Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

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Fuel Communications
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Small hydropower as a source of clean and local energy in Nigeria:

Prospects and challenges
Collins O. Ugwu a, c, Paul A. Ozor a, b, *, C. Mbohwa b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410001, Nigeria
b
Quality and Operations Management, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
c
Africa Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Power and Energy Development (ACE-SPED), University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Just as the need for air is inevitable in our everyday existence, energy is consumed in every sector of any nation
Small hydropower schemes at every second. Due to the increase in technological advancements and high population growth rate, among
Prospects and challenges other factors, in the world today, there is the need for more energy than in the past centuries. Therefore, one of
Renewable energy source
the best solutions to address this issue of increasing energy demand in Nigeria is harnessing the enormous small
Small hydropower potential in Nigeria
hydropower potential sites that is scattered in many parts of the nation. It is unfortunate that out of over 278
potential sites with 734.3 MW potential capacity, Nigeria has yet explored only 37.0MW. It is noteworthy that
the SHP scheme has its own challenges especially in developing nations. For instance, it is reported to have high
capital investment. This challenge is offset by the fact that it incurs little operation and maintenance costs. It has
very high payback ratio which proves it to be a cheap source of energy. Furthermore, it is a clean and local source
of energy that is reliable, affordable and predictable due to the consistency in the availability of water in rivers
and its ability to be integrated with existing projects. Such multi-purpose schemes that can be integrated with the
SHP schemes while guaranteeing its primary function include; irrigation network, drinking water reservoirs,
wastewater treatment plants, etc. It also has the potential to create many job opportunities and also enhance
women development.

1. Introduction
Energy is one of the major and powerful ingredients for social,
technological, environmental and economic development of any nation.
According to Ohunakin et al. [1], the energy availability, consumption
and economic growth of any nation are strongly correlated. In other
words, the level of accessibility of modern energy services has directly
contributed to the poverty reduction of any country because it creates
the required foundation for wealth creation. The rapid increase in
population and industrialization right from the 20th century are the
strong drivers for the increase in the demand for energy services [1].
Currently, there is a reported increase in the demand for electricity in
the industries, households and services sectors in most developing na­
tions [2]. This majorly to support the socio-economic development ac­
tivities in such nations. Nigeria is a developing nation that is greatly
endowed with tremendous natural resources such as natural gas, crude
oil, hydropower, solar power, coal, biomass, wind energy, nuclear de­
posits, etc. For many years, before the discovery of crude oil in Nigeria,
hydropower was the leading and the main energy source [1,3]. There
has been a strong shift in attention from hydropower sector to fossil fuels
in the country due to the vast deposit of fossil fuels [3]. This develop­
ment has led to the decay or neglect in the hydropower sector. Some
studies revealed that hydropower, consequent of its remarkable ad­
vantages when compared to other renewable resources, is the most
widely used in the world [1, 4]. Some of the outstanding advantages it
has over other renewable sources include; low cost, high energy density
and high reliability. According to Kaunda et al. [2], one of the ways to
address the negative impacts due to the increase in environmental
degradation and climate change bedeviling the world presently is the
generation of electrical energy from such renewable energy sources like
hydropower. Furthermore, many developing countries such as Nigeria,
has the potential in the abundant renewable energy resources, if prop­
erly harnessed, to generate the quantity of mechanical and electrical
energy to drive their developmental programs. Currently, only about
25% of the world’s hydropower potential has been explored [3]. Due to
the social and environmental problems associated with constructing

* Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410001, Nigeria
E-mail addresses: onyinyechukwu.ugwu@unn.edu.ng (C.O. Ugwu), paul.ozor@unn.edu.ng (P.A. Ozor), ccmbohwa@uj.ac.za (C. Mbohwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfueco.2021.100046
Received 25 June 2021; Received in revised form 30 August 2021; Accepted 9 September 2021
Available online 25 November 2021
2666-0520/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
C.O. Ugwu et al.
large hydroelectric dams, experts have noted that it is currently
impossible to develop every one of the remaining undeveloped resources
[3]. Irrespective of the fact that small-scale hydro projects have the least
social and environmental impacts, it has not yet received the required
attention from many developing countries of the world [3]. It is also the
case with the Nigerian state. Despite its large and available small hy­
dropower (SHP) potentials, considering the numerous rivers and dams
scattered all over the nation, Nigeria has failed to economically harness
them [3]. It has the potential to contribute high percentage to the total
energy grid. In a great measure, this would extend, in great measure,
electricity generation to the remote and rural areas of the nation which
would make room for further rural and general economic development.
Therefore, the aim of this work is to evaluate the challenges and
prospects of harnessing and improving on the enormous small hydro­
power in Nigeria, with a view to exposing the potentials, the environ­
mental and economic advantages over other natural energy sources.
This will, in one way or the other, awaken or drive the conscience of the
Nigerian government, private and/or foreign investors to tap into this
opportunity. And this will improve the economic development of the
nation greatly.
