IND. MACH 82 CRUISE BQEING FBP PLANNING ALL ENGINES 2 AIRBLEEOS FLIGHT PLANNING sas Gnutse Tamer bis Einar ave ‘TAS 481 KNOTS 310 ruchttever SAIS 500 ey PT eercioenee mine nm © Copyright 1993 - 2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty. Ltd. All rights reserved. Licenced to original purchaser only - Registered Training Organisation 31149. Nanionatey REcoonistoIf you require any of the additional course material or amendments/updates to your existing documents and charts, please visit our online store www.aft.com.au/store or phone us on the freecall number below.IND. MACH ,8) CRUISE BOEING G27 PLANNING ALL ENGINES 2 AIRBLEEDS FLIGHT PLANNING MAX CRUISE THRUST LIMITS INTEGRATED RANGE 310 rucut ever FOL RS 200 300 400500 600700 800 aa DISTANCE NAUTICAL ATR MILES © Copyright 1993 - 2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty. Ltd. All rights reserved. Licenced to original purchaser only ~ Registered Training Organisation 31149. Naniowassy Ricoonisto TRAININGADVANCED FLIGHT THEORY AIR TRANSPORT PILOT AEROPLANE THEORY COURSE oy 88.208 dann Fp Tan Py Ase FLIGHT PLANNING | Advanced Flight Theory HIGH-SPEED FLIGHT AND TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT) Before we get involved in the details of flight planning techniques for the ATPL Exam, there are several effects related to high-speed and high altitude flight, which need to be discussed. The first effect we will discuss is the increase in the air temperature around the leading edge of airframe surfaces due to high forward speed. At high aircraft speeds (over about 250 KIAS), air ahead of the aircraft begins to compress, resulting in a temperature rise. At jet speeds, this rise may be up to 30°C or more in addition to the OAT, depending on aircraft speed and altitude. Similarly, the pressure rise results in an overread error in IAS as the total pressure rises. MACH NUMBER Another effect related to high-speed flight is the ratio between the speed of the aircraft and the speed of sound. This ratio is known as the Mach Number, The Mach Number is named after the Austrian physicist, Ernst Mach (1838-1916). The Mach Number is not a speed but a speed ratio. It is used to indicate how fast one is going when compared to the speed of sound. An aircraft with a Mach Number of 0.8 is flying at 80% of the current ambient speed of sound. If an aircraft flies too close to Mach 1 (the speed of sound) without special design features, adverse effects such as high drag, airframe buffet and handling difficulties may be encountered. It is very important for a pilot to know the aircraft Mach Number particularly at high altitude where high True Air Speeds (TAS) result in high Mach Numbers. A Mach = meter is fitted to jet transport aircraft which allows the pilot to fly at a precise Mach Number and avoid the adverse effects of fiying too close to speed of sound, The speed that sound travels through the atmosphere is not constant but depends primarily on the OAT, which generally decreases with height. The TAS corresponding to a particular Mach Number will therefore vary as the ‘temperature varies, since the Mach Number is a percentage of a varying number and so must be calculated. This will be covered in detail later. Refer to Boeing B727 Performance and Operating Handbook (B727 POH) page 1-10 for definitions. Ram Air Temperature (RAT) Is defined as the sum of the OAT (ambient Outside Air Temperature), plus some of the ram temperature rise (heating effect due to compressibility at high-speed). Refer to the B727 POH page 1-11 for definitions, Each aircraft temperature probe has a temperature probe sensor recovery factor. This factor represents the amount of the Ram temperature rise indicated by the probe. For example a particular probe, due to its design, may have a sensor recovery factor of 0.8. This means that if the OAT at a given altitude is -50°C and the ram temperature rise at @ given Mach Number is 30°C, then the temperature gauge in the cockpit would indicate: OAT of -50°C + 0.8 (80%) of 30°C (24°C) = -26°C RAT Total Air Temperature (TAT) is the sum of the OAT (which is known sometimes as the True Outside Air Temperature [TOAT]) and the full theoretical ram temperature rise due to compressibility effects, Most modern jet temperature probes have a sensor recovery factor of 1.0. The cockpit temperature gauge in this case will indicate total air temperature (TAT) not OAT. This means that if the OAT at a given altitude is -50°C and the ram temperature rise at a given Mach Number is 30°C, then the temperature gauge in the cockpit would indicate: OAT of -50°C + the full 30°C temperature rise = -20°C TAT ‘The cockpit TAT gauge indicates a temperature warmer than the actual OAT (it overreads by 30°C in this case) so a correction is needed in order to determine items like OAT and temperature variation from ISA. [ATPL(A) Flight Panning - Course Notes vB.2 Page 1 of 133© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty.Ltd. All rights reserved, THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA) ISA variation is a very important item since many performance figures in the B727 POH, like fuel flows and speeds are based on ISA conditions and adjustments are required for operations at non-standard temperatures. ‘The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has devised a hypothetical average atmosphere for use as a standard against which to compare actual atmospheric conditions. The temperature characteristics of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) are as follows: ‘Troposphere ‘e000 fr lapse rate 1.98 degrees (C) per 1000 ft Mean Séa Level Tenperature (Celcius) -€0 -70 -€0 56 40 20 10 O +5 +20 +40 +50 ‘The standard temperature lapse rate from 0 ft to 36090 ft is 1.98°C (usually rounded to 2°C). The tropopause in ISA occurs at 36090 ft above Mean Sea Level (AMSL). The MSL temperature is 15°C, At the ISA tropopause, the OAT is -56°C. Above the tropopause the temperature is isothermal at -56°C (constant with increasing altitude until 66000 ft, where the temperature begins to increase with increasing height due to the presence of ozone. The atmospheric pressure at MSL in ISA is 1013.25 HPA or 29.92 inHg (standard pressure). The reading on an altimeter with the subscale set to 1013.25 HPA is referred to as Pressure Height (PH) or Pressure Altitude (PA) or Flight Level (FL). These terms all have the same meaning. In Australia, all aircraft flying above 10000 ft use standard pressure as the altimeter setting and so fly at Flight Levels. In ISA, each Flight Level has a temperature associated with it based on the MSL temperature of 15°C and the standard lapse rate of 1.98°C per 1000 ft. These temperatures are referred to as the standard temperatures or ISA temperatures. For example: Standard temperature at FL110 (11000 ft) is -7°C. (15°C at MSL - [11 x 1.98°C] = -6.78°C). [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 2 of 113© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Py. Ltd Alrights reserved. Similarly, the standard temperature at FL410 (41000 ft) is -56°C. (15°Cat MSL - [36 x 1.98°C] = -56.28°C). Note that at all Flight Levels from FL360 to FL660, the ISA OAT is isothermal (constant) at -56°C. To save you calculating the standard temperature for each level, the B727 POH lists the standard ‘temperatures for the Flight Levels in a table on page 3-106. Refer to page 3-106 and note that the total air temperatures (TAT) for zero Mach Number approximate ambient air temperatures (OAT) in ISA. In addition to the zero Mach column of numbers, page 3-106 also shows the Total Air Temperature (TAT) for each Mach Number and Flight Level in the standard atmosphere. This table allows you to determine the amount of temperature rise generated at various speeds and altitudes. For example, refer page 3-106: ‘At FL310 the OAT (zero Mach TAT) in ISA is -46°C. An aircraft flying at 0.82M would indicate a TAT of - 16°C if the atmospheric conditions were ISA. This represents a temperature rise of 30°C due to compression heating. The variation from ISA temperatures may also be found by comparing the actual TAT cockpit gauge indication in the aircraft at a given Mach Number and Flight Level with the ISA TAT figure for the same Mach Number and Flight Level from the table on page 3-106. Once the ISA variation is determined, the actual OAT may be calculated by applying the ISA variation to the ISA OAT, For example, refer page 3-106: Again at FL310 at 0.82M, if the conditions are not ISA then OAT is not -46°C, the cockpit TAT gauge in the aircraft would indicate the actual OAT plus the 30°C temperature rise. The actual TAT would not be -16°C but either more or less depending upon whether the OAT is hotter or colder than ISA. Since we cannot read the OAT directly in the cockpit the TAT must be used to determine the ISA variation and then the oar. Suppose the TAT indication in the cockpit was -6°C at FL310 at 0.82M. -6°C is +10°C warmer than the ISA TAT of -16°C (from page 3-106) so the ISA variation is +10°C. The OAT therefore will be +10°C warmer than -46°C = -36°C. Notice the TAT of -6°C is still 30°C warmer than the OAT of -36°C. ISA variation does not affect the temperature rise. The difference between OAT and TAT is dependent only on Flight Level and Mach Number. The higher the Mach Number at a particular level, the more heating there is due to compression and the greater the difference between OAT and TAT. The difference is usually around 30°C at normal jet transport speeds but very fast supersonic aircraft may generate temperature rises of hundreds of degrees. ‘The Lockheed SR-71 (Blackbird) cruises at 3.00M at FL800 (80000 ft) and the fuselage heats up so much that the airframe stretches up to 11 inches in the cruise, with skin temperatures of up to 600°C. [ATPL(A) Flight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 3 of 113© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty. Lid llrightsreserved. Complete the following table (examples 1 and 2 are done) by using the appropriate procedure outlined below and the information on page 3-106 of your B727 POH. Not all steps are needed in all examples. Step 1 To find ISA TAT, given FL and Mach Number under ISA conditions: Enter with FL, move horizontally