Canadian Experience [after Lerouell et al. (1983, 1985));
0733-9410/96/0007-0534-0543/$4.00 + $.50 per page. Paper No. (b) Finnish Experience [after Paakkunalnen (1990) and Holkkala
11135. (1991)]

534/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / JULY 1996

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 tests. Contrary to what is indicated in ASTM Standard D 4186 Temperature Effects
("Standard" 1993), the strain rates used in CRS tests are gen-
In relation to new concerns such as nuclear-waste isolation
erally not within the range encountered in conventional 24 h
and ~e use of soil deposits for heat energy storage, several
tests [24-h multiple stage loading (MSL24)]. They are in the
expenmental studies on the effects of temperatures on natural
order of, or less than, 10- 7 S-1 at the end of the loading periods
cl.ay behavior have recently been performed (Erickson 1989;
in the conventional MS~ tests (Leroueil 1988), while they
Tldfors and Siillfors 1989; Hueckell and Baldi 1990; Boudali
are generally between 1 X 10-6 and 4 X 10-6 S-1 in the CRS
et al. 1994). In terms of compressibility, the observed behavior
tests. A typical comparison of MS~ and CRS test results is can be illustrated by Fig. 3 and described on the basis of a
shown in Fig. 2. Other comparisons obtained on a variety of
study performed at Laval University (Boudali et al. 1994) as
natural clays are summarized in Table 1, where it can be seen follows: (1) The vertical strain generated by a change in tem-
that the preconsolidation pressure deduced from CRS tests is
perature of 30°C, under a constant effective stress in the
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typically 25% higher than that deduced from conventional 24

overconsolidated range, remains small, in the order of 0.5%.
h tests. The same applies to the entire stress-strain curve. As
(2). In the normally consolidated range and at the preconsoli-
our practical experience is essentially based on conventional datIOn pressure, a temperature change of 30°C has a significant
24 h oedometer test results, it implies that CRS test results effect on compressibility of clays. At a given strain rate, the
have to be corrected for strain rate effects before being used smaller the temperature, the higher is the effective stress at a
in practice. given strain or void ratio. (3) As shown in Fig. 3, temperature
effects combine with the effects of strain rate to influence the
4.0 l"""T"T~_r---T---r-'l"""""""',Jr"T'T,~k--"'T--'T-- viscous nature of natural clays. For this reason, the stress-
strai~ curves obtained on the Berthierville clay at (T = 5°C
.... ~ ~// (£=3.3x10-6 s-1 ) and Ev = 1.6 X 10- 7 S-I) and at (T = 35°C and Ev = 1.6 X
3.6 H-H+t---+~\""+'-:~~I-++l+--.I--l---J-J 10- 5 S-I) coincide. (4) The preconsolidation pressure can be
described. as a function of strain rate and temperature, 0' ~ = f
(t", T) [FIg. 4(a)]. (5) It appears that all the stress-strain curves
MSL 24 ~ ~
3.2 t-t-11-ttt---+-~:!...j--3~\~I+--~--+-t
obtained at various strain rates and temperatures come into a
unique one when they are normalized with respect to the pre-
consolidation pressure corresponding to the strain rate and the
Q)
o , Mean vertical effective stress, kPa
, 2.8 t+++t+-_f---+--+-1~~\)---W~
:g o 50 100 150 200 250 300
~ O~....:-r---..,r----.-----.--~----.
T EV
2.4 H+ttt---t-+-+-H-++ffi~tH~~-t

~,
(0 C) (s -1 )
5
~ 35 l.OxlO-5

<!. ---+- 5 l.OxlO- 5

2.0 H+t++---t-+-+-+-+++++--~~~-t 10

"'a~ 'f
-;
.~
35
5
1.6xlO-7
1.6xlO-7

1.6 ~-::-:~_~~~~!-!-.&+I-_ _L...J--I.-1 15

5 6 7 6~ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 78 ~02 2 3 4 5 -<
Effective stress cry (kPa)
20
FIG. 2. Comparison between Stres..straln Curves Obtained
In Conventional 24 hand CRS Oedometer Tests [from Hanzawa
(1989)] 25

TABLE 1. Comparison between Preconsolldatlon Pressures 40

Measured In Conventional 24 h and In CRS (1 to 4 x 10-1 S-l)
Oedometer Tests
35
Location Reference ~'"
u·
(1 ) (3) gj 30
~
Qu6bec, dozen of clays
Sweden, several sites
1.28 Leroueil et al. (1983)
Larsson and Slillfors
(1985)
.sil 25