1.1. Mechanics of hydropower
The water flowing in a river or water contained in lakes and reser­
voirs that are located at high elevation possesses potential or kinetic
energy. And the energy so produced by such water is termed water
power [6]. The power or electricity generation method as a result of this
water power is termed hydropower generation [5,6]. As seen in Fig. 1,
solar radiation drives the hydrological cycle that leads to the movement
of water which generates the hydropower [5]. When the solar radiation
from the sun rays is absorbed by the land and sea surfaces, it heats up the
surface thereby creating evaporation at those surfaces. This is possible
because about half of all the radiations from solar touching the surface of
the Earth causes the evaporation of water hence, drives the hydrological
cycle [5]. This cycle is embedded with huge potential energy however,
the amount that may be technically developed is very limited. The water
vapor content in the atmosphere gets increased by this evaporated water
from the surface of the earth. The wind system generated globally,
regionally and locally, as a result of the spatial variations in the solar
energy input, moves the air with its vapor content over the Earth sur­
face. Sometimes, this generated wind moves this air away up to thou­
sands of kilometers from the region or area that the evaporation
occurred. At some point, the vapor condenses and falls as precipitation.
According Kumar et al. [5], about 78% of the precipitation falls on the
oceans and the rest 22% falls on the land surface. It is the energy
Fig. 1. Hydrological Cycle [7].
2
Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046
contained in water flowing from higher to lower elevations in a river
that generates the hydropower. It is the force due to gravitational pull
that drives water from the upper position to lower stream in any river or
ocean.
Turbines and generators are the parts of hydro power plants that are
turned to generate electrical power by the water power of the water
body. This water power or the potential energy embedded in the water is
converted into mechanical energy first then into electrical energy as the
turbines and generators rotate [5]. This is possible because the blade of
the turbine is turned by the flowing water from a higher elevation to
generate the mechanical energy which generates electrical energy when
applied to the coil of an accompanying generator. Another parameter
that is essential in hydropower generation is the head. It is also known as
the vertical fall of the water [8]. It can be defined as the vertical distance
between the upstream level and the downstream level that a moving
water falls or travels to the power-producing turbine [6,8 9]. In other
words, it is the distance that determines how far the water drops. There
is a certain amount of energy loss during the energy conversion process
due to the mechanical components like the turbine and generator [9]. In
addition, there are frictional forces that exist during the flow of water in
the pipes that reduce the flow rate of the flowing water. This irregularity
or the energy loss is because no equipment used in dam construction is
100% efficient. The power output [2,6,9] is expressed in Eq. 1 below.
According to Anyaka and Imeaka [10], every SHP site that is regarded as
theoretically efficient should possess a high flow rate and a high head.
Hence, rivers that flow from hilly areas should generate high power
[10].
P = ρ9.8QHe η (1)
where, P = Power output in kilowatts (kW); ρ = water density (1000 kg/
m3 at 4 ◦ C, elevation of 0m and 1atm); 9.8 = approximate value of free
fall acceleration due to gravitational pull (m/sec2); Q = Power discharge
(m3/sec); He = Effective head (m); η = Combined efficiency of the
components like the turbine and generator
Power output (P) is defined as the quantity of the electrical power
generated as a result of the flowing water. The generated energy
expressed in kilowatt hour (kWh) is the electrical energy generated due
to the continuous operation of P (kW) for a period of time T (hours) [6].
AnnualEnergyOutput(kWh)= P × hr × CF (2)
where, P = the power output or the installed capacity which is expressed
in kilowatts; hr = Annual period or duration of power generation; and
CF = the Capacity Factor of the hydropower plant
Osokoya et al. [8] claims that hydropower is the cheapest source of
electricity generation today when compared to both renewable and
non-renewable energy sources. Furthermore, it stated that it costs much
less to generate electricity from a typical hydropower plant than from
fossil fuel which is regarded as another cheap form of electricity in the
US. On the other hand, it also compared the costs of power generation
from coal plants and hydro plants and stated that while the former costs
about four cents per kWh, it takes only about 1 cent per kWh for hy­
dropower plants. However, it noted that hydropower is only expensive
at first cost because it requires high investment cost for dam construc­
tion and equipment procurement. But with low maintenance costs, as
reported by Osokoya et al. [8], electricity generation from hydropower
is relatively inexpensive. Even at the reported high cost of installation,
Igweonu and Joshua [3] reported that the purported cost savings due to
the utilization of locally sourced labour and materials, standardized
power plants and the ease of developing local technology presents SHPs
as a reliable alternative for rural and off-grid applications.
1.2. Turbine selection/Technology
Turbines that are chosen for SHP plants are meant to perform well
over a variable range of flow available. Most times, many turbines are
C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

used so that they can operate optimally in a small range of flow [12].
Turbines utilized in SHP projects operate at very high efficiency of about
90% [12]. Turbine selection for any particular hydropower site is
majorly based on site characteristics especially the head and the flow
[12,13,14]. Nevertheless, there are other important considerations that
come into play while selecting turbines for any site, for instance,
whether there will be sufficient power generation under reduced flow
[13]. There are basically two types of turbine, namely; reaction and
impulse turbines [12,13,14]. The main difference between the two
major categories is determined from the pattern at which energy is
generated with respect to the type of inflows [14]. Reaction turbines
utilize water pressure and kinetic energy of flows. Also, the spinning
wheel or runner in the reaction turbine is completely immersed in the
water flow [12]. This turbine is mostly appropriate for low and medium
heads with higher flows [12,34]. Reaction turbines include fixed pitched
propeller, Francis and Kaplan turbines [12,14]. Impulse turbines are
mostly utilized where there is high pressure flow. When water passes
through the nozzle of the turbine, it converts it into a jet of water at
atmospheric pressure with high velocity and high kinetic energy. In
other words, impulse turbine utilizes the kinetic energy in flowing water
to drive the runner and discharge to atmospheric pressure. This type of Fig. 2. Run-off river type of small hydropower [2].
turbine is preferably applied in systems possess large falling water with
low flow [14]. Pelton, Turgo and cross flow turbines are examples of
impulse turbines [12,14].