to intersect the Mach Number and read the ISA TAT. Step 2 To find ISA variation, given TAT and ISA TAT: Find the difference between TAT and ISA TAT. If TAT is hotter than ISA TAT, variation is positive, if TAT is colder than ISA TAT, it is negative. Step 3 To find OAT, given ISA variation: Apply the ISA variation to the ISA OAT (0 Mach Number T°C) If variation is positive, conditions are hotter than ISA, so add the variation to ISA. If variation is negative, conditions are colder than ISA, so subtract the variation from ISA. Step 4 To find TAT, given ISA variation: Apply ISA variation to ISA TAT as in Step 3. Follow the steps for the first example in the table below: Step 1 Refer to page 3-106, At FL260 at 0.82M the ISA TAT is -5°C, Enter this in the ISA TAT column. Step 2 Compare the ISA TAT of -5°C with the actual cockpit TAT of -5°C. There is no difference in this case so ISA variation is nil. Enter NIL variation in the ISA variation column. Step3 Apply the ISA variation (NIL in this example) to the ISA OAT to find the actual OAT. Enter in the last column, Step4 TAT is already given so Step 4 is not needed in this example. Flight Mach Actual TAT ISATAT ISA Variation ISA OAT Actual Level | Number | (in the cockpit) |(page 3-106)| (Actual -1SA) | (page 3-106) | OAT iz 260 | 0.82 5 5 NIL “37 “37 2 370 | 0.80 “4 -29 +15 “56 ~All 3 200 | 0.86 +14 IZ 4 “25 4 330 | 0.82 é +9 “50 5 130 | 0.60 | 4 a a “ll 5 6 440 | 0.79 “15 = 30 HIS 56 | 7 320 | 080 | —2¢ 7 8 48 8 200 | 082 | — n 42 9 250 | 0.84 i = +10 “35 1o | 360 | 079 -20 “56 11 | 270 | 0.84 L =5 3 “38 12 | 350 | 0.80 =2e ; f “54 13 | 350 | 0.80 +11 “54 i 14 | 300 | 081 “18 5 +1C “56 15 370 | 0.84 ~\6 me si 56 -46 [ATPL(A) Flight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 4 of 113ADVANCED FLIGHT THEORY AIR TRANSPORT PILOT AEROPLANE THEORY COURSE op 82079 Ravens Fgh Ten Pye et ena FLIGHT PLANNING | Advanced Flight Theory TAS and MACH NUMBER CALCULATIONS ‘As mentioned earlier, flight at high-speed results in a pressure rise around ° airframe leading edges. In addition to the temperature effects previously discussed (such as TAT, RAT and temperature rise), the pressure rise also | = causes the airspeed indicator (ASI) to averread at high-speed. The pressure rise at the pitot tube inlet causes the ASI to sense more pressure than that L due to forward speed. The magnitude of the error depends on the aircraft = Flight Level and indicated airspeed (KIAS) or calibrated airspeed (KCAS). In the B727 the corrections for instrument and position error are less than 1 kt so for practical purposes, in this aircraft IAS = CAS, Refer to the 8727 POH definitions on page 1-10, Note: TAT Probe behind Ptat Tube A correction obtained from a table may be applied to the IAS to account for the error and the resulting speed is known as Equivalent Airspeed (KEAS). EAS is simply IAS corrected for compressibility error. Refer to the 8727 POH definitions on page 1-10. The table used to the obtain the correction for airspeed compressibility is known as the "F" factor table and can be found on page 1-6 of the 8727 POH and also reproduced below, F CORRECTION FACTOR TABLE Pressure! CAS | CAS | CAS | CAS | CAS | CAS | CAS | CAS Altitude | 200 | 250 | 300 | 350 | 400 | 450 | 500 | 550 10000 | 1.0 | 10 99) 99 | 98 | 98 | 97 | 97 20000 | 99 | 98 7 97 | 96 | 95 | 94 | 93 30000 | .97 | .96 95 4 | 92 | 91 | 90 89 40000 | .96 | .94 92. 90 | .88 | 87 | 87 | .86 50000 | 93 | .90 87 86 | 84 | 84 | 84 84 i . To Find EAS: Step 1 Obtain the F correction factor according to the Flight Level and IAS, Step 2 Multiply the IAS by the F factor to calculate EAS. For example, find EAS for an aircraft fiying at 300 KCAS at FL300. Step 1 Enter the F factor table at 300 kt and FL300 and obtain the F Factor of 0.95. Step 2 Multiply the IAS by the F factor to obtain EAS: 300 x .95 = 285 EAS. ‘The application of the F correction factor and EAS is limited since at the speeds and altitudes where the error Is significant the aircraft is more likely to be flown according to a particular Mach Number rather than an IAS. However, if you wanted to calculate the aircraft TAS (using a TAS ring on an ASI or CR3) for a given IAS you would need to convert IAS to EAS as well as making the usual corrections for FL and OAT. [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes VB.2 Page 5 of 113,‘© Copyright 1989-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Ltd Al rights reserve. Depending on the information given, there are several methods used to calculate the TAS of an aircraft. As just mentioned, in high altitude high-speed flight IAS is not normally used to compute the TAS since the aircraft is normally flown at a constant Mach Number instead of an IAS. It would be possible to use IAS to compute TAS but the F correction factor would have to be used to convert IAS to EAS. Then EAS would be converted to TAS using FL and OAT in the TAS window on the flight computer or the TAS ring on an ASI. In the flight planning section of the ATPL Exam you will usually be given a flight to plan at a particular Mach Number. It is important to be able to convert quickly and easily between IAS (CAS) and Mach Number and also between Mach Number and TAS. MACH AND CAS Most jet aircraft have a Mach meter (often combined with the ASI called a MASI) which gives the pilot an indication of the True Mach Number (TMN) of the aircraft at a given Flight Level for a particular IAS to ensure that the Maximum Operating Mach Number (Myo) and the Maximum Operating IAS (Vio) are not exceeded. A Mach meter is a relatively simple instrument, which uses the current aircraft CAS and FL to determine the ratio of the aircraft speed to the speed of sound (which is of course the Mach Number). True Mach Number (TMN) is Indicated Mach Number corrected for instrument and system errors, which are negligible in a modem aircraft. For practical puposes, the Indicated Mach Number is the TMN. The only inputs required by a Mach meter are CAS and Flight Level. Temperature information is not required for the conversion between CAS and Mach, only Pressure Height (FL). If a Mach meter is not available or inoperative, the Jeppesen CR3 computer allows for the simple conversion of CAS to Mach and Mach to CAS. To find the Mach Number for a given CAS and FL using the CR3, follow these steps: For example, find the Mach Number of an aircraft flying at a speed of 300 KCAS at FL300. Step1 In the large CAS/Pressure Altitude Window of the CR3, line up 300 Kt on the white background above FL300 on the grey background. Step 2 — Without moving the scales on the computer, read the Mach Number at the Mach Number arrow in the Mach Number window, in this example 0.79M. This window is on the perimeter of the APR version of the flight computer. The picture shown below is a Jeppesen layout. 16 17 1g na gid, ‘ spt! eoicateD TEMPERS, MDICATED TEMPERAT Ug Page 6 of 113(© Copyright 1292-2043 Advanced Flight Thoory Py. Lid ll rights reserved. In a similar way if the Mach Number and the pressure altitude were given, the corresponding CAS for that Mach Number and FL could be found. For example, find the CAS of an aircraft flying at a speed of 0.85M at FL350. Step 1 Set the Mach Number of 0.85M at the Mach Number arrow in the Mach Number window. Step 2 In the large CAS/Pressure Altitude Window of the CR3, find FL350 on the grey background and above it read the corresponding CAS of 290 kt. Some computers will read a few kts either side. ey aa highly q fy Finally if the Mach Number and the CAS were given, the corresponding Flight Level could be found. For example, find the FL corresponding to an aircraft Mach Number of 0.70M and 240 KCAS. Step 1 Set the Mach Number of 0.70M at the Mach Number arrow in the Mach Number window. Step 2 In the large CAS/Pressure Altitude Window of the CR3, find 240 kt on the white background and under it, read the corresponding FL of FL340. NOTE THAT IN THE CAS/PRESSURE ALTITUDE WINDOWS THE SCALES MOVE IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS. CARE IS REQUIRED TO AVOID MISREADING THE SCALES. [ATPL(A) Fight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 7 of 113)© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty. Ltd. All rights reserved. Complete the following table (the first example is done) using the applicable steps: CAS, MACH NUMBER AND FLIGHT LEVEL CAS | Flight Level | MACH 1| 300 300 0.79 2 200 250 13) 280 300 4 f 400 5 5 340 6| 220 3 7| 350 | 8| 270 12 | 9| [4 150 0.36 10 120 > 0.20 MACH, TAS AND OAT ‘When flying at a constant Mach Number, a pilot is flying at a constant percentage of the speed of sound. The speed of sound however varies as the OAT varies so a constant Mach Number will not always correspond to the same TAS. The speed of sound is faster when the OAT is high and slower when the OAT is low. A simple formula may be used to compute the speed of sound at given OAT. The TAS for any Mach Number is then a straight percentage of that number. The Formula used to compute the speed of sound in knots is the square root of the OAT in degrees Kelvin multiplied by a constant of 39 (minus 1 kt for a slight overread error due to the constant of 39 not being exact, it’s really 38,900 but we just use 39 and the -1 rounds the answer the right way): Mach 1.0 (in kt) = VOAT in degrees K x 39 -1 To then compute the TAS for any Mach Number other than 1: ‘The OAT used in the formula uses the Kelvin scale of temperature, which uses the same units as the Celsius scale but with a starting point of absolute zero, which corresponds to -273°C. In other words, 0°C is equivalent to 273 K. To convert the Celsius temperature to Kelvin, simply add 273 to the Celsius temperature. For example, find the speed of sound at MSL in ISA: (15°C) MLO = (15C + 273 K) = ¥288 K x 39 -1 = 661 kt Similarly, Mach 0.80M at the same temperature is 661 kt x 0.8 = 529 kt Try another example with a negative OAT: Find the speed of sound at the tropopause in ISA: (-56°C) M10 = (-56C + 273 K) = V217 Kx 39-1 = 574 kt Similarly, 0.80M at the same temperature is 574 kt x 0.8 = 459 kt ATPL(A) Fight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 8 of 13,© Copyright 1999-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Py. Ltd All rights reserved. The formula