~
Finland, one site 1.16 Kolisoja et al. (1989)
Osaka, Japanb 1.3-1.5 Hanzawa et al. (1990) 20
Fucino, Italy Burghignoli et al. (1991) '"
Ariake and Kuwana, Japan
1.2
1.3-1.4 Hanzawa (1991) ~ 15
Yokohama, Japan 1.25 Okumura and Suzuki
(1991) i 10
Finland, three sites 1.3 Hoikkala (1991) '"'"
Japan, several clays 1.18 Mizukarni and Motoyash- ~
~
iki (1992) 5
Bothkennar, United Kingdom 1.33 Nash et al. (1992)
"Larsson and Siillfors also found a ratio larger than 1.0, but correct the 0
CRS test results with a graphical method.
bClay from the Pleistocene period. FIG. 3. 'lYplcal CRS Oedometer Test Results Obtained at Dif-
ferent Strain Rates and Temperatures [after Boudall et al. (1994)]

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1JULY 1996/535

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 temperature used in each test [Fig. 4(b)]. The model proposed
by Leroueil et at. (1985) for rate effects can thus be extended
for including temperature effects. (6) On the basis of data ob-
tained by several researchers on seven different clays, an idea
of the variation of the preconsolidation pressure (or the vertical
effective stress at a given void ratio) with temperature can be
obtained, as shown in Fig. 5. It is significant since typically
decreases by 35% when the temperature increases from 5°C
to 40°C.
Vertical strain rate, £1 (s'1)
7 5
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Sampling Disturbance
As shown for a variety of clays, sampling disturbance has
a major consequence on compressibility parameters (Schmert-
mann 1955; La Rochelle et at. 1981; Lacasse et at. 1985; Ler-
oueil and Kabbaj 1987; Hight et al. 1992; Magnan et at. 1994).
a; It decreases the preconsolidation pressure and, more generally,
increases the estimated settlements under any stress. Typical
oedometer tests performed on Vasby (Sweden) clay and shown
in Fig. 6 illustrate well the effect of sampling disturbance. The
specimen taken with the large diameter (200 mm) Laval sam-
pler shows a sharp knee at the passage of a;
whereas the

10-9 10'" 16 10'" 16 10-4

100 specimen taken in 1967 with the Swedish sampler presents a
'iil90 more rounded curve. In average, the oedometer tests per-
~80
... formed on specimens taken with the Laval sampler gave pre-
b 70
consolidation pressure about 30% higher (Leroueil and Kabbaj
l! 1987).
i
Q.
60
Stress Paths
c
.250

I~40 CRS
Creep
5· 20· 35·
... • •
0
Clay behavior is known to be essentially stress-path depen-
dent. In one-dimensional or nearly one-dimensional condi-
MSL p II tions, the stress path remains close to the K one ("" 1 - simp')
Do
MSL 24 m line when the soil is normally consolidated. On the other hand,
30 it can significantly vary when the soil is overconsolidated, de-
pending in particular on the initial stress conditions. As shown
Normalized effective stress 0"1/O"p (£1, T) later [(2) and Figs. 11 and 12] this aspect may have important
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0 consequences when estimating the in situ vertical yield stress
of overconsolidated clays.

51---+--~lr--+---I---+---1 Restructuring Phenomena

~ Leonards and Altschaeffl (1964), and Perret (1995) have
~ 101-----l---+- shown that in the early stages of the diagenesis of clay sedi-
c
'il! ments, there can be some strengthening of the soil structure
'Iii
with time that modifies the effects of secondary compression
~ 15l---+--4---+-=
and gives preconsolidation pressure higher than those associ-
:!: ated to the void ratio of the clay only.
201-----l---+--4---+----::: Perret (1995) performed one-dimensional compression tests
on the resedimented Jonquiere clay (Ip = 32%) in large-di-
ameter (200 mm) cells equipped with bender elements to fol-
25L-_---I._ _....L..._ _1......_-L_ _..1-_....J
(From Kabbaj. 1985 and Boudalle! aI., 1994) 3.0
FIG. 4. One-Dimensional Compression of Berthierville Clay ~ r-a.. I"b[\
[from Boudall et al. (1994) and Kabbaj (1985)]: (a) Preconsollda-
tion Pressure As Function of Strain Rate and Temperature; and 2.8
~ ,
(b) Normalized Effective Stress-Strain Curve