1.3. Classification of hydropower

According to Anyaka and Imeaka [10], there is no internationally

accepted standard for the classification of SHP. But the head, installed
capacity/Power Supply Capability/size and facility/flow type are often
the main criteria for the classification of hydropower plants [5,6]. A
classification with respect to the head of the plant refers to the difference
in the head levels. That is, the difference between the higher elevation,
from where the flowing water falls from, and the downstream level of
the water. It is the value of the head that determines the pressure with
which the water enters the turbines. During the installation or pro­
curement of the turbine, the head and the discharge are the most
important parameters to be considered [5]. For instance, Pelton turbines
are the most appropriate for hydro plants with high heads, whereas
hydro plants with medium heads require Francis turbines and Kaplan
and Bulb turbines are utilized for low heads. However Kumar et al. [5]
noted that this particular classification by head varies widely from
country to country. This is because there is no internationally/generally
accepted standard or scale for classification due to head variation.
Hydropower plants are also classified according to operations carried
out (i.e. facility type) and type of flow. There are three major types of
hydropower according to the type of flow or facility type, viz; Run-of- Fig. 3. Reservoir/storage type of hydropower [15].
river (RoR), storage (reservoir) and pumped storage hydropower sys­
tems [5,6,9]. They are also referred as the most common types of hy­ generation on the variability of inflow from the local river. Depending
dropower plants. Depending on the characteristic topography and on the site characteristics and the economics/logistics of the dam con­
hydrology of the river watershed, they can be developed across a broad struction, the capacity, type and design of the reservoir can be made
spectrum of capacity and/or size. For instance, they can form part of an small or very large. This reservoir has a lot of advantages like storing
isolated local network or be connected to a national or central grid to water for later consumption or utilization for drinking or irrigation
support the energy demand. The run of river type of hydropower, just as purposes. In other words, the reservoir is an artificial lake. So as to in­
seen in Fig. 2, does not require a reservoir or pond rather it takes water crease the value of the head, the generating station, that is the installed
directly from the natural runoff for the generation of electricity [6]. power generating system, is located at the downstream level or the dam
However, Kumar et al. [5] noted that some run off river types may toe. The reservoir is connected to this generating system through the aid
include a short-term storage, like hourly or daily, but it is the local river of tunnels or pipelines [5]. According to a report by the Japan Inter­
flow conditions that will dictate the power generation profile. As a national Cooperation Agency [6], the pumped storage hydro plants
result, there may be a remarkable daily, monthly or seasonal variation serve more as storage devices rather than as energy sources. In such a
because generation depends on precipitation and runoff. The Reser­ system, water is usually pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper
voir/storage hydropower schemes have reservoirs constructed behind reservoir during the off-peak hours as seen in Fig. 4. Then to generate
the dams, typical of what is contained in Fig. 3. electricity during the peak load (when demand is high), the process is
These reservoirs have the ability to store water so as to de-couple reversed. Irrespective of the energy losses due to the pumping processes,
power generation from hydro inflows. This particular mechanism it is reported to be the largest capacity form of grid energy storage that is
makes it possible for the system to reduce the dependence of power

3
C.O. Ugwu et al.
Fig. 4. Pumped storage hydro plants [16].
readily available globally [6].
There is also classification according to size. This type of classifica­
tion led to the development of such concepts as pico, micro, mini, small,
medium or large hydro. The defining criterion for this type of classifi­
cation is based on the installed capacity. Illustrated in Table 1 is the
capacity/size ranges of different types of hydropower in watts. The
small-scale hydropower plants (SHP) are usually made of the run-of-
river facilities than the larger hydropower plants. And even at that,
the reservoir/storage types also require almost the same technologies
and basic components to construct hydropower systems of all sizes [5].
Comparing the small hydropower to the large hydropower, it takes
lesser time, resources and effort to install/construct. It also takes lesser
resources to integrate the small schemes into local environment or in­
dependent establishments. Consequently, the development and utiliza­
tion of SHPs in remote areas, local communities, independent
establishments, is increasing in most developed nations, especially in
areas where other energy sources are not readily available, economically
attractive or viable.
1.4. Small hydropower (SHP) in Nigeria
The small hydropower (SHP) scheme is a type of hydropower and
also one of the renewable energy sources that generates both electricity
and mechanical power [1]. The SHP scheme is termed as small
depending on the installed capacity or the amount of electricity it can
generate [2,5,6]. According to Kaunda et al. [2], the pico, micro, mini,
and small systems are all regarded within the small hydropower cate­
gory. Most countries and organizations regard systems that generate less
than or equal to 10 kW as pico system, for systems that generate between
10 and100 kW as micro, mini as systems that generate between 100 kW
and 1 MW and small systems as those that generate between 1 and 10
Table 1
Classification of Hydropower [2,4,5,9,17].