and the calculator is one of several ways to compute the speed of sound and the TAS for any given Mach Number. The Jeppesen CR3 allows you to find the same answer (to within 3 kt) using a symbol in the TAS window called the Mach index. To find the Mach index symbol in the TAS window, rotate the ‘computer scales until a double headed arrow and the words "Mach Index" appear in the window. (Rotating the Pressure Altitude scale past 80 000 ft will expose the Mach index in the TAS window). Once the arrow is located, position the bottom arrowhead at the required OAT (true air temperature in Jeppesen terminology) in the TAS window. In this example the temperature is set to 0 degrees C. The main scales of the computer now represent True Mach Number (TMN) on the inside scale and TAS on the outside scale. Keeping the Mach index pointer at the OAT of zero degrees C in this example (on the true air temp scale), read the TAS for any desired Mach Number on the outside scale opposite the Mach Number on the inside scale where 10 = Mach 1.0 = TAS 640 kt, and where 90 = M.9 = TAS 576 kt, and 80 = M.8 = TAS 513 kt. Depending on the individual flight computer used, this method may yield TAS values up to 3 kts different to the calculator and so is not recommended for use in determining TAS for flight planning excercises. eo) | MURA Wil LbAde, ap SN egg [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes VB.2 Page 9 of 113© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Lt All ights reserved. For example: At an OAT of 15C Mach 1.0 = 660 kt (within 3 kt of the answer from the formula) Mach 0.8 = 528 kt (again within 3 kt of the formula) Any other Mach number and the equivalent TAS for this OAT is also displayed around the scale. (The decimal point for Mach is not shown on the scale). gece sanyo whit \) oN Ea Let's look at another example at a different OAT. For example: At an OAT of -56C Mach 1.0 = 574 kt (within 3 kt of the answer from the formula) Mach 0.8 = 458 kt (again within 3 kt of the formula) a, ape [a7 ga Landay Sk 7 SuNMiylsliilshif yy PS AND ila agp ~~ os ity 8 -e [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 10 of 113,(© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Thoory Py. Lid ll rights reserved. Complete the following table converting Mach Number to TAS at various OAT's using the steps below: Using the first example in the table, find the TAS at 0.80M at FL310 at a temperature of ISA+10. Step 1 Find the OAT. In this case the temperature is given as a variation from ISA at FL310. ‘The OAT must be computed by applying the ISA variation to the ISA OAT at FL310 from page 3-106 of the B727 POH. ISA OAT at FL310 is -46°C. ISA+10 therefore will be a temperature of -36°C. Step 2 Use either the formula or the CR3 to compute the TAS. Using the formula, convert the OAT to Kelvin. In this example -36°C = 237K (-36°C + 273). MO0.8 = V237 K x 39 x 8 -1 = 479 kt Using the CR3, set the OAT of -36°C at the Mach index and read the TAS against 0.80M on the scale, For example: At an OAT of -36C MACH NUMBER TO TAS OAT Mach Number | Flight Level TAS 1 ISA+10 0.80 310 479 2 41 (ISA) 0.82 a5 Kee 3 ISA+10 0.79 310 u 4 1SA-5 0.78 310 SROUSS 5 15A+20 079 310 6 ISASS 0.86 370 7 ISASS 0.84 350 \ 8 A 0.76 290 9 “54 (ISA) 0.80 10 ISA+10 0.79 | [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes VB.2 Mach 0.8 = 478 kt (again within 3 kt of the formula) Page 11 of 113,‘© Copyright 993-2048 Advanced Fight Theory Ply. Ltd llrightsreserved. MACH, TAS AND TAT The last method we will look at for converting Mach Number to TAS involves using the CR3 and the Total Air Temperature (TAT). This method may be useful inflight when the OAT is not directly available but TAT is available from the TAT gauge. The CR3 allows us to set CAS and FL to find Mach or set Mach directly if it is known and then using the TAT, the TAS may also be read without needing to convert to OAT. The CR3 has a window labelled Indicated Temperature. This is Jeppesen terminology for TAT. The sliding clear cursor is also used in this procedure. The cursor has two lines for temperature probe sensory recovery factors (Ct) of 1.0 or 0.8. The assumption for the exam is that the Ct is 1.0 and so we will use the Ct 1.0 line on the cursor. The Ct 1.0 line actually has a solid line for use when fiying at the tropopause and a dashed line for use at sea level. Since high Mach cruise is normally conducted close to the tropopause, we will use the Ct 1.0 line on the cursor. ‘The TAS is read by intersecting the Ct 1.0 line on the black reference arc (cutting across the TAT lines) at the required TAT. Follow the Ct 1.0 line down onto the TAS scale to read TAS at that Mach Number and TAT. If desired, continue down the line and under the Mach window read the temperature rise due to compressibility in the temperature rise window. This temperature rise represents the difference between the OAT and TAT at that Mach Number and TAS. For example, find the TAS of an aircraft flying at a CAS of 300 kt at FL300 at a TAT of -20. Step 1 Set the CAS of 300 kt against FL300 in the CAS/PA window and read 0.79M in the Mach window. Step 2. Position the cursor to intersect the 1.0 Ct line at the TAT of -20 on the reference arc and read TAS of 460 kt. The rise of 28 degrees may also be read. This means the OAT is 28 degrees colder than the TAT (-48°C). ATPL{A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 12 of 113,© Copyright 892-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply Lid. Alright reserved. To summarise, it can be seen that the TAS equating to any particular Mach Number depends only on the temperature of the air. That temperature may be provided in the form of an OAT or a TAT. Using the OAT (converted to Kelvin) and the formula: TAS = V(OAT+273) x 39 x M-1. Alternatively, the CR3 may be used with the Mach Index and the OAT in degrees Celsius. This method is less accurate however, so the calculator is recommended. In a similar way, if the TAS and the temperature are known, the Mach Number can be calculated or if the Mach and the TAS are known, the temperature can be determined. Mach from TAS and OAT: For example, find the Mach Number at a TAS of 455 kt with an OAT of -50°C: Using the formula: Answer is 0.78M. Step 1 Calculate the TAS for 1.00M at -50°C ({¥223K [-50 + 273]} x 39 -1 = 581 kt). Step 2 _ Divide the TAS given of 455 by the TAS of 1.00M of 581 (455/581 = 0.783 M). Using the CR3: Answer is 0.78M. Step1 Set the Mach Index at -50°C. Step 2 Read the Mach Number of 0.78M against the TAS given of 455 kt. For example: At an OAT of -50C and a TAS of 455 kt, find the Mach number. Mach number = M0.78 OAT from Mach and TAS: For example, find the OAT at a TAS of 420 kt and a Mach Number of 0.70M: Using the formula in reverse: Answer is -35°C. Step 1 Calculate the TAS of 1.00M for 420 kt at 0.70M (420+1/0.7 = 600 kt). The 1kt accounts for the overread error of the formula. Step 2 Divide the TAS of 600 kt by 39, then square the answer and subtract 273K to find the OAT of -36°C (420+1/0.7 -35°C). Using the CR3 to find the OAT for a TAS of 420 kt at 0.70M: ‘Answer is -35°C, Within a degree of the formula Set the TAS of 420 kt against the Mach number of M0.7. Read the OAT of -35 at the Mach Index. Page 13 of 113,(© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Ltd. Al rights reserved. Complete the following table finding TAS or temperature or Mach Number, depending on the information given. Remember that you can find the missing number if you know any two of these three variables. Follow these steps for example 1: Step » Find TAS using the formula, V (-45 +273) x 39 + .79-1= On the main scales against 0.79M read the TAS of 464 kt. ‘The CR3 may be used instead if desired, but will yield less accurate TAS. Step 2 To find TAT, find the ISA variation first using page 3-106. ‘The ISA OAT at FL310 is -46°C. ‘The actual OAT is so the ISA variation is ISA+1. Step 3. Apply the ISA variation to the ISA TAT from page 3-106. ISA TAT is -18 and the variation is ISA+1 so the actual TAT is -17 (-18 +1= -17). TAS, MACH NUMBER AND TEMPERATURE TAT Mach Number | FlightLevel | TAS “17 0.79 310 464 0.85 350 50 0.80 290 462 0.81 330 462 =(4 0.75 310 446 0.90 250 542 <2 © 350 473 = C. 8k 280 496 - 7 370 417 5 ° [390 478 |5. Summary of the TASICAS/MACH relationship i TAS FL+ OAY or TAY OATS F factor ieee Sere MACH a AS [ATPL(A) Fight Planning - Course Notes VB.2 Page 14 of 113© Copyright 1993-2043 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Ltd ll rights reserved. TAT from Mach and TAS: If you know the Mach Number and the TAS, the TAT can be directly from the CR3. For example, find the TAT for a TAS of 460 kt and a Mach Number of 0.79M. Step 1 Set 0.79M in the Mach window. Step 2 Set the Ct 1.0 cursor at the TAS of 460 kt. Step 3 Read the TAT of -20 where the cursor intersects the reference arc. Now that you have mastered the TAS, Mach, Temperature triangle, here is one last table to finish before we get involved with real B727 POH figures! Complete the table using any of the methods we have covered and see how you go. TAS, Mach Number and Temperature (Use B727 POH page 3-106 for TAT and OAT in ISA.) FL_ | asa oar | Actual nT [Sa variation] 1sa TAT |actual TAT| ents | TAS 1{ 330 Nil 0.79 2| 300 - y -22 0.80 3| 270 “12 0.82 fe 4| 130 o 0.65 5 | 330 081 | 486 6| 410 Nil 0.80 7 | 320 +10 [ 0.79 8 -40 =10 072 | 9 +10 0.70 | 420 10| 300 “28 0.82 ATPL) Fgh Planing - Course Notes V8.2 foge 15 of 113© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty.Ltd llrightsreserved, PUBLISHED TAS A final word on Mach Number and TAS. The B727 POH contains published TAS values for a range of Mach Numbers of 0.79M, 0.80M, 0.82M and 0.84M at different Flight Levels. They are found in the before flight planning cruise section of the handbook and are 1 kt slower than the TAS from the formula. For example, refer to page 3-39 of the B727 POH. This is the 0.80M FL310 page. At the top of the page the TAS of 469 kt is published. It should be noted however that this TAS is only valid for the ISA temperature of -46°C, Any other temperature will result in a different TAS. The B727 POH accounts for this with an adjustment on the bottom of each page. The adjustment is made by adding 1 kt of