Fuels and energy1 marking guide

Question 1
(a) Define the term fossil fuel and list the 3 main types of fossil fuels [4]
Ans:
 Fossil Fuels are the energy rich substances formed from the remains of once-living
organisms/ Made up of hydrocarbons and they provide energy in the form of heat,
light, electricity or motion as a result of a chemical change. (1)
 Oil (1)
 Natural gas (1)
 Coal (1)
(b) Describe in detail the following stages of the formation of fossil fuels:
i. Diagenesis [8]
Ans:
Diagenesis: from organic matter to kerogen: diagenesis, a word that means a transformation
of materials by dissolution and recombination of their constituents
 Aerobic decay: the decay process for a simple monosaccharide is presented as:e.g(1)

 The key reactant in decay is oxygen (from air) and the reactions are facilitated by
enzymes in aerobic bacteria. (1)
 Aerobic decomposition proceeds effectively at oxygen concentrations above 1 mg/l
(1).
 Fossil fuel formation requires, as a first step, that the accumulated organic matter be
preserved against the ravages of air, or by extension, against the action of aerobic
bacteria.
 Covering organic matter with water that contains no dissolved oxygen – i.e. stagnant
water – or with sediments such as mud or silt provides an effective way of doing this.
 During approximately the first meter of burial, oxygen can diffuse through the water
or sediment in sufficient concentration to maintain the decay processes. Below about
1 m, the oxygen content is depleted to a level at which aerobic decay stops. (1)
 Anaerobic decomposition:
 The oxygen concentration in anaerobic conditions is typically less than 0.1 mg/l.(1)
 Molecules begin to break apart, generally by hydrolysis reactions (1)
 The temperature just a few meters into the Earth is very close to ambient, Pressure is
also near-ambient. Under these conditions polysaccharides hydrolyze fairly easily.(1)
 The important contrast with aerobic decay is that anaerobic reaction involves no
molecular oxygen. Methane produced in this way has the trivial name marsh gas ,
sometimes also called biogenic methane
 Fats and oils do not hydrolyze extensively under these conditions.
  At a depth of about ten meters, action of anaerobic bacteria ceases. The chemical
mixture at this depth includes: humic acids; unreacted or partially reacted fats, oils,
and waxes; slightly modified lignin; and resins and other hydrocarbons. These
substances combine in poorly understood ways to form kerogen. (1)
 Kerogen formation continues to a depth of about 1000 m, where temperatures might
reach 50 C.
 Essentially, kerogen represents the “halfway point” between organic matter and fossil
fuels.
 Because of the important role played by anaerobic bacteria, formation of kerogen is
sometimes called the biochemical phase of fossil fuel formation


ii. Catagenesis [8]

Ans:
 Catagenesis: from kerogen to fossil fuels
 Transformation of kerogen to fossil fuels is driven primarily by temperature – the
natural heat in the Earth’s crust. (1)
 For this reason, transformation of kerogen is sometimes called the geochemical phase
of fossil fuel formation. (1)
 The heat derives mainly from the decomposition of radioactive materials, particularly
40
K , 232Th , 235U , and 238U, in the crust.(1)
 Pressures can be elevated because of the weight of overlying rocks, or, in some cases,
by pressures caused by folding of rocks during mountain-building. (1)
 Reaction times are very long, from thousands to millions of years. There are no
externally supplied reactants, so the reactions that take place in catagenesis represent
the structural or compositional rearrangement of the components of kerogen. (1)
 Depending on the amount and type of organic matter, oil generation occurs during the
mature stage at depths of about 750 to 4,800 metres at temperatures between 65 and
150 °C . (1)
 This special environment is called the “oil window.”(1)
 Maximum oil generation occurs from depths of 2,000 to 2,900 metres . (1)
 Below 2,900 metres primarily wet gas, a type of gas containing liquid hydrocarbons
known as natural gas liquids, is formed

Question 2
(a) List and explain the three (3) main components that characterizes a petroleum system
[6]
Ans:
A petroleum system includes all the parameters required for hydrocarbon accumulations to
exist. It is characterized by three main components related to geology.
  The presence of a source rock: (1)
a. This is the rock which could produce hydrocarbons from its preserved organic
matter. (1/2)
b. It is generally an impermeable rock such as thin sediments or shales. (1/2)
 The presence of a reservoir rock: (1)
a. This is the rock in which hydrocarbons are accumulated over time. (1/2)
b. It is a permeable rock, such as carbonates or sandstones. (1/2)
 The presence of a seal rock: (1)
a. This is the rock which prevents hydrocarbon leaks. (1/2)
b. Seal rocks are impermeable rocks such as salt or shales.(1/2)

(b) Describe the regional evaluation phase of the Exploration and Production of
Hydrocarbons. [5]
Ans.
 All the processes involved in the regional evaluation phase are best described by the
below chart.