1.40 , . - - - . . , - - -.......- - - . . . . - - - - . . - - - - ,
2.6
~ 1\

1.20
• III 2.4
1\ 1\

u
~ i:2 ~I\
0

l<1 i • o
~
> 2.2
1.00 0
~

-Il
... '*"
I!I •
..... 8. 10)
-r: 181
<> •
~. 2.0

0.80 • ••
0 • 1.8 -
C Specimen taken with
the Laval sampler \
0.60
0 20 40 60
0

80
1"\

100 1.6
o Specimen taken in 1967
I1II
\
Temperature, 0 C 1 10 100
Vertical effective stress <Tv (kPa)
FIG. 5. Variation of Normalized Preconsolldation Pressure, or
Vertical Effective Stress at a Given Void Ratio, with Temperature FIG. 6. Typical Compression Curves for Vasby Clay [after Ler-
for Different Clays [after Boudali et al. (1994)] ouell and KabbaJ (1987)]

536/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / JULY 1996

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 low the evolution of the maximum shear modulus Go. As Go
is directly related to the preconsolidation pressure, its mea-
surement makes possible to follow the evolution of O'~, and
thus of the .structure, during consolidation.
Typical results are shown in Fig. 7 for a test in which the
soil was allowed to consolidate during 120 d under 10 kPa,
before being loaded again. Just on the basis of the change in
void ratio during secondary consolidation, the preconsolidation
pressure would have increased from 10 to 11.5 kPa [Fig. 7(a)].
However, due to structuration, the preconsolidation pressure
has increased to 18.5 kPa. The variation in Go under the sus-
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and subjected to a constant loading during the same time, but
with a higher organic matter content of 4.6% does not show
any significant structuration. Organic matter thus seems to be
a factor influencing the structuration of clayey soils. Leroueil
et al. (1985) and Kabbaj (1985) also observed that, in some
cases, CRS oedometer tests performed at very low strain rates,
lower than 2 X 10- 8 S-I, give compression curves that cross
compression curves obtained at larger strain rates, indicating
that some structure develops.
It comes out from these observations that structuring effects
can develop during the consolidation of clayey soils, but that

tained load of 10 kPa is shown with black dots in Fig 7(b). If these effects seem to differ from soil to soil. It can also be
Go would only be associated to the void ratio, it would follow noted that the existence of nearly normally consolidated clay
the aa line. In fact, Go first goes on the left side of aa, in- deposits indicates that structuration can be extremely small in
dicating a destructuration just after loading, and then, pro- some cases.
gressively goes on the right side of aa as structure develops.
These results show that compression and structuration can be INFLUENCE OF DRAINAGE CONDITIONS ON
intimately linked during both primary and secondary consoli- STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR
dations.
Casagrande (1932), Locat and Lefebvre (1985), and Burland Hypothesis A versus Hypothesis B
(1990) indicated that natural clays often develop some struc- In relation to the influence of the drainage length on the
ture during their diagenesis. Perret et al. (1995) also evidenced stress-strain curve followed during primary consolidation,
that structuring phenomena could also exist for natural clays there are two extreme possibilities, hypotheses A and B (Ja-
loaded in the normally consolidated range. As shown in Fig. miolkowski et al. 1985). "Hypothesis A assumes that creep
8(a), the specimen of the Saguenay Fjord with a low organic occurs only after the end of primary consolidation," and con-
matter content (1.1 %) developed a significant strengthening sequently, the same stress-strain curve [which would also be
during the 82 d under a constant load, with a preconsolidation the end-of-primary consolidation (EOP) curve] is followed
pressure 22% higher than that corresponding to its void ratio whatever the drainage conditions. The EOP approach for cal-
only. On the other hand, the specimen from the same origin culating in situ settlements proposed by Mesri and Choi
(1985a) and Mesri et al. (1994) is based on this hypothesis.
a,\
2.8
\ "Hypothesis B assumes that some sort of 'structural viscosity'
is responsible for creep, that this phenomenon occurs during
\
\ pore pressure dissipation .. " and consequently, the stress-
strain curve followed depends on drainage conditions. Detailed
~
2.• observations of clay behavior can indicate which hypothesis
\ is the most representative.
1\
l\ Laboratory Observations
120d ~ ~,
,, ,
2.0
, \
,, :\ Berre and Iversen (1972), Mesri and Feng (1986), and Imai
and Tang (1992) have put subspecimens of clay in series to
examine local stress-strain behavior within a consolidating
\~
(8)
5 8 7 8 i
10
"~2 33
(b)
4 5 e 75 ~03 2
~~
3 4 5 8
clay layer. The results obtained by Leroueil et al. (1986) and
by Imai and Tang (1992) clearly show that the stress-strain
curves followed depend on the position of the sub-specimen
0'. (kP.) Go (kP.) relatively to the drainage boundary (Fig. 9). At the beginning
(from "'rtet, 1895) of the loading period, the strain rate near the drainage bound-
ary is higher than that near the impervious boundary. In agree-
FIG. 7. Re88dlmented Jonqul.re Clay [from Perret (1995)]: <a)
Compression Curve; and (b) Variation of Maximum Shear Mod· ment with the stress-strain-strain rate model previously men-
ulus Go with Void Ratio tioned, clay element 1 near the drainage boundary mobilizes
higher effective stresses than clay element 4 near the imper-
Vertical eII8c:tIve pnI8IUIW 0'. (kPa) vious boundary. However, when the clay specimen is ap-
20 30 40 60 80 80 100 80 80 100 200 300 400 500 proaching the end of primary consolidation, there is unifor-
3.0
1.8 "- mization of the strain rate in the clay layer, and consequently,
I I II
1\
1\ 11°... ··1.1% 2.7 0 ..... ,.5%/" the stress-strain curves of the different subspecimens converge.
The same happens during the successive steps of loading [Fig.