speed to the TAS for each degree of ISA variation above ISA and subtracting 1 kt of speed from the TAS for each degree of ISA variation colder than ISA. The published TAS is always equal to the calculated TAS provided you remember to subtract 1 kt when using the calculated method. It can be seen from this another way of calculating TAS from Mach Number is to use the published ISA TAS and then adjust it for ISA variation. This is only an option for the four constant Mach schedules of 0.79M, 0.80M, 0.82M and 0.84M. TAS for any other Mach Number must be calculated (using the formula). CONSTANT MACH CRUISE ‘The four constant Mach schedules are the most common style of speed control in cruise. Constant Mach simply means maintaining the same Mach Number for the entire cruise section of the flight. At constant FL, a constant Mach Number is also @ constant IAS. As fuel is burnt and weight reduces the lift required to maintain level flight at that speed also reduces. To reduce lift at constant IAS the angle of attack must reduce. This results in less drag and so the engine RPM will need to be gradually reduced as the flight progresses. Constant Mach cruise involves reducing both angle of attack and RPM as weight reduces. The wing achieves best range at only one angle of attack. It is not possible to maintain that angle of attack and constant speed and constant FL as weight reduces, so constant Mach cruise involves a range of angles of attack and is not as fuel efficient as cruising at a constant angle of attack (Long Range Cruise LRC). Constant Mach Cruise LONG RANGE CRUISE (LRC) An alternative cruise schedule called Long Range Cruise (LRC) is sometime used to increase range. LRC involves flight at a constant angle of attack - close to the angle of attack for best range. As weight reduces, the Mach Number is also reduced providing the required lift reduction at the same angle of attack. Thrust (RPM) must be reduced since less thrust is required at the slower speeds. Long Range Cruise CRUISE CLIMB The third option for cruise is to maintain the most efficient engine RPM and the most efficient angle of attack. The only way to achieve this with reducing weight is with a cruise climb. The excess thrust, which becomes available as weight reduces, is used to climb at a constant power and constant angle of attack. Achieving the optimum weight for each FL through which the climb is made. This is the most efficient profile for a jet but often not practical due to other traffic and the requirement for block clearances over multiple Flight Levels. A compromise is the step climb. [ATPL(A) Fight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 16 of 113,ADVANCED FLIGHT THEORY AIR TRANSPORT PILOT AEROPLANE THEORY COURSE cap a0 Ae en Tn Py i AA eee FLIGHT PLANNING Advanced Flight Theory CLIMBS and DESCENTS Now that we have conquered airspeeds, it is time to look at the different tables in the B727 POH used in putting together a flight plan. ATPL Flight Planning involves the use of tables for climb and descent with particular figures for time, fuel and distance. It is necessary to use these tables rather than a block allowance for climb and descent since the fuel flows and speeds on climb and descent in a jet are very different from the cruise figures and also vary significantly with different take off weights or Brakes Release Weights (BRW) in the ATPL Exam. Simply adding a few extra minutes per 1000 ft is not good enough for large aircraft. ‘The tables for determining TIME/FUEL/(air)DIST/TAS during a normal enroute climb at 310 IAS/0.78M. This means the cimb speed is initially 310 IAS until the FL where 310 IAS equates to 0.78M and then 0,78M after that. The tables are on pages 2-8 to 2-10 of the B727 POH. The only difference between the tables is the temperature variation from ISA. For the exam you will need to apply the ISA variation to the nearest 5°C, so sometimes you will be interpolating exactly half way between published figures. The figures assume a sea level departure aerodrome and nil wind (air nautical miles or ANM). An adjustment for airport elevation is given at the bottom of each table, but this would rarely be used in Australia as most B727 size airports are very close to sea level so the adjustment is ignored. If departing from a high elevation airport, less fuel, time and distance is required, so an adjustment is made to the normal climb figures. An adjustment for the effect of head or tail wind on climb distance is usually needed. The head or tail wind component used is derived from the average wind on climb or descent. Since the climb and descent may cover an altitude block of 30000 ft or more, the average wind and temperature is made up of the various winds and temperatures at different levels on the way up or down. The climb performance of a jet reduces as altitude increases, so more time is spent in the top half of the climb. To find an accurate average wind CASA have decided that for the exam the forecast wind and temperatures at a level equivalent to 2/3 of the initial cruising Flight Level will be used. Refer to the ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 29 para 3.1.1. For descent the weather 2 way down is used since descent performance is much more linear than climb performance (para 3.1.2). In the ATPL Exam, wind components of headwind are assigned a negative (-) sign and tail wind components are indicated by a plus (+) sign. A 30 kt headwind is therefore expressed as a wind component of -30. (If this is not intuitive for you, the CR3 also uses the same convention on the wind side of the computer in case you forget). ATPL(A) Fight Panning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 17 of 113,© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Lid Allrights reserved. For example, refer to the B727 POH page 2-8. A B727 has a BRW of 72000 kg and a climb is to be made to FL350. From the table it can be seen that with a BRW of 72000 kg the climb to FL3S0 will take 22 minutes and cover 136 nm in nil wind (ANM) while consuming 2750 kg of fuel at an average TAS of 418 Kt. The forecast wind 2/3 of the way up results in a headwind component for the climb of 30 kt. Follow these steps to determine how many miles will be covered over the ground (GNM). Step 1 Divide the time interval (ETT) of 22 minutes by 60 to find the fraction of the hour: (22/60 = .36666). Step 2 Multiply the wind component of -30 kt by the fraction of the hour to find the wind correction: (366666 x -30 = -11 nm). Step 3 Add the wind correction to the air nautical miles to find the ground nautical miles: (136 anm + -11 nm = 125 gnm). (Notice that adding a negative correction shortens the climb as it is headwind), Note that wind components on climb or descent only affect the distance, not the time or fuel used. Wind component: ~30 kt Ss Time: 22 min ANM:186 nm GNM = ANM + (Time/60 x wind component) = 136 + (22/60 x -20) 125 =136+-11 f = 125 GNM Forecast weather comes from the Route Sector Wind and Temperature forecast (RSWT). Route Sector Wind and Temperature forecasts are provided for various sectors of frequently used air routes, The forecasts in the exam are prepared for the following six Flight Levels: (note the equivalent atmospheric pressures). The current NAIPS levels in the RSWT are slightly different these due to ICAO standardisation. FL445 150 HPA FL385 200 HPA FL340 250 HPA FL300 300 HPA FL235 400 HPA FLI85 500 HPA, For the exam there is no need to interpolate between Flight Levels. If there is no forecast for your actual level simply use the forecast for the level closest to your level. For climb, the forecast level used will depend on how high the top of climb is. Of the six Flight Levels provided in a RSWT, the most common level for climb will be FL235 since most flights will be above FL310. For flights conducted above FL310, 2/3 of the way up equates to a level closest to FL235. For flights cruising up to and including FL310, 2/3 of the way up ‘equates to a level closest to FL185. [ATPL(A) Fight Planning ~ Course Notes VB.2 Page 18 of 113(© Copyright 1998-2013 Advanced Flight Thoory Py. Ltd. All rights reserved. Below is an extract from a typical RSWT; the validity period is six hours, with four periods in 24 hours: FORECAST ROUTE SECTOR WINDS AND TEMPERATURES - PRIMARY BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY - BRISBANE 22:03 UTC, 05/01/2005 ISSUE 05171 VALID 060300 - 060900 FL “ISA YMML/CANDY CANDY/CRICK —CRICK/YPPH YPPH/YCAR/YPLM, 445 “56 2904556 2506559 2410064 2409564 2509066 385 -56 2804560 2507064 2411061 2412056 2610054 340 “52 2704556 2506557 2509052 2410047 2509042 300 “45 2704547 2505547 2507543 2407038 © 2408033 235 “32 2704531 2505029 2505527 2503522 2203519 185 “21 2704519 2504517 2504515 2502512 2201509 RSWT forecasts use the following format to indicate average winds and temperatures on a route or segments of a route as indicated by the title of the data block: (note the differences from low level forecasts). ‘two numbers indicating wind direction in degrees true to the nearest 10° three numbers indicating wind speed to the nearest 5 kt (to provide for wind speeds over 100 kt) two numbers indicating the mean temperature in degrees Celsius (without the negative sign) ISA temperatures in degrees Celsius are also included next to each Flight Level (for ISA variation) Note in the above example the wind speeds between PERTH (YPPH) and CARNARVON (YCAR) at FL340 and FL 385: 100 kt and 120 kt respectively. Also note the inversion above FL385 between MELBOURNE (YMML) and CANDY and CANDY/CRICK, indicating the location of the tropopause and the relatively warm temperatures at the level of the Southerly tropopause. By contrast, North from PERTH (YPPH) to CARNARVON (YCAR) and LEARMONTH (YPLM) the temperature is still lpsing strongly from FL385 to FL445, indicating that the tropopause is above FL445 and the temperatures are colder to the North as a result of the higher tropopause. Also note that the prevailing wind direction is Westerly. This is a permanent feature of mid latitude upper level weather. For an intermediate climb from one cruise level to another, subtract the initial cruise pressure altitude data (time, distance and fuel) from the final cruise pressure altitude