Networked Control system

A networked control system (NCS) is a control system wherein the control loops

are closed through a communication network. The defining feature of an NCS is
that control and feedback signals are exchanged among the system's components in
the form of information packages through a network.
2.3 Network control systems in microgrids
Networked control systems are considered as the key technology enabling to
ensure the stability and improve the transient performance of various MG feedback
control loops such as current, voltage/amplitude, frequency/angle, and
active/reactive power in both grid-connected and islanded operation modes [40].
The hierarchical control and power management of MG has different operation
layers, which are responsible for [41]:
•
providing proper load sharing and DG coordination,
•
voltage/frequency regulation in both operating modes,
•
resynchronization with the main power grid,
•
operating cost optimization,
•
power flow control between the MG, neighborhood minigrids, and the main grid.
In terms of control and communication topology, MG controls are categorized
into centralized, decentralized, and distributed, applied in different layers of MG
control structure [42]. See Fig. 2.1.
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Figure 2.1. (A) Centralized, (B) decentralized, and (C) distributed control
strategies.
Centralized strategy: In this strategy, the main controller controls MG variables
using the data collected from different sensors across the MG. This control strategy
gives the main task to a central controller and as a result poses a single point of
failure. Moreover, the plug-and-play capability in MGs for dynamic penetration
of RESs and DGs dynamically and smartly may not be easily achieved. The
considerable data collection also increases network bandwidth and availability
requirement [43].
Decentralized strategy: In this strategy, only local controllers make decisions
without direct communication with each other. The only network requirement is
for top-level controllers, which may receive set points from a central controller.
Although this strategy reduces the cost of network communication and eases the
plug-and-play installation of new devices (e.g., droop control), consensus among
the local controllers is required for the best performance. Additionally, certain
control objectives cannot be achieved without communication among the
agents [43].
Distributed strategy: To overcome the limitations of the former methods, this
strategy proposes different controllers to cooperate and achieve global control
objectives [44]. There is no single point of failure in this structure to increase the
reliability of the system. Besides the advantages, a number of complex challenges
still remain to be addressed. This complexity is due to the fact that in a distributed
strategy, both the stability requirements and network communication constraints
play important roles in distributed control synthesis.
In this research, we develop a distributed control strategy for a DC MG with the
following objectives [6]:
•
Regulating the microgrid voltage.
•
Controlling the energy level of storage while regulating the voltage in the
microgrid.
•
Consideration of network communication constraints in the controller design of
MG operating over a wireless sensor networks (WSNs).
•
Adopting widely used communication protocols offering low cost and low energy
consumption for the whole MG network.
2.3.1 Microgrids structure and operation modes
The MGs comprise dispersed energy resources, such as wind turbines, PV panels,
fuel cells, microgas turbines, and storage devices such as
flywheels, supercapacitors, batteries, and controllable loads in order to offer
considerable control capabilities to the local network operation. These systems can
be connected to the LV distribution network, but they can also be operated
in islanded mode in case of faults in the main network.
In the connected mode, the MG system operator or the microgrid central controller
(MGCC) must ensure the maximization of renewable energy generation and the
optimization of the MG operation [45]. Controller functions have to be considered
in order to achieve optimal operation of the MG in the connected mode. The MG
system operator uses load forecasts (electric and possibly heat), production
capacity forecasts (from local generators), the market prices of electricity, gas
costs, local production capability, local load demands, grid security concerns, and
requests of distribution networks to determine the amount of power needs to be
drawn from owned DGs and the amount of power to be exchanged with the
grid [46]. In this framework, noncritical controllable loads can be cut off when
necessary. Furthermore, it is required to monitor the actual active and reactive
power balancing. These techniques can be considered equivalent to the secondary
control of the conventional power grid [47,48].
A general structure of an MG able to operate in both connected and islanded
operation modes is shown in Fig. 2.2. The grid-connected mode is a particular
complex operating mode since local loads inside the MG need to be satisfied as
well as power needs to be sent to the main grid. MGCC manages the DG units in
the grid-connected mode. The external loads can influence the distribution network
and the MG power exchange by creating voltage droops or frequency fluctuations
at the grid-connected bus.