,
1.7
'a 9(b)], which gives stress-strain curves that are different from
• \,
~
one subspecimen to the other, and also different from the con-
11.8
:g ~~ 01
ventional curve deduced from the end points only.
>1.5

~b
Field Observations
'\
1.4
1.5
~ In 1990, Hydro-Quebec (Montreal, Canada) built a test em-
1\ bankment on site Olga in the Province of Quebec, about 10
(8) (11)
1.3 km northeast of Matagami, Quebec, and 600 km northwest of
(from Pertet et aI., 1895) Montreal, to study the efficiency of vertical wick drains in the
FIG. 8. Influence of secondary Consolidation on Structura- sensitive clays from this area (Lavallee et al. 1990). This em-
tlon of Saguenay Fjord Sediments after 82 Days of Sustained bankment is 6 m high and has total width and length of 106
Load [from Perret et al. (1995)] m and 146 m, respectively. It comprises four different sections:
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / JULY 1996/537

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 EffectlYe .tr... CT~, kPa
80 90 100 110 120 130 140
0

0,5 ~~~
c..c,
"\J.
.,~
l'....

"" ~\\
.~

.)

W
\

'~l,.\.~~
\
\
~l~~ 10'
LDgt (I Ind)
10
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~~
<Iv (kPa) <Iv (kPa)
25 50 7 1'" 1 0 25 I 75 1 0 12
fi·_v.~,- 00

CD 2-·-
1.1'0
i"Z~
'i"j
7 I \\
2,0 I- go - 3--- ">'il 2
L":",,.......... I

,
1\\
\
\
\
(0) 4 ~

2,5
I
P·'06
(7.7m)
\
I

\
\r P·l'S
(7.5m)

3.0 I

~
I

~ ~~
I
'.
1== P·l07
•
, ('0.4m) \
~2
~

1'2.6 -
Dralnage
\
)\ 12

~-1~
~
> 2.4

2.2
-
-
(b)
tid
Impervious

20
I
40 6080100 200
7 I

~
~

500
14
(6)
SfdlGrtA,N_

FIG. 10. Olga-c Test Embankment [after St-Arnaud et al.

(1992)]: (a) Variation of Pore Pressures with Time In Section A,
without Vertical Dralnsj (b) Approximate Stress-5traln Curves In
Section A, without Vertical Drains; (c) Variation of Pore Pres-
sures with Time In Section B, with Drain Spacing of 1.5 mj (d)
(4)
SfdIGrt B, _
(_91_".1.,1982)
4.5m
(1.5 • _ . )