data (time, distance and fuel). The time and distance extracted in this way may be used to calculate the average TAS in the intermediate climb, Refer to the B727 POH page 2-2 para 12. A sstep climb made from one Flight Level to a higher Flight Level to optimise cruise performance may be planned by using cruise data for the zone in which the climb takes place with an additional allowance of 50 kg of fuel per 1000 feet of climb over and above the cruise fuel burn for the zone, with no allowance for time or distance. Refer to the B727 POH page 2-2 para 13. The step climb is a compromise between the cruise climb (gradually climbing as weight reduces) which is most fuel efficient and constant altitude cruise, which is more convenient for traffic separation. fa [— ‘S A cot Step Climb (+50 kg per 1000 ft) [ATPL(A) Fight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 19 of 113,© Copyright 1993-2043 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Ltd llrightsreserved. Complete the following table using these steps and the RSWT extract next to the table. The first example is worke Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 step 4 the steps: Refer to the B727 POH page 2-2 para 10 and 11. Determine the BRW to the nearest even 2000 kg. If exactly half way (a whole odd thousand), round up. BRW weights are published every even 4000 kg. For the exam, the tables are entered to the nearest even 2000 kg so interpolating exactly half way between published figures may be required. In this case the BRW is 77800 kg 0 to the nearest 2000 kg we will enter the table at 78000 kg. Determine the ISA temperature variation to the nearest 5°C and wind component from the RSWT by reference to the forecast for 2/3 of the way to top of climb (usually FL235 or FL185). In this example we are climbing to FL240 so we will use the FL85 weather, which is 3403512. The 12 in the forecast represents an OAT of -12°C. ISA at FL185 is -21°C (from the RSWT) so the variation is ISA+9. Select the appropriate climb table. In this example with a variation of ISA+9, we will use page 2-9 (the ISA+10 table). Enter the top of the table (or tables if temperature interpolation is required) with the BRW and move vertically down to the row (or rows if interpolating BRW) corresponding to the required initial cruise Flight Level. Extract the data. A decode for the information displayed is given down the left hand margin. The TAS is only required for drift angle calculations with crosswinds. The data for this example is interpolated from the 76t and 80t columns (for a 78t BRW). The time is 16.5 min (rounded to the nearest minute we will call it 17 min), the fuel is 2250 kg, the alr distance is 89 nm and the TAS for the climb is 391 kt (note this does not match the TAS based on ETI and distance 89/16.5x60=324). ENROUTE CLIMB 310/.78 Atregaee [arse Fr [imvzaors | seoco 30 [sano Jsocos | soe 198 freneveve, eneceue ly2vs0s0 | 24/2500 seers aeo00 | rinerevee _[BEREAaS Ba Weve |riyereoee bsavass0 | 2173050 | tavaeze] vavsise Bis featzade | irorcss | ssaseas| Hee ase00 | rrseveuee ‘974300 | 3173550 feararae |2a727se | 212050] ,areaco | va72000 Biers. ab3t3s | 20838 fitzrace | Charade | Taezeze | neraas | toate aav0o | rrmevruer | sa7sas0 2135 Disraas | Seaae nie siovo [rmeveuet | sss200 | 20/2650 | 24/3280 12650 tareo0 bust/ras’ | g2arazs {Naazeze | tedsaze saree 7 Beat ‘ag000 | rrnesraee | s07a1s0 | 24/380 | 2373000 | 212700972050 | rrz250 Daserees | SRE | ERZREE | F253080 | Taseeea |etsaade [agets seveveuet, 25/3200 | 22/2900 | 2072450 s1/2200| 1572200] 1471809 bias. | t Tovar | taestse | T2oras| serser| “sarcor] tareoe area | rrvevroee | 26vaase | 29/2059 | 2172750 ra 303750 Braveias | s5g7ade | f34zeae | ta2vtas 207803 at 26000 | rie er | eesaise sarzs00 372000] r9/1800) 1271650 EE serSor Hi 280 rverret, Brst/ea5. 3172259 warvzse 49/393] ae | inevroee 29/2800 bisvras” | tare x [eee [emgersee fe aziace | varetse sas "ras | Esrias| 96 20 of 113,© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Py. Lid llrightsreserved, Step 5 Determine the wind component by comparing the track and the wind. For these examples, the CR3 is not really necessary since most of the winds are either all headwind, all tailwind or all crosswind so the speed is usually also the head or tailwind component. While it is true that pure crosswind also causes some headwind, for these examples that may be ignored. Later we will use the CR3 to properly correct for wind. Adjust the ‘Air Nautical Mile’ distance by the wind component to get Ground Nautical Miles. In our example with a track of 330T and wind 340T the component is -35. GNM = ANM + (time/60 x wind component): GNM= 89 + (17/60 x -35) = 79. Step6 — The Top Of Climb Gross Weight (TOC GW) Is calculated by subtracting the climb fuel found from the tables, from the BRW. With a BRW of 77800 and climb fuel of 2250 the TOCGW = 75550 kg. CLIMB PROFILES srw | FL | ISA reer WOND |TIME| ANM GNM| FUEL| Ge | RE ye, WIND/T 1 | 77800 kg |240| +9 | 330 | -35 | 17 | 89 | 79 | 2250| 75550/ 445 -56 2907060 2 | 76300 ka |310/ | 360 | -a5[Tafinn lisq Ts350] 385 -56 2909052 3 | 76000 kg | 350 | 1u. 220 Lg & C 340 -52 3007547 4 | 70200 kg | 330| 310 300 -45 3006039 5 | 73000 kg | 270 130 235 -32 3105528 6 | 63500 kg | 310|. | 250 185 -21 3403512 7 | 68300 kg | 370 |. 300 [8 | 725009 [290 |;4 | 170 DESCENTS Tables for determining TIME/FUEL/(air)DIST during descent are found on page 4-3. There are four different tables, the difference being the intended Mach Number or IAS to be held during the descent. The standard profile is 0.80M/280/250 KIAS (Refer to B727 POH page 4-1 and the ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 31 para 3.2.4) unless otherwise advised. This means that the initial descent speed is 0.80M until the FL where 0.80M equates to 280 IAS is reached. The descent speed Is then 280 IAS until 10000 ft. TAS for descent is not listed but can be computed from Distance/ETT x 60. Below 10000 ft the speed is 250 IAS in accordance with ICAO procedures. There is no allowance for temperature variation in the table since a jet is descended using flight idle thrust so the fuel used is similar at all temperatures. The descent is basically a glide from cruise altitude with a little residual idle thrust. This is the most fuel efficient profile to follow - to remain in cruise until a point where you can glide the remaining distance to landing. Contrary to popular opinion, jets glide quite well. From FL350 a heavily loaded B727 will glide about 120 nm in nil wind. This gives a glide ratio of about 20:1, which is better than most GA aircraft and almost as good as some gliders. -80M/280/250 KIAS Has] 5 4 Ha-E--B Bele ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 oe a Page 21 of 113‘The tables © Copyright 993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Py, Ltd Al rights reserved. assume a descent to MSL. If landing at a high elevation airport, less fuel will be used during descent, so the landing elevation figures are subtracted from the normal top of descent figures. For the exam, airports with pressure heights below 5000 ft may be considered to be at MSL (page 4-1 note 3). Standard pi rocedure is also to assume that approach and manoeuvring will be required at the destination (page 4-1 note 2) and the company policy fuel figure for approach and manoeuvring is 400 kg (page 1-15 para 2). Figures for intermediate or step descents can be extracted in a similar way. Complete the following descent examples using these steps and the RSWT next to the table. The first example is Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 worked in the steps: Determine the LW. In some cases you may be given a Gross Weight at Top Of Descent (TODGW) or you may have to estimate the landing weight. As the table weights are 10000 kg apart, it makes little difference, which weight you use. Round landing weight to the nearest 10000 kg. Do not interpolate landing weights. In this example the LW is 66500 kg so the 70000 kg weight column will be used, (Refer to the ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 24 para 3.2.4.1). Enter the top of the table with LW and move vertically down to the row, which corresponds, to the Flight level at top of descent (TOD). Interpolate between Flight Levels if required. Read the appropriate data along the row. In this case descending from FL350 with a LW of 66500 kg the time will be 23 min, the fuel used will be 680 kg and the air distance covered will be 119 nm, TAS is not given, as it not really required except for crosswind/drift corrections in which case an average TAS of 300 kt will be of sufficient accuracy. The descent TAS from lower levels would be slower. Consult the RSWT forecast 1/2 way down from the Flight Level and calculate the head or tail wind component for the descent. In all cases the FL closest to half way down is FL185 since all levels below FL185 use the FL185 forecast anyway (refer ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 23 para 3.1.3), In this case with a track of 330T and wind of 340 the component will be -35 kt (all headwind). Adjust the air nautical miles for the effect of wind using the same formula as for the climb: GNM = ANM + (time/GO x wind component): GNM = 119 + (23/60 x -35) = 106 GNM DESCENT PROFILES Lw TRK | WIND ‘APP RS wT FL [TIME] ANM | "| Cop [GNM |FUEL| man] pL oxga WIND/T 66500 kg 350 | 23 | 119 | 330] -35 | 106) 680| 400 340-52 3007547 64200 kg 290 | ° “|_| 250 Or 400 300-45 © 3006041 54000 kg 390 | Li 160 400 235-32 © 3105528 62500 kg 270 7] C ©o0| 400 185-21 3403512 -80M/280/250 KIAS fi [eater he ATPLIA) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 22 of 113ADVANCED FLIGHT THEORY AIR TRANSPORT PILOT AEROPLANE THEORY COURSE cases Lanegan Py Argh ree FLIGHT PLANNING Advanced Flight Theory SELECTION OF CRUISE LEVELS Now that we know how to use the climb and descent tables, we are almost ready to look at the cruise figures. Before that however we need to look at how to choose a particular cruise level for a flight. The B727 is designed to cruise at FL's in the mid to low 300's, i.e. FL300 - FL350. On most flights, best fuel efficiency will be achieved by flying in this altitude bracket. How do we go about picking a particular