Type of Hydropower Capacity
Pico hydro Less than or equal to 5 kW
Micro hydro Between 5 and100Kw
Mini hydro Between 100kW and 1 MW
Small hydro Between 1 and 10 MW
Medium hydro Between 10 and 100 MW
Large hydro Greater than 100 MW
kW (kilowatt) = 1000watts and MW (megawatt) = 1,000,000 watts
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Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046
MW. As contained in the Nigeria Renewable Energy Master Plan
(REMP), 30 MW is the upper limit of SHPs in Nigeria [18]. The mini
hydro (<1 MW) and the micro hydro (<100 kW) are the two major
subunits under this stated plan [18]. Irrespective of the fact that there is
no international standard for classification of hydropower systems with
respect to capacity or size, most countries have adopted this particular
classification as seen in this section and in Table 1 above [2,5].
As at 2005, the recognized SHP prospective for Nigeria was about
734.2 MW of which only 30 MW had been developed [19]. It has also
been approximated that the entire SHP potential in the nation might
reach 3500 MW at 2030, signifying 23% of the country’s entire hydro­
power potential [2,19]. According to the study by Kela et al. [19] on the
energy consumption in Nigeria by type and total, it revealed that there
was a tremendous increase in the amount consumed from hydropower
from 14.2% to 23.9% between 2003 and 2007. This shows that there is
improvement close to 100% within four years. Hence, vindicates hy­
dropower as contributing greatly to power sector [19]. Some interna­
tional agencies like the African Development Bank, ADB, National
Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure, NASENI, etc. have
been brought in to create the necessary awareness and generate the
capacity for the development of micro and small hydro power schemes
in Nigeria. Some of such projects include the 30kW and 150 kW capacity
small hydropower project in Enugu state and Bauchi state respectively.
These projects were undertaken through a partnership between the
states, the local governments and the United Nations Industrial Devel­
opment Organization, UNIDO. The equipment and proficiency was
made available by UNIDO while the states and local government pro­
vided the required labor and logistics [19]. To ensure that the technol­
ogy is sustainably maintained locally, technical training and energy
efficiency responsiveness was also provided during the project execu­
tion. Such projects executed in partnership with the international bodies
were initiated to provide electricity both in remote and local commu­
nities. Some of the targeted areas included lighting to illuminate the
environment, agricultural processing for food security and information
and communications technology (ICT) to foster connection so as to be
abreast with the developments in other locations and the other parts of
the world. Small hydropower potential sites exist in almost all parts of
Nigeria. However, in some studies, it is stated that hydropower potential
sites and there river basins are only distributed in 12 states in Nigeria [9,
17]. Based on this report, there are over 278 potential sites with 734.3
MW as the total potential. There is also another report that only about
eight small hydropower systems, as shown in Table 2, with an overall
capacity of 37.0 MW has yet been exploited or developed in the country
[9].
This varying information on SHP potential in Nigeria was also noted
by Fagbohun [9]. It reported that UNIDO Regional Centre on SHPs
stated that sites with up to 10 MW potential capacity of electricity can be
summed up to a total gross potential of 720 MW. It also noted that about
605 MW from the total gross potential is technically feasible with about
498.4 MW as economically feasible. However, it is obvious from
whichever of the reports above that Nigeria is endowed with enormous
SHP potential with a large percentage yet to be explored (Table 3).
Table 2
Existing SHP Schemes in Nigeria [9].
River State Capacity Installed (MW)
Bagel (I) Plateau 1
(II) 2
Kurra Plateau 8
Lere (I) Plateau 4
(II) 4
Bakalor Sokoto 3
Tiga Kano 6
Oyan Ogun 9
Total installed capacity = 37.0 MW
C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

Table 3 to the water bodies with the aid of flowing water or flood, wind and ice.
Summary of small hydro potential sites Nigeria [9,17]. In general, the sediment load of every river, lake or stream is consists of
State River Basin Sites Total MW sediments from the riverbed and the ones from the drainage basin
transported through erosion [19]. This is also supported by the report
Sokoto Sokoto-River 22 30.6
Katsina Sokoto-River 11 8.0 from the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Niger Niger 30 117.6 Environment Protection [22] which stated that sediments form mostly
Kaduna Niger 19 59.2 due to bed load transportation, land runoff, beach and bank erosion. The
Kwara Niger 12 38.8 hydrologic characteristics of every river, like the slope, current velocity
Kano Hadejia-Jamaare 28 46.2
Borno Chad 29 20.8
and water depth, determines the sediment-carrying capacity of that
Bauchi Upper Benue 20 42.6 river. In addition, it also depends greatly on the materials around the
Gongola Upper Benue 38 162.7 catchment and the nature of sediments in the riverbed.
Plateau Lower Benue 32 110.4 Dam construction greatly reduces the current velocity and the slope
Benue Lower Benue 19 69.2
of the water body. It also results in the decrease of the sediment-carrying
Rivers Cross River 18 28.1
Total 278 734.2 capacity of a river.