Vertical effective stress (kPal
FIG. 9. Observed Effective Stress-Strain (or Void Ratio) Rela-
tions In Various Sublayers of Sample Subjected to Incremental
Loading: (a) Berthlervllle Clay [from Lerouell et al. (1986) after
Mesrl and Feng (1986)]; (b) Yokohama Bay Mud [from Imal and
Tang (1992)]
section A has no drains; section B has vertical drains with a
spacing of 1.5 m; in sections C and D, the spacing is of
1.0 m.
The geotechnical profile consists of a sensitive varved clay
deposit, about 14 m thick, over a moraine layer of sandy and
silty till. The upper 2 m of the clay deposit is an oxidized,
brown stiff crust. Then up to a depth of about 10 m, there is
the soft, highly plastic grey clay with water content essentially
constant between 80% and 100%, liquidity index between 1.15
and 1.5, and undrained shear strength between 20 kPa and 30
kPa. At larger depths, the plasticity index decreases and the
undrained shear strength progressively increases.
The instrumentation of the clay foundation is described by
Lavallee et al. (1990) and the observations are presented by
St-Arnaud et al. (1992). The distribution of settlement with
depth, as observed at different times, is rather linear in all
sections; 300 d after construction, the average vertical strain
was 6% under section A, 13% under section B, and 16.5%
under sections C and D. The lateral displacements measured
under the berms of the embankments are relatively uniform
over the height of the clay deposit, being equal to about 6%
of the settlement in section C and about 9% in section A. Soil
conditions are thus close to one dimensional. Figs. lO(a) and
lO(c) respectively show the evolution with time of pore pres-
sures observed in section A, where there are no drains, and in
section B, in the middle of the grids formed by the drains.
Corresponding effective stress-strain curves are shown in Figs.
Approximate Stress-5traln Curves In Section B, with Drain
Spacing of 1.5 m
lO(b) and lO(d). In section B (and also in sections C and D),
where the drainage length is relatively small, the pore pres-
sures start decreasing just after the end of construction and,
consequently, the vertical effective stress is continuously in-
creasing during the consolidation of the clay deposit. On the
other hand, in section A, where the drainage length is longer,
the clay mass was not able to expel the excess pore pressures
generated by creep and the pore pressures continue to increase
during 15-50 d after construction, before starting to decrease.
Similar behavior has been observed, in particular by Crooks
et al. (1984) and Kabbaj et al. (1988). Consequently, the ver-
tical effective stress first decreases before it starts to increase.
The stress-strain curves followed in the two sections are thus
different and this is due to creep effects.
Conclusion
These observations made both in laboratory an in situ con-
sistently show that the stress-strain curve followed by a soil
element during primary consolidation depends on drainage
conditions, and on strain rate and temperature. Hypothesis A
thus is incorrect.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF CLAY
COMPRESSIBILITY-ESTIMATION OF LONG-TERM
SETTLEMENTS
Long-term settlements of clay deposits are generally esti-
mated on the basis of oedometer tests. However, as previously
indicated, natural clay behavior is complex and there are im-
portant differences between soil conditions during a laboratory
oedometer test, and under an embankment in situ: (1) initial

538/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / JULY 1996

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 stress conditions and stress paths in general are different (Ler-
oueil 1988); (2) the strain rate is typically between 5 X 10- 8
and 5 X 10-6 S-I in oedometer tests and between 5 X 10- 12
and 10- 8 S-I under embankments; (3) the temperature is typ-
ically between 7°C and lOoC in the ground and is generally
between 18°C and 22°C in the laboratory, and (4) sampling
disturbance makes the soil in laboratory different from what
it is in situ. The determination of representative parameters for
the calculation of long-term settlements has thus to be made
on the basis of a semi-empirical approach.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE PARANA on 08/22/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
eration during construction of embankments (point P; on Fig.
12) have been compared with preconsolidation pressure values
obtained in conventional 24-h oedometer tests. The results are
shown in Fig. 11 for the sites where OCRs larger than 2.5
existed. Even if the scatter is large, the (]' ~onj(]' ~ ratio clearly
increases with the OCR, to reach a value of 2.0 at an OCR of
about 5. Leroueil et al. (1978) explained this behavior by the
shape of the limit state curve of natural clays and the peculiar
stress path followed in heavily overconsolidated clays during
construction of an embankment. This is illustrated in Fig. 12
where a typical excess pore pressure increase l1u is shown as
a function of the total vertical stress increase 11(]' u [Fig. 12(a)]