level in that bracket? Let's consider some of the factors affecting the cruise altitude of any flight: Weather Of course the forecast will influence your choice of FL in terms of winds and weather. In the ATPL Exam you will not have to choose a level on the basis of wind directions or cloud. Trip Length On a very short trip you may not fly as high as normal due to the distance and time involved in reaching cruise altitude. In the ATPL Exam the flights will be long enough for you to reach the usual cruise levels. IFR Levels This is an important consideration for the exam. Since the exam was written pre RVSM, all operations with the exception of depressurised cruise must cruise at altitudes in accordance with the Non RVSM IFR levels for south of 80 degrees South. (Note that ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 29 para 2.1 incorrectly refers to 65 S. The levels used in the exam are for South of 80 South as per AIP ENR 1.7 section 6) AIP Australia 10MAR 11 ENR 17-11 é TABLES OF GRUISING LEVELS (SOUTH OF 60° 8) 1 “TABLE A -IFR 180° through 359° Magnetic Tracks ‘Cruising Afitudes (Area GNH) 5,000 000 10,000 Cruising Fight Levels | 110" (O1sHPA) 130 150 170 190 210 230 . te, [Note “FLTT0 is fot availabe Tor Tavel Might wiven the Area ONA Ts Tess than 1013HPA FL{20 is:not available for lovel fight whom the Area QNH is less than 980HPA, 2 SELECTION OF FLIGHT LEVELS 2.1 TER Levels, All questions relate to operations under the IFR. Unless ‘oihervise stated in a question, all operations, with the exception of depressurised eruise, will cruise at alttudes* in accordance with the AIP Table ‘of Cruising Levels South of 65 deg S for IFR flights. Candidates are expected tw recall aud apply the approprine levels for different sectors. * hereafier referred to as JFR Levels 2.1.1 -RVSM. Candidates are to assume thatthe B727 used is nof RVSM-approved. but has been clenred to opetate in all RVSM airspace in accordance with conventional IFR cruising levels as defined in paragraph 2.1 above, [ATPL(A) Flight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 23 of 113‘© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Fight Thoory Ply. Ltd All rights reserved. The Non RVSM IFR levels are as follows: the ODDS/EVENS rule only applies up to FL290. Above FL290 all Flight Levels are ODD thousands with 2000 ft separation between levels instead of the usual 1000 ft. Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) levels are not used in the ATPL Exam. Thrust Limits This refers to the ability of an aircraft to reach a particular level with the available engine thrust under the prevailing conditions of temperature, gross weight and speed. This is a very important factor for the exam and besides the IFR levels is the most important factor in choosing a level. A table on page 2-14 of the B727 POH lists the maximum permitted weights at the different Flight Levels for various temperatures, speeds and gross weights. An explanation is on pages 2-3 and 2-4 of the handbook. Optimum —_—_This refers to the Flight Level, which will be the most economical level in terms of fuel efficiency for a particular gross weight and speed. This will not necessarily be the maximum level, which the aircraft can reach, Page 2-14 also lists optimum levels. awe EE] Ties oF Grin wie Te eae Buffet Limits This refers to the maximum level achievable aerodynamically, considering stall margins and high-speed Mach buffet at various weights and turbulence intensity. These margins are graphically presented on pages 2-11, 2-12 and 2-13. [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 24 of 113©Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty.Ltd. All rights reserved, MAXIMUM FLIGHT LEVEL To find the aircraft's maximum FL (thrust limited) for a known Start Zone Weight (SZW) or Top of Climb (TOC) weight (refer CASA ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 29 para 2.2), follow these steps using the Altitude Capability table on page 2-14. For example, with a top of climb weight of 82000 kg (82t) what is the maximum FL achievable for an Easterly flight at 0.82M with temperatures of ISA+10 at all levels with moderate turbulence? Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Note the possible IFR hemispherical levels for the flight (East or West) and note your Mach Number schedule and the temperature deviation from ISA at the various cruise levels from the RSWT. In this example, the flight is to the EAST so the possible options are FL290, FL330 or FL370 (FL410 is very unlikely in this aircraft). Choose an JFR level and check that your Start Zone Weight or Top of Climb weight does not exceed the maximum permitted thrust limited weight for the ISA variation and speed, If it does, keep checking lower levels until your weight no longer exceeds the limit, We'll check FL370 and see if we can make that level with a SZW of 82t. On page 2-14 it can be seen that at FL370 at ISA+10 the maximum thrust limited wei Our SZW of 82t exceeds the 65t limit so we are too heavy for FL370. t is 65t. Our next option would be FL330. Again on page 2-14 it can be seen that at FL330 our SZW of 82t is still too heavy for the new maximum weight of 75.1t at ISA+10. The next choice would be FL290. On page 2-14 it can be seen that at FL290 our SZW of 82t is less than the new maximum weight of 83.2t at ISA+10 so this level is the highest FL available. The final step is to ensure that at our chosen FL we are within the aerodynamic envelope of the buffet boundaries. There are three buffet boundary graphs to use depending on the turbulence intensity. In our ‘example the turbulence is moderate so we will refer to page 2-12: moderate turbulence or 1.3G or 40° bank angle. The buffet boundary graph shows FL up the vertical axis and IAS horizontally. Diagonal lines of Mach show the equivalent Mach Number for different speeds and altitudes in a similar way to the CAS/PH window on the CR3. (Remember that the relationship between IAS and Mach only depends on FL). Curves of gross weight complete the graph. The top of each weight curve represents the zerodynamic maximum altitude for that weight. The left hand (low speed) side of each curve represents the minimum IAS and the onset of the low speed (stall) buffet. The right hand side of the curve represents the maximum Mach Number and the onset of the high-speed (compressibility shockwave) buffet. The altitude and speed where these two sides converge is known as "coffin corner" since at that point the aircraft is simultaneously approaching the stall as well as the high-speed buffet. To ensure that the aircraft does not exceed its buffet boundaries, draw a line across the graph at the Flight Level under consideration and ensure that the SZW will reach or exceed that FL. If it does, the gap between the high and low speed sides is the available speed range. AATPLIA) Flight Planning - Course Notes VB.2 Page 25 of 113,© Copyright 193-2013 Advanced Fight Theory Py. Ltd All rights reserved. OPTIMUM FLIGHT LEVEL The process for determining the optimum FL for a given gross weight and speed is slightly different to those for finding the maximum level. Fiying at the optimum level means flying at a level where the engines are running at their most efficient RPM and the speed that results gives the wing angle of attack for best range. This combination of engine RPM efficiency and airframe angle of attack efficiency provides the overall most economical (fuel efficient) cruise. Since the angle of attack required for cruise at a particular speed and altitude depends on gross weight, it follows that optimum FL for a given speed also depends on gross weight. For any FL there is one particular gross weight, which will be the optimum weight for that level. Similarly for any gross weight, there is an optimum FL for that weight. The optimum FL is not necessarily the same as the maximum FL. On a hot day an aircraft may not be capable of achieving the optimum FL, while on a cold day the maximum FL may be well above the optimum. This is because the maximum (thrust limited) FL depends on temperature, weight and speed, however the optimum FL depends only on weight and speed. Optimum weights for each FL are shown on page 2-14. Maximum Level (cold day) Optimum Level (every day) Maximum level (hot day) ESTIMATED MID-ZONE WEIGHT (EMZW) Since the weight of an aircraft is not constant, but reduces as fuel burns during a flight, the choice of ‘optimum level is not made on the basis of the Brakes Release Weight (BRW) or Landing Weight (LW), but rather at the average weight for the flight (half way along) which we call the Mid-Zone Weight (MZW). Usually the MZW is not known before a flight plan and so the MZW must be estimated. In this case it is known as the Estimated Mid-Zone Weight (EMZW). The optimum level for a flight at a particular Mach Number is the level, which provides the closest match between the optimum weight and the EMZW (refer to the ATPL(A) Examination Information Booklet page 29 para 2.3), EMZW (average) BRW (heavy) LW (light) ATPL{A) ght Panning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 26 of 113© Copyright 1893-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Ltd. All rights reserved, SPECIFIC AIR RANGE (SAR) / SPECIFIC GROUND RANGE (SGR) ‘The Mid Zone Weight for a flight is estimated by estimating the approximate fuel burn for a trip based on the distance to be flown. The B727 cruises at around 0.80M (450 kt) and bums about 4500 kg/hr at typical weights and Flight Levels. This equates to an approximate Specific Ground Range (SGR) of 10 kg/nm (4500/450 = 10 kg/nm SAR) in nil wind. We will use this figure of 10 ka/nm SAR to estimate the fuel burn for a particular distance. If wind is taken into account the estimate is called Specific Ground Range (SGR). To find the Optimum Level: For example, find the optimum level for a flight to the EAST of 1000 nm with a BRW of 85t at 0.79M in ISA conditions with moderate turbulence. Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 step 4 Find the estimated fuel burn (distance x SAR). This would be 10000 kg (1000 nm x 10 kg/nm). Divide the fuel burn in half since we want the estimated mid zone weight. 