2.2. Cheap source of electricity

2. The prospects and advantages of small hydropower
development
The small hydropower development has not improved significantly
since the 60s and early 70s. This is evident from the fact that a small
percentage of the SHP sites are developed out of the enormous potential
it portends as already mentioned in the previous section. The nation
needs substantial scaling up of quantity and quality of energy services in
view of the fact that the nation’s energy demand is on the increase and
the general power supply body, the electricity distribution companies of
Nigeria (DisCos), has been unable to meet the growing electricity de­
mand of the nation. Wider partaking in power production and supply is
very vital if Nigeria is to meet up with its energy demand and achieve the
required industrial and economic advancement [19]. To address this
issue without exploiting the environment negatively, the government
needs to pay serious attention to other complimentary sources of power,
especially the SHP in the remote, local and sub-urban communities.
Nigeria is so blessed with enough hydropower potential, of about 3500
MW, which is capable of catering for its rural electrification needs, as
well as the ICT power requirement and irrigation systems of all the
surrounding villages, in over 278 small hydro sites cut across the six
geopolitical zones of the country [17,19]. The overwhelming population
and the widespread demands for energy in the nation make it possible to
earn very high returns on investment hence, the investment opportu­
nities in the sector are motivating for any investor whether local or
foreign. With the enormous potential embedded in SHP, it portends
considerable competitive advantages that makes it a mature and reliable
technology. Hence, SHP scheme stands as a very reliable clean alter­
native that can improve rural electrification [20]. Furthermore, as a
clean renewable energy source, it presents minimum alteration to the
environment and the atmosphere with little or no greenhouse gas
emissions. According to Omojolaa & Oladeji [21] SHP can serve both
social and commercial purposes. The social purpose of the SHP is that it
can supply electricity in a standalone mode. The SHPs serving this
particular purpose are usually characterized by their less load factor and
small capacity. They are often used in distribution and are usually
supported by the government. The user charges collection realized are
usually used to offset the overhead and maintenance costs. On the other
hand, the commercial SHPs are characterized by larger capacities and
higher load factor. They are usually grid connected and also, they sell
power to distribution or trading companies. Presented below are the
prospects and advantages of harnessing the enormous SHPs scattered in
all parts of Nigeria.
2.1. Small hydropower construction aids with sediment reduction
Hydropower, in general, is reported to be one of the cheapest way to
generate electricity [8,23]. The cost for construction of dam for SHPs
and the equipment for electricity generation are the major cost impli­
cation in the construction of a hydropower plant. However, this initial
capital investments cash outlay can be reduced drastically through the
involvement of villagers by donating their labor. In addition, equipment
such as turbines can be sourced or manufactured locally [24] in Nigeria
owing to the availability of different steel materials in the country.
Therefore, the production of electricity from hydropower is relatively
inexpensive due to the reported very low maintenance and operation
costs. With these cost reduction strategies coupled with the longevity of
SHP, it can present as the cheapest technology for rural electrification
over the lifetime of the system [20].
If the construction of large reservoir to operate a SHP plant would be
too high to make it economically viable, it can be easily integrated into
reservoirs built for other purposes. It is highly possible to generate
electricity by employing the discharge apparatus compatible with the
type of flow from the reservoir [8]. Unlike other power generation
sources, water can be stored by employing a pumped storage system.
Therefore, for the sustainability of such systems, a pumped-storage
system can be employed for use during the peak periods [8]. A report
from the Alliance for Rural Electrification, ARE [25], stated that a SHP is
a technology that is highly competitive, reliable and economical [25]. It
further stated that irrespective of the fact that it requires substantial
initial capital expenditures (capex), it is characterized by very low
operating costs (opex) because of the absence of fuel costs.
2.3. As a source of sustainable energy
Energy security can only be assured through sustainable energy
sources because of the sustainable provision of energy that can meet the
present energy needs of the country without jeopardizing or compro­
mising for future generations. In other words, the energy is recycled. The
SHP is one the energy sources that is sustainable. Other sustainable
sources include geothermal energy, biomass, solar and wind because
they present a very significant contribution to sustainable de­
velopments. In addition to providing access to energy for the people,
especially to the poor, it also mitigates the amount of greenhouse gas
emissions through the reduction of harmful pollutants in the atmo­
sphere. Through appropriate cooperation and collaboration, it creates
reliable economic opportunities while enhancing energy security [8,26].
According to Osokoya et al. [8], small hydropower is a great prospect,
among other renewable sources, for sustainable energy and water
development in Nigeria.

Sediment is formed by the settlement of loose sand particles, clay, 2.4. Employment creation and women development
silt, waste and other soil particles at the bottom of a water body. Sedi­
ment also form as a result of the decomposition of plants and animals. It Just like other energy generating plants in Nigeria, installation of
can also form due to soil erosion. These particles are most times carried small hydropower plants will create many employment opportunities for

5
C.O. Ugwu et al.
the entire populace. Ranging from the installation stage to the operation
and maintenance stage. For instance, as recorded by Gutierrez [27], the
installation and improvement in the Spanish small hydro sector would
provide 18.6 new jobs per every megawatt installed. Likewise, if Nigeria
harnesses its enormous SHP potentials appropriately, it would alleviate
poverty and youth restiveness by creating jobs. According to Wash [28],
there are two types of jobs created through small hydropower projects,
viz; direct and induced jobs. Direct jobs are those that involves turbine
manufacturing, project design/permitting, etc. Induced jobs involves
the service sector jobs which include restaurant and other retail services
that are created to provide some basic needs to people working on site.