Preconsolldation Pressure
and where the corresponding stress path is shown in Fig.
Morin et al. (1983) compiled preconsolidation pressure val- 12(b). During the early stages of construction, the excess pore
ues mobilized in situ under several embankments. Their results pressure generated in heavily overconsolidated clays is low (fJ
show that for overconsolidation ratios (OCRs) between 1.2 and = 11u1I1(]'u typically equal to 0.22) and the stress path such as
2.5, there is a good agreement with the preconsolidation pres- IP; is reaching the limit state curve at P;, at a vertical effective
sure obtained in conventional 24 h oedometer tests «(]'~onY)' At stress (]' ~ value lower than the preconsolidation pressure of
lower OCRs, laboratory tests generally slightly underestimate the clay (]';. The yield stress considered in Fig. 11 corresponds
in situ values, whereas at high OCRs, they overestimate in situ to this point P;. If the loading of the embankment is continued
values. Morin et al. (1983) suggested a small correction to the fJ increases but remains lower than 1.0 for overconsolidated
measured laboratory values clays, so that the vertical effective stress (]' ~ continues to in-
crease up to (]'; and the corresponding stress path is denoted
(1) by P; P~A' in Fig. 12(b).
So, if the loading of an embankment is stopped while the
with (XI = 1.1 for OCR < 1.2, (XI = 1.0 for 1.2 < OCR < 2.5,
stress state is between P; and P~, the settlement corresponding
and on the basis of few data, (XI = 0.9 for 2.5 < OCR < 4.5.
Other data obtained since that time confirm the general ten- to the normally consolidated range starts at a vertical effective
stress smaller than the measured in laboratory preconsolidation
dency for OCRs < 2.5 and allow a reevaluation of the situation
pressure of the clay, the minimum value of this vertical stress
for larger OCRs. Available vertical yield stress (]' ~ values ev-
being given by Fig. 11 and the approximation equation
idenced by a rapid increase in the rate of pore-pressure gen-
2.5 , aJ,conv
(2)
I
(]'.." = 0.64 + 0.260CR
~~
I
I I
I I
I I
,
I I
I
If the loading is stopped when fJ is close to 1.0 and the
2.0 stress path is between P~ and A', then the settlement corre-
.- -.,
J
,_.!
..,
'L
~ ___ J sponding to the normally consolidated range starts at a vertical
effective stress close to the preconsolidation pressure of the
clay. In such a case, this preconsolidation pressure can be de-

~0
V
"'" 0'vy = 0'P cony. termined by using (1).
~ r64+0.261R
I I Long-Term Settlements In Normally Consolidated

-,
,_.
~
Rupert-7 } I Range

•• At stresses well in excess of the preconsolidation pressure,

Arles Leroueil et al.. 1978
Interstate 95
0.5
Saint-Esprit BoucHn.199O
the clay behavior is less affected by sampling disturbance than
~ Olga-C 5t-Arnaud et aI., 1992 at small strains, and the stress paths are similar in laboratory
(} Olga-B 5EBJ,1983 and in situ, Le., close to the K one line. The main factors that
a I could induce differences between laboratory and in situ be-
2 345 6 7 haviors are thus strain-rate, temperature, and structuring phe-
OCR = O'pconv./O'YO
nomena. Detailed studies performed by Kabbaj et al. (1988)
FIG. 11. Variation of Ratio a :.conia ~y with Overconsolidation on four different sites from Canada and Sweden show that,
Ratio of Clay (Only Sites with OCRs Larger Than 2.5 Are Consid- compared to end-of-primary (EOP) compression curves ob-
ered) tained in laboratory on high-quality samples obtained by Laval
sampler (La Rochelle et al. 1981), the in situ stress-strain
curves are well below (Fig. 13). At a given effective stress,
the in situ strain (or settlement) is larger than that expected on
the basis of EOP laboratory curves. Other studies reviewed by
Leroueil (1988) also show that in all cases (about 10) but one,
the vertical effective stress in situ is smaller than that predicted
on the basis of conventional 24 h oedometer tests at the same
strain, thus confirming the results of Kabbaj et al. (1988). All
(b)
these detailed studies and experiences gained in Sweden (Lars-
son 1986) and in France (Magnan 1992) indicate that rate ef-
4CJy (Cl'1 + Cl'3)12 fects during in situ primary consolidation are predominant.
(nr l8.....u 01 .... 1878) Considering only the effects of strain rate, Leroueil et al.
FIG. 12. Pore Pressure Generated and Stress Path Followed (1988) suggested that a strain 11£, be added to the strain esti-
In Heavily Overconsolldated Clay under Center of Embankment mated on the basis of the conventional 24 h oedometer test
[after Lerouellet al. (1978)] (which, in itself already incorporates some secondary com-
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING f JULY 1996 f 539

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 CT~ I kPo CT~ I kPo
n0r-_...;20;,=-__4;.r:0;....".~60~_ _8;;;O~......:I~OO~--:.:12:;O0i-_-:2T0'-!I":':4:!!O;-.....:6::y:O:....~8~0i'-_~IOO/lf-_1.l;120.