5000 kg then add an extra 1600 kg to the first half fuel burn to allow for the extra climb fuel. The SAR figure of 10kg/nm underestimates the climb fuel by about 1600 kg. A typical climb consumes around 3100 kg and covers around 150 nm. 10kg/nm over 150 nm is 1500 kg. This is 1600 kg less than the total climb fuel of about 3100 kg. The estimated mid zone weight (EMZW) would be 5000 kg lighter than the BRW if we disregard the higher fuel consumption during the climb. Because the climb does significantly increase the fuel burn we can estimate a more accurate MZW by adding an extra fuel allowance of 1600 kg onto the first half of the cruise fuel before we subtract it from the Brakes Release Weight. Subtract half the estimated fuel burn from the BRW. The EMZW would be 78.4t (6600 kg lighter than the BRW). EMZW = BRW- [(distance x 10 kg/nm)/2 + 1600 kg]. In this example, EMZW = 85t - [(1000 nm x 10 ka/nm)/2 + 1600 kg] = 78400 kg (78.4t). Refer to page 2-14 to determine altitude capability. In the optimum weight column, choose the level with the closest match to an EMZW of 78.4t at 0.79M. In this example the best match is FL310 (with an optimum of 81.6t). [ATPL(A) light Planning ~ Course Notes VB.2 Page 27 of 113step 5 Step 6 © Copyright 1663-2013 Advanced Fight Theory Ply. Ld. Allright raserved, Confirm that the level is IFR for your trip. EAST in this case. FL310 is a WESTERLY level (not hemispherical) so now we must choose the next best match: either FL330 or FL290. In this example FL330 with an optimum weight of 74.2 gives a closer match to the EMZW of 78.4. Even though our mid zone weight is heavier than the optimum it is still the best match. Optimum weights are not maximums, they are target weights. It is better to be a little heavier than the optimum than to be way too light. Think “closest to", in this case FL330. Confirm that the level you have chosen does not exceed the thrust limits of the aircraft. You may not always be able to reach the optimum level. Refer to page 2-14. In this example, the maximum thrust limited weight at our chosen FL330 at 0.79M in ISA is 83.3t. This thrust limit must be compared to the start zone weight not the EMZW. We do not know the SZW in this example since we were given a BRW instead. Our BRW of 85t is heavier than the thrust limit of 83.3t but we will be lighter than 85t by the time we climb and reach top of climb (or start zone weight SZW). The question then becomes: Will we burn enough on climb to burn down equal to or under the thrust limit by TOC? In this case we need to burn at least the difference between the BRW and the thrust limit (85t - 83.3t = 1700 kg). A quick check of the ISA climb table will reveal that a climb to FL330 at a BRW of 85t (using 86t and interpolating on the climb table) will burn 3775 kg so we will easily be light enough to be under the thrust limit by TOC or SZW. ‘cross wetomr = 1000 7 FARIS LIKE TS sor} o15% Sad of [ATPL(A) Flight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 28 of 113,Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Ply. Ltd. All rights reserved. Step 7 Finally, confirm that the SZW will not exceed the aerodynamic buffet boundaries according to the forecast turbulence intensity. In this case the forecast is for moderate turbulence so check the 1.3G buffet boundary graph on page 2-12. It can be seen that at FL330 at 0.79M the SZW of 81t (BRW - climb fuel) will not exceed the buffet boundaries (barely!) and so FL330 is the optimum level. 136 40° BANK ANGLE OR MODERATE TURBULENCE Available speed range PRESSURE ALTITUDE ~1000 ft TURBULENCE PEnTRATION soceD. 180 0 280 Complete the following examples of cruise level selection choosing either the maximum or optimum levels as indicated in the question. Remember to check the thrust limits for maximum levels and both the optimum weight and thrust limits for optimum levels. Buffet boundaries should be considered for both optimum and maximum levels, however if there is no turbulence it is unlikely to be a problem, In heavy turbulence the buffet boundaries are likely to be more restrictive than the thrust limits. You may sometimes need to interpolate weights on the buffet boundaries. Be careful to remember that lighter weights are up higher and heavier weights are down lower on the graph. Also in these examples the EMZW calculations have been done for you and the start zone weights are at top of climb, so no climb figures are needed. [ATPL(A) Flight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 29 of 113,(© Copyright 1993-2018 Advanced Flight Theory Pty.Ltd Al rights reserve. SELECTION OF CRUISE LEVEL EXAMPLES a Q 3 3 A.B727 is on a westerly track, cruising at 0.80M under ISA+10 conditions. Start Zone Weight (SZW) for the sector is 82000 kg. Moderate turbulence is forecast. If the aircraft Estimated Mid Zone Weight (EMZW) is 79800 kg, the optimum Flight Level that complies with the IFR rules is - A FL350 B FL370 Cc FL310 D FL280 If turbulence is moderate, the optimum westerly Flight Level that complies with the IFR rules for a B727. SZW 80000 kg and an EMZW of 75500 kg, cruising at 0.80M under ISA conditions is - A FL310 B FL370 c FL280 D FL350 If turbulence is forecast as moderate for a B727 maintaining FL310 at 0.79M under ISA-5 conditions, the maximum GW at which the aircraft could maintain the next highest IFR cruise level is - A 82000 kg B 77500 kg c 79000 kg D 74000 kg If heavy turbulence is forecast and the Mach Number is to be calculated by referring to the turbulence penetration speed, the highest GW at which the aircraft could maintain FL350 Is - A 60000 kg B 64400 kg c 58100 kg D 67600 kg A.B727 is flying an easterly track. SZW is 85000 kg and EMZW is 80600 kg. Cruising at 0.79M under ISA+5 conditions, with no turbulence, the optimum level that complies with the JFR rules is - FL330 FL370 FL290 FL310 go> With a current GW of 64500 kg and cruising at 0.80M, a B727 captain is searching for the optimum easterly Flight Level. The SZW was 67000 kg. If conditions are ISA+5 and there is moderate turbulence forecast, the Flight Level at which he/she should fly is - a FL370 8 FL290 c FL330 D FL350 AATPL(A) Fight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 30 of 113,Qq 98 Qo Quo qu Qi2 (© Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Pty.Ltd. All rights reserved. There is no turbulence forecast for a flight from PERTH to BRISBANE with a Brakes Release Weight (BRW) of 73000 kg. The cruise Mach Number will be 0.79M and the temperature variation is ISA+5°C at all levels. The maximum initial Flight Level is - A FL370 B FL350 © FL330 D FL310 There is no turbulence forecast for a flight from BRISBANE to ADELAIDE with a Brakes Release Weight (BRW) of 73000 kg. The cruise Mach Number will be 0.82M and the temperature variation is ISA+10°C at all levels. The maximum initial Flight Level is - FL370 FL350 FL330 FL310 coe There is no turbulence forecast for a flight from DARWIN to SYDNEY with a Brakes Release Weight (BRW) of 86000 kg. The level is FL 290 the temperature variation is ISA+15°C at all levels. The maximum initial Mach number is - A 0.80 B 0.82 c 0.84 D 0.79 The highest Outside Air temperature (OAT) which would allow a B727 to cruise at FL350 with a gross Weight (GW) of 76000 kg at 0.80M without exceeding cruise thrust limits is ~ A -26 B 54 c 0 D 49 With an estimated mid zone weight (EMZW) for a flight of 73500 kg and a cruise Mach Number of 0.82, the optimum Flight Level for a flight from ALICE SPRINGS to CAIRNS is - A FL330 B FL310 c FL290 D FL270 ‘At a gross weight of 80000 kg at 0.80M at FL330 flying in moderate turbulence, the speed margins in knots above the low speed buffet and below the high-speed buffet are - 7 kt below the high-speed buffet and 22 kt above the low speed buffet 22 kt below the high-speed buffet and 7 kt above the low speed buffet 110 kt below the high-speed buffet and 10 kt above the low speed buffet 260 kt and 290 kt gooy [ATPL(A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 31 of 113,ADVANCED FLIGHT THEORY AIR TRANSPORT PILOT AEROPLANE THEORY COURSE cari 8203 ane Fgh en Py it Aight FLIGHT PLANNING CRUISE PLANNING We are now ready to tackle the final piece of the planning jigsaw - the cruise tables. Once these tables are mastered, it is just practice from here on. The majority of flight planning questions in the examination will involve cruise planning. These problems may include normal flight plans, the calculation of PNR positions, CP/ETP locations, basic enroute replanning and diversions or fuel calculations for in-flight emergencies. The cruise tables are in two sections of the B727 POH in chapter 3. First you will find the Before Flight Planning Tables (pages 3-1 to 3- 68) and next are the In-Flight Planning Tables (pages 3-69 to 3-106). Since both sets of tables ultimately result in the same answer, we will use the in-flight style of presentation for all planning calculations. These tables are more intuitive than the before flight style of tables. The in-fight tables provide fuel consumption figures per hour while the before flight tables provide fuel flow figures per ESTIMATED MID ZONE WEIGHT (EMZW) The cruise tables are simply fuel flow tables. At different weights, speeds, altitudes and temperatures the fuel flow of the B727 varies. When planning a flight at a constant Mach Number and FL the fuel flow depends on gross weight. Early on in the flight the aircraft is heavy and the fuel flow is higher than later in the flight when the weight is reduced, The fuel fiow used to plan a flight must be an average fuel flow corresponding to an average (or mid zone) weight. Essential for all planning cruise calculations is the concept of the Estimated Mid Zone Weight or EMZW. An EMZW is simply an estimate of the aircraft's weight half way through a flight or half way along a route sector (or zone). Heavy EMZW Light (high fuel Flow) (lower fuel flow) = (average weight gives average fuel flow) BRI LW Some exam questions are of the ‘entire flight’ type, or you may be asked to do sector by sector problems. When the B727 POH says to 'use average data’ it means you should do the working on a single sector basis (find a single EMZW from a positive fix to TOD). To calculate an EMZW for cruise fuel flows, follow the same steps as for an EMZW for choosing an optimum level with a