Furthermore, small hydro stations can contribute greatly to women
and youth empowerment/development. Such industries that can be
powered by small hydropower stations include water pumping activ­
ities, grinding and drying of corns, drying of tea leaves, corn milling, de-
husking of rice and millets. Most of these activities are performed
manually and most times exclusively by women. For instance, in a study
conducted in Bangladesh, it showed that women are involved or
otherwise, carry out all the domestic and some manual farm activities
like fuel wood collection, water carrying, paddy parboiling, husking and
drying of cereal crops [24]. The development of SHPs can eliminate
most of these menial tasks through the provision of electricity thereby
saving a significant amount of energy and time for the women. These
energy and time saved can be utilized in achieving other meaningful
activities. Such activities include formal education, taking appropriate
care of children and other income-producing works like embroidery, etc.
It is reported that after the provision of a certain water supply project in
a region in Pakistan, there was a very remarkable increase in the
enrolment of girls in school to the tune of about 75% [29]. More so, it
can lead to significant increase in the level of productivity for the entire
nation hence, creating employment and at the same time, bringing about
remarkable technological advancement especially in the remote and
rural areas. About 400,000 people are engaged directly or indirectly by
this scheme. In the same vein, SHP sites can be utilized as a tourism and
fish farming centers and these sort of developments create employment
opportunities [30].
2.5. SHP schemes can be integrated into existing schemes
Small Hydropower scheme have the ability in design to recover en­
ergy through the integration into existing infrastructures [20]. Such
integrated multi-purpose schemes have proven to be efficient while
guaranteeing its primary function [20]. The SHP projects can comfort­
ably be integrated with such plants like flood control dams, drinking
water reservoirs, desalination plant, irrigation network, water abstrac­
tion for a big city, recreational area, wastewater treatment plants, etc.
Not only will this multi-purpose schemes greatly expand the SHP po­
tential in Nigeria, it will also contribute immensely to finding lasting
solutions for issues such as the sustainable management of the resource
in sectors like agriculture, wastewater treatment, water policy or
drinking water supply.
2.6. Local energy source
The SHP is a local source of energy that is majorly derived from small
rivers. Irrespective of the fact that the quantity of electricity generated is
site specific, the most important to note is that there are a lot of potential
SHP sites scattered everywhere in Nigeria. It can be harnessed to
enhance rural electrification due to its enormous availability hence, the
development of skills and needed local technologies [20,25]. In part­
nership with some international bodies like the UNIDO, the local com­
munity where these projects are domiciled can run minor repairs,
change spare parts in the system if proper technology transfer and ca­
pacity building is provided. Through the increase in the supply of
affordable and sustainable electricity, the SHP technology, if appropri­
ately installed, stand to be an interesting and long term solution that can
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improve rural electrification and human development.
2.7. Clean energy source
Hydropower is a clean source of energy generation because it is
fueled by water. [20,25]. It does not contaminate the atmosphere such
as power plants that combust fossil fuels, coals or natural gas before it
can generate electricity. Hence, the SHP project is sustainable solution
and environmentally friendly. Unlike the large hydro schemes, it does
not require the construction of large water reservoirs. As a result, it does
not have a significant negative impact on the hydrological regimes,
water quality, sediment retention and transportation, biological di­
versity, habitat resettlement of both aquatic beings and humans on the
downstream water users. Most importantly, it has a reduced greenhouse
gas emission to the atmosphere. Harnessing SHP schemes reduces the
significantly the dependence on hydrocarbon products like diesel, fuel
and kerosene for generating energy for the off-grid consumption espe­
cially for the high-income groups. This development will also minimize
the cost of transportation these oil and gas products from different lo­
cations to the rural areas. Another great point worthy of note is the
deforestation of the forest areas for the purposes of lighting and cooking
[30]. This is because deforestation has great effect on climate change.
Hence, the generation of electricity from SHPs do not affect the climate
drastically when compared to other forms that release
green-house-gases.
2.8. High energy pay-back ratio
The SHP plants are reputed to have an elongated lifespan of about
100 years with a remarkable high efficiency about 70% to 90% [25].
Consequently, they offer a very attractive energy. With this high
pay-back ratio, the SHP has proven to be an excellent alternative in
promoting economic growth, productivity and development in devel­
oping countries like Nigeria [31].
3. Challenges posed by harnessing SHP
In Nigeria today, the development of SHPs has faced several chal­
lenges. Most of the challenges can be readily resolved. In particular,
there is the need to consider or appropriately regulate tariffs, subsidies
and concessions so as to encourage its development. Lack of appropriate
and stable regulations do not encourage or help development of SHP
schemes. In addition to poor regulation, it is often difficult to fund some
of these projects as governments often prefer to execute larger projects
for reputational reasons [20]. Other identified issues bedeviling the
development of this sector include difficulties in finding reliable local
partners, insufficient capacity building and determination of target
areas, inadequate rules to protect supply areas and private property, lack
of data on potential sites and meteorology as well as the need for local
manufacture of inexpensive materials so as to minimize the importation
of equipment. As a result, rural populations especially, suffer underde­
velopment because they have limited access to financial resources.