:==:=:=~\~-ft---+-----..:-.-+--:~_. ~---I \._O"'_\F,

.. \~-\ ";F I
.: 6t---t---t---\ \
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8 J---I--~I-----!- \ - \~+---; .---1--"'----11----+---+-\'\-+__---I

8erthierville • ~ Gloucester
o -EOP (4,4m) I-+--~ 1\_ -EOP (3 , 6m)
_ •• In situ 13.9-4,8m) " \ - - In situ (2,4-4,9m) \

02r'~
--==:r:
1;:i15~==~~~ --=~:::::==~~=::=:::=~
Th ~"- I I
r-~ Vosby
21---+---+--., \ I: ' -EOP (5,9m)
-.-In situ (4,3-7,3m)

pression) to evaluate the strain at the end of in situ primary of strain rate and temperature differences between the labo-
consolidation. At. increases with increasing CJ(1 + eo) and ratory and in situ. To avoid confusion, this new strain to be
decreasing strain rate at the end of in situ primary consolida- added to the strain estimated on the basis of the conventional
tion £EQP as follows: 24 h oedometer test will be described as At:.

...t.
A
= m(l C+c eo) [log10- 7
- Iog(tEop)]
' (3) At: = Cc
~1+~
[ H 2
(a.
log 6 x 10-9 - log -16kU;)]
~
(4)

where £EOP = (O.16k U~/"YwH2); C c = compression index under
the final effective stress; eo = initial void ratio; k = hydraulic
conductivity of the clay; m = a strain rate factor deduced from
Fig. 1 and approximately equal to 32; u~ = initial excess pore
pressure; and H = maximum drainage length.
Considering that the effects of temperature are, up to a cer-
tain degree, compensating for the effects of strain rate, the
additional strain At, value given by (3) is too high. From the
data on the effects of temperature compiled by Boudali et al,
(1994), a difference in temperature of about 12°C would have
an effect similar to a change in strain rate of 1 to 1.5 logarithm
cycles. Eq. (3) can be modified to take into account the effects
540 I JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I JULY 1996
At: is shown in Fig, 14 as a function of CJ(1 + eo) and
£EQP'
Applying (3) to the test embankments of Berthierville,
Saint-Alban-D, and Vlisby, Leroueil et al. (1988) found At,
values equal to 2.8%, 4% and 8%, respectively, and considered
these values realistic. Taking into account the effect of tem-
perature, (4) gives for the same embankments AE~ values re-
spectively equal to 1.4%,2.5%, and 5.6%. On the basis of the
field data, these values can still be considered realistic but
certainly are lower limits for the strain to add to that given by
the conventional 24 h oedometer test.
These results, which include the effects of temperature and

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.