slight modification. Until now we have said that the B727 burns fuel in cruise at the approximate rate of 10 kg/nm. This an acceptable estimate for the purpose of estimating mid zone weights for FL selection however, an EMZW used in the cruise tables to find a fuel flow needs to be more accurate. The kg/nm rate (SGR) of 10 kg/nm will vary with different gross weights and with head or tail wind, or low altitude, so we need to adjust the estimate we use in the formula for finding the EMZW: ATPL(A) Fight Planning - Course Notes VB.2 Page 32 of 183(© Copyright 1093-2013 Advanced Fight Theory Ply. Ltd All rights reserved. The adjustments used to refine the SGR estimate in the EMZW formula for gross weight and wind and altitude are as follows: Gross Weight: at average weights from 70 - 80t the 8727 will burn close to 10 kg/nm at heavier average weights (above 8Ct) the rate is closer to 11 kg/nm at lighter average weights from 60 - 70t the rate is closer to 9 kg/nm Wind: with 50 kt of head wind the SGR will increase by an extra 1 kg/nm with 50 kt of tail wind the SGR will decrease by 1 kg/nm Altitude: If the FL is below FL280, add an extra 1 kg/nm If the FL is above FL370, subtract 1 kg/nm ‘These adjustments are cumulative, so if for example a B727 had a gross weight of 85t and was flying into a 50 kt headwind, the approximate SGR would be 12 kg/nm (11 because of the weight plus 1 because of the headwind). When estimating the mid zone weight, the SGR of 12 kg/nm would be used instead of 10 kg/nm to multiply by the distance. Similarly a B727 with a gross weight of 65t flying with a 50 kt tailwind would burn about 8 kg/nm (9 because of the weight minus 1 for the tailwind). Allowing for weight and wind provides a more accurate fuel consumption figure, which results in a more accurate EMZW. Climb Allowance: Depending on whether you have a BRW or Start Zone Weight (TOC) you may need to allow for the climb in the estimate. If the EMZW calculation is for an entire flight for level selection, then some allowance should be made for the additional fuel consumed in the climb, since the assumed SGR figures are based on cruise fuel flows. A typical climb may consume around 3100 kg and cover a distance of 150 ANM. Based on an assumed SGR of 10 kg/nm, 150 ANM would consume 1500 kg in cruise (150 ANM x 10 kg/nm). The total climb cost is 3100 kg so the extra fuel used in the climb, in addition to what would have been used in cruise over the same distance is 1600 kg (3100 kg total - 1500 kg to cruise = 1600 kg extra to climb). These figures are only approximate nil wind figures but the additional fuel stays fairly constant over a wide range of weights, winds and Flight Levels. An estimate of 1600 kg allows for variations in conditions. The descent saves fuel compared to cruise figures, however this may be ignored because the company policy requirement of a 400 kg approach and manoeuvre allowance means that the descent plus approach fuel Is virtually equal to the cruise fuel cost for the same distance (refer page 4-3 for descent fuel). Finding EMZW from a BRW requires a climb allowance of 1600 kg to be added to the fuel estimate: EMZW = BRW - [(total distance x 10 kg/nm)/2 + 1600 kg] If the SZW weight is known then no climb allowance is needed when estimating Mid Zone Weight: EMZW = SZW - (zone distance x ?? kg/nm)/2 Once the EMZW calculation is done, the cruise tables are used to find the fuel flow for that weight, This fuel flow will be used for fuel calculations on that flight segment (or zone). On some flights, several mid zone weights may be required due to changes in the weather or track (and therefore groundspeed) or FL. Each zone will have its own Start Zone Weight (SZW), EMZW and fuel flow and End Zone Weight (EZW). TOCISZW. EZW/SZW. EZW/SZW. TOD/SZW we | EMZN | EMZW | EMZW | N& wv ' | | NS, BRW, 1 Zonet LL Zone2 Zone Lw [ATPL(A) Fight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 33 of 113,© Copyright 1983-2013 Advanced Flight Thoory Py. Ltd llrightsreserved. The following table contains 10 Mid Zone Weight and Fuel Flow calculations using the cruise fuel flow figures from Chapter 3 of the B727 POH. Most of the calculations you have already learnt in the previous exercises. Now we put them all together to complete the cruise fuel calculation. Complete the table after following the working of a couple of examples: EXAMPLE 1 Step 1 Step 2 Estimate the Mid Zone Weight for the zone. EMZW = SZW - (zone distance x ?? kg/nm)/2. In this example the SZW is 72400 kg and the cruise distance is 488 nm. You are at FL310 cruising at 0.80M with ISA temperatures. There is 50 kt of headwind. The SGR figure to use in the EMZW formula will be 10 (9 because of the weight. A SZW of 72400 kg and 488 nm means that the average weight will probably be below 70t, plus 1 kg/nm extra because of the headwind which brings the number back to 10 kg/nm). Using 10 kg/nm to estimate the Mid Zone Weight we arrive at 70t (EMZW = 72400 - (488 x 10)/2). Note that I have entered 70t in the EMZW column (third last column) for example 1 on the table. Open the B727 POH at the appropriate cruise page and extract the fuel flow for the EMZW. In this case the in-flight style for 0.80M at FL310 page (p 3-90 and 3-91). This page covers a range of Flight Levels at 0.80M but we are only interested in the FL310 line (top line). The pages cover a range of gross weights at FL310, tabulated every 2000 kg. Enter the table with the EMZW to the nearest 1000 kg - in this case 70t (if the EMZW was closer to 7it you would need to interpolate between the figures for 70t and 72t but not this time). In the 70t column at FL310 there are 3 numbers at the intersection. There is a decode at the top of the page. EE REBRED BOEING 727 Two, MACH 80 stata ton eee Erm cot we ser pee ter gd FUEL FLOW xafunven Fucut ceveL 220 ro 310 GROSS WEIGHT a [ne [6 [ala]@]s| x “35 [235 [ash [ute |in0y [2g [ee] Lee |e | ra pare [497 |r4sé_|n4s4 Qa4d)| 1906 | 1363 | 1942 | 1325 | 1505 | 1288 | 2h The first number is the average Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) required of 1.89, EPR is jet terminology for power. It is a ratio between the static pressure in the exhaust duct of the engine compared to the static pressure at the engine inlet. This ratio is a good indicator of engine thrust production. For planning purposes we are not particularly interested in the EPR. 1000 KG, The next number is the Maximum TAT at which that EPR can be set. In this case 6 degrees C. The ISA TAT of -17 for 0.80M at FL310 is also shown next to the FL310 label. This simply means that the EPR of 1.89 is permitted up to TAT’s as hot as 6 degrees or ISA+23 (the difference between the maximum TAT and the ISA TAT). The third figure is the most important one for us at the moment, It is the ISA fuel flow per engine per hour - 1410 kg. Since the B727 has 3 engines, it is up to us to multiply the number by 3 to find the total fuel flow in ISA. If there is any ISA variation, the required adjustment is noted at the bottom of the table. Increase fuel flow by 1% for every 3° of ISA variation above ISA and decrease fuel flow by 1% for every 3° of ISA variation below ISA. In this case there is No variation form ISA so the total fuel flow is simply 1410 x 3 = 4230 kg/hr. [ATPL(A) Fight Planning ~ Course Notes V8.2 Page 34 of 113,Step 3 step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Step 8 Step 9 © Copyright 1993-2013 Advanced Flight Theory Py. Ltd. All rights reserved. Enter this into the fuel flow column of the table and enter the variation form ISA in the variation column (nil in this case). To add 1%, multiply the fuel flow by 1.01 for 2% x 1.02 etc. To subtract 1%, multiply the fuel flow by .99, for 2% x .98. Fill in the remaining boxes from left to right. First is OAT. Because it is ISA the OAT will be the standard OAT for FL310 of -46°C. This can be found on page 3-106. Any variation would need to be applied. Calculate the TAS. Calculate the TAS for 0.80M at -46°C, and then enter 470 kt in the TAS column. Refer to page 9 of your notes if you forget how. The calculator formula will give a TAS 1 kt faster than the Published TAS on page 3-39, so don't forget to subtract that knot when using the calculator. Calculate the groundspeed. GS = TAS + wind component. 420 kt (470 + - 50 = 420). Enter 420 kt in the groundspeed column. Calculate the zone fuel. Zone fuel = Distance/GS x fuel flow The zone fuel is the amount of fuel required to fly the 488 nm at 420 kt with a fuel flow of 4230 kg/hr. The most accurate way to calculate zone fuel using the calculator is to divide the distance of 488 by the groundspeed of 420 and multiply by the fuel flow of 4230 kg/hr. 488/420 x 4230 = 4915 kg. Enter the zone fuel of 4915 kg into the table. Calculate the Estimated Time Interval in minutes (ETI). (ETT = Distance/Gs x 60) ‘The ETI is the number of minutes it will take to cover the 488 nm distance at the groundspeed of 420 kt. The CR3 or the calculator may be used for this calculation but the electronic calculator is recommended for increased accuracy. On the calculator divide Distance by Groundspeed again as for the previous step but then multiply by 60. 488/420 x 60 = 69.71 minutes. Enter the ETI in the ETI column. The ETI may be rounded to 70 min. for entry on the table. Don't use a rounded time interval in minutes to calculate zone fuel since even half a minute is a significant amount of fuel at these high flow rates. Calculate the End Zone Weight (EZW). EZW = SZW - Zone Fuel EZW = S2W 72400 kg - 4915 kg zone fuel = 67485 kg EZW. Enter 67485 into the table. Check the accuracy of the EMZW. Calculate the actual mid zone weight. MZW = (SZW + EZW)/2. Confirm that the EMZW was within 1000 kg of the flight planned mid zone weight. If the EMZW is the same as the actual mid zone weight (to the nearest 1000 kg) then the estimate was accurate and the fue! flow based on that estimate is also accurate so no further adjustments are needed. In this case the EMZW was 70t, The actual MZW was 69943 [(SZW 72400 + EZW 67485)/2], which would also be rounded to 70t so the original EMZW was accurate and therefore the fuel flow based on that ‘weight is accurate for the zone. ATPL{A) Flight Planning - Course Notes V8.2 Page 35 of 113