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Figure 2.2. A typical MG structure.
This basic MG network is assumed to be radial with several feeders and a
collection of loads (see Fig. 2.2). Fig. 2.3 shows how an interconnected network
of microgrids is connected to the distribution network via point of common
coupling (PCC).
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Figure 2.3. Parallel operation of MGs in smart grid.
2.3.2 Hierarchical microgrid control
An MG control strategy is efficient and effective when it applies on different levels
of operation and is multiobjective to provide reliable, secure, and economical
operation of MGs in either grid-connected or islanded mode.
The most relevant challenges in MG control and protection can be listed as:
•
Low inertia;
•
Uncertainties;
•
Dynamic modeling and stability;
•
Bidirectional power flow.
On the other hand, DGs output voltage and current control, active/reactive power
balancing and frequency/voltage regulation, demand-side management, economic
dispatch, and transition between operation modes are mentioned as the most
important control objectives of the MG control system. Whereas in the grid-
connected operation mode, main concerns are on the interaction with the main
grid, reliability and control issues are more significant in the islanded operation
mode as inertia of MG is very weak. In the islanded mode, the operation also is
more challenging. Generally, the instabilities in MGs can be listed as follows:
•
Small signal instability: There are many recurring reasons for small signal
instability including but not limited to dynamic impacts of feedback controllers,
continuous load switching, oscillation modes, and DG power limit.
•
Transient instability: Unexpected islanding, DG outage, large and sudden load
change, and cascaded faults are the most important reasons of the transient
instabilities.
•
Voltage instability: Reactive power limits, load dynamics, and tap changers create
most of the voltage stability problems.
•
Frequency instability (in AC or hybrid MG types): Load-generation imbalance,
under frequency load shedding, and active power limits are considered as the main
reasons for frequency instability.
A hierarchical control structure is able to provide efficient load sharing and DGs
coordination, voltage/frequency regulation in both operating modes, MG re-
synchronization with the main grid, operating cost optimization, and power flow
control between the MG, neighborhood grids, and the main grid. As shown in Fig.
2.4, hierarchical control has four levels, that is, the local (primary), secondary,
central/emergency, and the global control.
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Figure 2.4. Microgrid control layers.
The local control that includes fundamental control hardware and DGs internal
voltage/current control loops, stabilizes DGs by measuring and controlling the
local signals.
The secondary control provides power sharing as a communication-based
method for parallel configuration of DGs and compensates the voltage and
frequency deviations caused by the load variation and local control operation.
The central/emergency control facilitates MG supervision activities. Its role is
particularly important in the islanded operation mode. It operates as an MG energy
management system (EMS) and monitors the MGs local and secondary controllers.
It is also responsible for islanding detection and connection/disconnection to/from
the main grid, as well as emergency control and overall protection schemes.
Finally, the global control manages the power flow among the given MG, other
interconnected MGs, and the main grid. It provides an economically optimal
operation.
Despite an extensive research, the following topics are still open problems in MG
control:
•
improving robust performance and stability against the structured and unstructured
uncertainties,
•
enhancing the transient response of the closed-loop systems,
•
accounting for imbalance and harmonics,
•
improving scalability of the control frameworks,
•
incorporating the DC-side dynamics in the control synthesis,
•
enhancing fault ride-through capabilities,
•
unified control schemes for both grid-connected and islanded operation modes,
•
providing a smooth transition from islanded to grid connected mode and vice
versa.
In modern interconnected MG systems a microgrid offers additional coordinated
services to improve power quality for both operating modes. To name a few, we
have services as harmonics and unbalance compensation, flicker reduction,
transient voltage support during grid-faults, and reactive power compensation.

Networked Control System (NCS) is a feedback control system wherein the control

loops are closed through a real-time network (Zhang, et al., 2001). Nowadays NCS
can be found in spacecrafts, manufacturing plants, vehicles and many other
complicated control systems.
A hierarchical control system (HCS) is a form of control system in which a set of
devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchical tree. When the links in
the tree are implemented by a computer network, then that hierarchical control
system is also a form of networked control system.
Resilient Control Systems consider all of these elements and those disciplines that
contribute to a more effective design, such as cognitive psychology, computer
science, and control engineering to develop interdisciplinary solutions. These
solutions consider things such as how to tailor the control system operating
displays to best enable the user to make an accurate and reproducible response,
how to design in cybersecurity protections such that the system defends itself from
attack by changing its behaviors, and how to better integrate widely distributed
computer control systems to prevent cascading failures that result in disruptions to
critical industrial operations. In the context of cyber-physical systems, resilient
control systems are an aspect that focuses on the unique interdependencies of a
control system, as compared to information technology computer systems and
networks, due to its importance in operating our critical industrial operations.
Networked communication system is a feedback control system that uses a
communication network to close loops. The term Networked Control System refers
to a type of distributed control systems in which communication networks connect
sensors, actuators, and other devices. An NCS is identified by the fact that control
and feedback signals are transferred among its components as information
packages through a network. Today, NCS is used in a wide range of complex
control systems, including those in manufacturing plants, vehicles and spacecrafts.
A type of control system known as a hierarchical control system (HCS) is one in
which a collection of devices and governing software are arranged in a hierarchical
tree. This hierarchical control system also falls under the category of networked
control systems when the links in the tree are implemented by a computer network.
The goal of hierarchical control is to apply computers to every plant-control
scenario simultaneously. In order to integrate the plant operation at every level,
from top-management decisions to the movement of a valve, the most powerful
computers and automatic control devices are needed.

A resilient Control system is one that maintains state awareness and an

acceptable level of operational normalcy in the face of disturbances, such
as unanticipated and malicious threats. The term "resilient control system"
(RCS) refers to a new control design paradigm that includes cybersecurity,
physical security, economic efficiency, dynamic stability, and process
compliance in large-scale, complex systems.
These solutions consider how to tailor control system operating displays to
best enable the user to make an accurate and reproducible response, how to
design in cybersecurity protections so that the system defends itself from
attack by changing its behaviors, and how to better integrate widely
distributed computer control systems to avoid cascading failures that
disrupt critical industrial operations.