 12.5 Co
, +.0·
1.0
10.0 1-_....3~_+- +- +- -I
0.8
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uj'O
e • 0.'8k~oO
EOP 'Yw H
FIG. 14. Estimation of End-of-Prlmary In situ Strain 4£: In Ex-
ee.. of That Determined from Conventional 24 h Laboratory
Oedometer Test, when Strain Rate and Temperature Are Consid-
ered
decrease the correction due to rate effects to apply to conven-
tional test results, would be supported by the French experi-
ence (Magnan 1992), which indicates that there is some vis-
cous compression during primary consolidation, but that the
amount is less than that implied by rate effects only.
It is worth noting however that the structuring phenomena
previously described, when they exist, become more important
at low strain rates and could modify the consolidation process
of thick clay layers. In such a case, they would decrease the
importance of the viscous component of deformation a£~. This
could explain why Mesri and Choi (1985b) in laboratory, and
Mesri et al. (1994) for several embankments found that the
end-of-primary e-Iog cr ~ compression curve was independent
of the thickness of .the clay layer. It thus appears that the vis-
cous approach including the strain rate and the temperature
effects, and characterized by (4) and Fig 14, would give an
upper limit of settlements, whereas the EOP approach sug-
gested by Mesri and Choi (1985a) and Mesri et al. (1994)
could be a lower limit of settlements. In cases of soils not
prone to develop structure, the settlement should be close to
that given by the viscous approach. In cases of soils devel-
oping structure with time or at low strain rates, the settlement
should be smaller than that given by the viscous approach, and
possibly closer to that given by the EOP approach. Unfortu-
nately, there is no validated method for evaluating the ability
of a soil to develop structure in in situ conditions.
Numerous numerical models, in which strain rate or time
effects are taken into account, have been recently developed
for simulating the consolidation of clay deposits (Magnan
et al. 1979; Oka et al. 1986; Larsson 1987; Szavits-Nossan
1988; Yin and Graham 1989; Borja 1992; Liang and Ma 1992;
Rajot 1992). None of them considers the influence of temper-
ature, sampling disturbance and structuring phenomena, and
the soil engineer must be aware of these weaknesses when
using them.
On the basis of all these remarks and observations, Leroueil
(1995) suggested that, in a general manner, both the viscous
and the EOP approaches be considered for estimating in situ
settlements. When the difference is small, any method would
be acceptable. When the difference is significant, the engineer
has to figure out the sampling disturbance and its conse-
quences on the reference compression curve, the ability of the
soil to develop structure, and the practical consequences of
settlements larger than expected. Finally, using his or her judg-
ment and local experience, the engineer will decide how to
calculate the settlements of the considered structure. More
practically, the following approach is recommended:
• In highly compressible clays [Cc!(l + eo) values larger
J. Geotech. Engrg. 1996.122:534-543.
than 0.25] or for embankments of special importance (test
embankments, embankments for which the magnitude of
the settlements may have important consequences), vis-
cous effects could be significant. In such cases, as previ-
ously indicated, the EOP and the viscous approaches
could be considered. On the basis of the results, the en-
gineer has to judge which method seems to be the most
appropriate for the considered project.
• For usual projects in clays of low compressibility [Cc /(1
+ eo) values less than 0.25], tit. is smaller than 2.5% and
is often compensated by some disturbance of the clay
samples and some reduction of the final effective stress
due to settlement and a raise of the water table in the
embankment. In these cases, it is thought that conven-
tional 24 h oedometer test results, which already include
some secondary compression, could be used without any
correction.
• When vertical drains are used to accelerate the consoli-
dation process or when the clay deposit is thin or strati-
fied, the strain rate at the end of primary consolidation is
larger than 3 X 10- 10 S-1 in most cases. Consequently,
a£~ remains relatively small and, for the same reasons as
those indicated in the preceding item, it is thought that
the conventional 24 h oedometer test results could be used
without any correction for calculating the settlements.
CONCLUSION
The present analysis shows that there are several factors
affecting the compressibility of natural clays: strain rate, tem-
perature, sampling disturbance, stress path, and structuring
phenomena. At small strains, while the soil is in the overcon-
solidated range or passing its preconsolidation pressure, the
effects of the four first factors are important and the soil be-
havior is complex. It follows that the preconsolidation pressure
has to be determined on the basis of a semiempirical approach.
In the normally consolidated range, the possible factors are
strain rate, temperature, and structuring phenomena. The com-
bined effect of strain rate and temperature has been quantified,
and a viscous strain a£~ is proposed to be added to the strain
estimated on the basis of the conventional 24 h oedometer test
to evaluate the strain at the end of in situ primary consolida-
tion. In low compressibility clays, and also in cases where
vertical drains are used so that the strain rate at the end of
primary consolidation is relatively high, a£~ is small and can
be neglected in many cases. This corresponds to the experi-
ence gained in the United States and in other countries where
the clays are of low compressibility and the 24 h oedometer
test gives reasonable settlement predictions. On the other hand,
in highly compressible clays, a£~ can be significant and
should be considered. This corresponds to the experience
gained in Eastern Canada and Scandinavia, where the clays
are sensitive and highly compressible. There could be cases
however where structuring phenomena exist and can reduce
the viscous component a£~.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer would like to thank M. Lojander, A. L. Paakkunainen, and
S. Hoikkala for providing data on the effects of strain rate on Finnish
clays; Hydro-Qu~bec and in particular Y. Hammamji and B. Touileb for
allowing publication of some data related to Olga-C Test embankment;
and D. Perret for the permissions to present results from his PhD thesis.
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