Summarily, the stand out barriers with respect to SHP development
include desertification, erosion, deforestation, massive water
impoundment and poaching, and settlements within the potential areas
contribute immensely to the damage witnessed in the surrounding
environment [30]. Therefore, it is necessary that the government and
other financial institutions should pay more attention to executing more
of SHP projects in Nigeria. There should be the initiation, enactment and
implementation of measures and policies that encourage SHP develop­
ment. Such measures include soft loans, tax reduction and grants as well
as encouraging and seeking foreign and private investment for the
schemes.
While citing a small hydropower plant in any geographical location,
there are significant risks associated with such constructions and they
need to be considered. These risks may include environmental,
C.O. Ugwu et al.
hydrological, construction, or design flaws/risks [32]. According to the
observation by Emetere et al. [32], one or more of these risks mentioned
above can destroy any installed hydropower station. This destruction
can lead to avoidable litigations and unnecessary finance loss. Some of
these risks like the plant design flaws and construction risk can be cor­
rected through the consultation of experts and with extra budgeting
however, some flaws as a result of hydrological and environmental risks,
most times, are unredeemable and may cause permanent or severe
damage and loss [32].
3.1. High installation cost
Irrespective of the size of any Hydro plant, they are characterized by
high installation costs. This is due to the procurement of expensive
equipment or the associated overhead cost involved during the hydro­
power development especially during dam construction due to the
purchase or development of the turbine, penstock and generator taking
into account the economic situation in the country and other developing
countries. This is actually posing as a serious impediment during the
installation of hydropower plants [30]. The main advantage is that it
incurs very low maintenance and operation costs [24]. This relative high
costs when compared to other energy sources are reported in many lit­
eratures thereby supporting the assertion. As a result of such high
installation cost, many cash-strapped communities, especially in the
rural areas, may not afford the required funds for purchase and instal­
lation of equipment. Most times, it is difficult to access loans or funds
with a reasonable interest rate. As a result of non-availability of such
funding or loans with reduced interest rates, consumers end up spending
more to make use of energy from SHP sources than for energy from other
sources.
3.2. Displacement of human and aquatic habitats
When some of the aquatic life swim into the penstock, turbine or
generator of the installed project, it will disturb the operation of the
plant. Most unfortunately, it can lead to large scale destruction of these
inhabitants. The facilities of a new hydropower may impact the imme­
diate or local environment by competing with other uses for the avail­
able land space. Those alternative uses of the available land space like
farming, forestation for wild life and forest reserve may be disrupted to
the extent that those activities might be lost. In addition, humans, flora,
and fauna may be chased out of their natural habitat creating room for
resettlement which usually impact so negatively on the displaced specie.
Apart from the loss of lives of these aquatic beings, the mating seasons of
some of these organisms/animals may be altered. This is possible
because some of these aquatic animals may have to swim against the
water stream or travel long distances in search of more conducive en­
vironments during breeding seasons [32, 33]. For instance, fish pop­
ulations can be negatively impacted especially if they cannot swim
upwards past the impoundments created by dam construction to their
grounds where they spawn or when they cannot move or swim to the
downstream of the ocean. However, the movement of fish to the up­
stream can be supported by fish elevators or ladders. Trapping and
hauling of fish by the aid of truck is another important solution to aid
fish movement upstream. Racks or screens can be used to divert the
movement of fish from intakes of turbine to the downstream. Also, un­
derwater lights and sounds can be employed to maintain a minimum
spill flow past the turbine.
More so, hydropower development, depending on the size of created
dam, may lead to massive flooding of areas within the river valley. There
is also the possibility that existing farmlands in areas around the site
may be damaged thereby reducing food security and the income by in­
habitants. Human settlement and some aquatic habitats will be affected
greatly to the extent that some will be completely lost. Consequently, the
cultural or religious believes or heritage might also be altered or even
lost. In some cases, rare aquatic species involved in this displacement
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Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046
may be totally lost. In addition to the geological assessment of the
proposed site, there should also be an evaluation to ascertain the level of
potential damages with respect to human and aquatic displacement. In
many cases, in order to mitigate the effects of the proposed project,
resettlement of people and their cultural artefacts, creation and move­
ment of displaced animals to new environment becomes a necessity.
This also contribute to the high cost of installing a new hydro project.
However, it is important to note that SHP schemes pose less challenge in
this respect.
3.3. Pressure in the underlying structure
Due to the enormous size and weight of some equipment employed
during the installation of hydropower plants, enormous pressure can be
generated in the underlying strata which could lead to fractures. Such
pressures or potential fractures are capable to cause earthquake and
other disturbances that occur beneath the soil surface. An extensive
geological survey is necessary once a site is identified. This is very
necessary to determine the state of the characteristic underlying struc­
tures. If possible faults were not identified before installation starts, it
can be disruptive to the proposed project. In some cases where large
reservoirs are involved, the mass of water impounded by the dam can
create more stress. This underlying stresses is capable of generating
seismic tremors. Despite the fact that the effects are sometimes small,
they are nevertheless capable of causing an alarming damage to the
project or the surrounding human inhabitants or aquatic beings.
3.4. Contamination during and after construction
The installation of hydropower equipment can impact water quality
and also disrupt water flow. Some of these equipment in the hydro­
power plants are capable of causing low levels of dissolved oxygen in
the water. This is a problem that pose much harm to the habitats in the
riverbank. It can be mitigated by employing various aeration techniques
so that the water can be oxygenated. Another approach is to maintain a
minimum water flow to the downstream of the installed hydropower
station. This is a very critical alternative for the survival the habitats at
the riverbanks [33]. There is also this problem of particulate dust
emissions during the construction and installation processes. It increases
the aerosol loading in the entire geographical area. This emission will
deprive people of access to clean water during the whole construction
period. This development could as well complicate and worsen the sit­
uation for asthmatic patients by creating more difficulty while breath­
ing. The noise pollution from the construction vehicles and other
machines may affect both the wildlife and the humans residing around
the area.
3. 5 Dumping of hazardous wastes into the river
There is a very high possibility that people residing around such
hydro stations could use the waterways or the surrounding environment
as a dumping site for all categories of waste [32]. The most harmful of all
the categories is the harmful ones that are duped by most companies.
This attitude is so bad and may lead to the death of most aquatic lives
and sometimes, it could impair the efficiency of the installed equipment
[32]. This also contaminates the quality of the water thereby putting a
stop to its use a drinking source. And if not noticed or treated with less
concern, may lead to loss of lives due to the spread of water diseases. The
construction may also distract tourists from visiting the water bodies
that has free fall thereby reducing the revenue generation capability of
the host local government.
3.6. Drought
One of the major impediments to the construction of hydropower
plants is drought. This is because when water is not readily available,
C.O. Ugwu et al.
like in the dry seasons, the water level reduces drastically therefore, the
hydropower plant may not be able to produce electricity. Without
additional storage system that is so large to store water for such seasons,
stream flow may fall below the installed plant capacity hence, the
occurrence of power shortages may set in [24]. In this case, the in­
dustries or establishments with large capital inputs will be greatly
affected. This will lead to uneconomical power generation because a
back-up source of energy will be sorted. So to address this particular
challenge, there is the need to install a secondary reservoir that can be
filled during rainy seasons and utilized during the drought period to
avoid uneconomical energy generation.
3.7. Sedimentation
Sedimentation is one of the serious challenges encountered in
installed hydro plants. It causes a remarkable erosion at the banks,
riverbeds and retreat of its estuary [19]. It also exposes the turbines,
generators and other installed machineries to significant wear and tear.
Furthermore, it depletes the storage capacity of the installed reservoirs
and increases the risk of upstream flooding because of the continuous
sediment accumulation in the backwater region [34]. Besides these
noted negative impacts, it can also cause water flow reduction. This is
partly caused by reduced sediment transportation capacity of the water
body thereby leading to higher sediment deposition. This in turn, leads
to an increase in flood risk due to the raising of the riverbed. Sediment
accumulation can also decompose and generate some poisonous gases
that are harmful to humans and the climate at large. According to Via­
dero et al. [16], decaying vegetation and soil organic matter in hydro­
power reservoirs can be a significant source of greenhouse gases. These
poisonous gases can deplete the ozone layer thereby causing increased
ultraviolet radiations which is harmful to almost all living organisms.
4. Conclusion and recommendation
From the foregoing, it is obvious that small hydropower systems
possess their own challenges and drawbacks but the potential and ad­
vantages it portends are greater than the negative values. The SHP is a
clean source of energy that is so environmentally friendly with enor­
mous potential sites scattered all over the Nigerian state. It has the ca­
pacity in potential to solve some or all of the rural and remote
electrification problems. It also has the capacity to create both direct and
indirect job opportunities which will promote poverty alleviation in
most part of the country. By the powering of agro-industrial sector in the
country, SHP can contribute to remarkable gains in productivity and the
development of women. Furthermore, the SHP is a clean, local, afford­
able and renewable source of energy. The source of hydropower is
relatively consistent, reliable and predictable unlike other energy tech­
nologies that the sources are highly variable. Due to the relative con­
sistency in the source of hydropower systems, the SHP in particular is
reported to be the most predictable and reliable energy source of all the
renewable energy electrical systems [20].
Thus, the SHP enhances the security in electricity generation and
supply in any country that invests reasonably into it. It is capable of
filling the gap created by increasing energy demand in Nigeria. Conse­
quently, there is an urgent need for the Nigerian government, inde­
pendently or in partnership with foreign and private investors, to focus
more and develop the overwhelming SHP potentials. This can be ach­
ieved by leveraging on the opportunities created by some financial in­
stitutions like the World Bank and the Inter-American Development
Bank These financial bodies can give loans for rural electrification
projects like the development of SHPs. In addition, Nigeria can also
restructure their power sector by encouraging self-generation by smaller
scale consumers.
The country can also develop a number of significant incentives for
small hydro schemes for instance, implementing preferential and
reduced prices for energy generation, reduced taxation as well as
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Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046
provide the enabling environment for energy trading.
Conflict of Interest
The authors wish to declare that there is no conflict of interest
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge the support received from the Africa
Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Power and Energy Development
(ACE-SPED), University of Nigeria, Nsukka and the Quality and Oper­
ations Management, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment,
University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
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