 How do we start? With an idea, an initial geological concept generated by geologists

and geophysicists - also called “explorationists” (1)- using their experience and
studying all available existing data and knowledge (1).
 Large regions of the globe need to be evaluated, for many years, trying to reconstruct
the geological history of the basins (1). Why? To identify potential attractive zones.
(1)
 If successful, this phase results in the application for mining rights for a specific area.
(1) This is why we call this part the “Regional evaluation

(c) From your knowledge of the petroleum system chart and the Cabora Bassa Basin
Stratigraphy given on Figs 2.1 and 2.2 respectively
Fig 2.1 Petroleum system chart
Fig 2.2 Cabora basa basin stratigraphy

Can you tell during which period in years were these formations formed?
i. Kondo pools [1]
Around 290 million years ago
ii. Forest sandstone [1]
About 248 million years ago
iii. Angwa sandstone [1]
About 248 million years ago

(d) Distinguish between solution gas drive, gas cap drive and active water drive [6]

Ans
These are all primary recovery mechanisms
Solution gas drive
Characterized by solution
gases which will be
dissolved in the oil.
below a certain pressure,
solution gas will be released
from the oil and, due to its
high compressibility, will
provide additional energy by
expansion.
Gas cap drive
Characterized by the
presence of a gas cap in the
reservoir.
as pressure drops due to
production, the gas cap will
provide additional energy
and displace the oil as it
expands downwards due to
the high compressibility and
low density of the gas
Active water drive
Characterized by the
presence of an aquifer
connected to the oil
reservoir.
During production, the
aquifer which could be
located at the bottom of the
reservoir, provide energy
and reduce the pressure drop
as water replaces the
produced oil.

The recovery factor may rise Recovery by this mechanism
up to 15 / 20%. depends on the ratio
between the gas cap and oil
volumes. A gas cap of large
volume can lead to
recoveries up to 40%
is the most favorable case of
primary recovery and may
lead to a recovery factor of
more than 50%, sometimes
as high as 70%.

SECTION B: CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGIES

Question 3
(a) Name the two main groups for clean coal technologies [2]
Ans:
 environmental protection (1) as flue gas treatment such as De-SOx, De-NOx, and
electro-static precipitator for fly ash removal
 Global warming countermeasures (1) which are comprised of three items: high
power generation efficiency, CO2 capture and storage (CCS), and biomass burning
with coal
(b) Discuss coal emission control technologies [11]
Ans:
The processes utilized to remove the impurities and pollutants are broadly classified as Pre-
combustion, during Combustion, and Post-combustion processes, and Conversion
technologies. (1)
Pre-combustion processes (coal treatment)
 Coal benefaction/cleaning consists a group of technologies – physical cleaning or
washing, chemical cleaning and biological methods of cleaning – to remove sulfur,
ash, rock, trace elements like mercury and moisture. (1)
 Often this is done using water
 Since coal can be ground into much smaller sizes similar to powder, it allows for
removal, up to 90% of the pyritic sulfur.(1)
 Most of the coal cleaning processes uses upward currents or pulses of water, to
fluidize a bed of crushed coal and impurities.
 The lighter coal particles rise and are removed from the top of the bed and the heavier
impurities are removed from the bottom.

Control technologies during combustion

 These are technologies that are used inside the furnace where the coal is actually
combusted.
 These methods remove sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
 Fluidized-bed combustion FBC is one such technology.(1)
 In fluidized-bed combustion, finely grounded coal mixed with limestone is injected
with hot air into the boiler.(1)
 This bed of coal and limestone suspends on jets of air and resembles a boiling liquid,
a ‘fluid’.
 As the coal burns, the limestone acts as a sponge and captures the sulfur (1)

 This technology can reduce the amount of sulfur released by over 90%
  combustion takes place at about 840◦ to 950◦C which is much below the ash fusion
temperature. Hence, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided, as well as
NOx formation is also minimized (1)

Post-combustion processes
SO2 control methods (Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) or scrubbing technology) (1)
 A chemical sorbent, generally calcium or sodium-based alkaline reagent, is injected
into the flue gas in a spray tower or directly into the duct (1)
 The SO2 in the flue gas is absorbed, neutralized and/or oxidized by the reagent into a
solid compound, either calcium or sodium sulfate. (1)
 This solid is removed from the waste gas stream using downstream equipment.
 Scrubbers are further classified as wet or dry or semi-dry scrubbers
NOx control methods
 NOx are generated at very high temperatures > 1480 ºC
 Low excess air (LEA) combustion: Technique is based on reducing surplus O2 at the
burner flame where gas temperatures are highest resulting in lower peak flame
temperature and less NOx formation (1)

(c) Given that MSU’s Zvishavane campus is to be powered by a coal fired power plant
with a thermodynamic efficiency of 30 % for the whole year, energy content being
30MJ/Kg, and given the following load

50*100 W bulbs
30 *50 W computers
Determine
i. Annual energy requirement for the whole year [4]
ii. Amount of coal required to power the plant for the whole year [3]

Ans:

i. Annual energy requirement is given by:

Load* time

( ( 30∗50 ) + ( 50∗100 ) )∗24∗365=56,94 MWhr s

ii. We know that 1 kWh=3.6 MJ

 Therefore Energy density for a 30MJ/kg coal is :
30 MJ / Kg
=8,33 kWh/kg
3,6 MJ
Since the thermodynamic efficiency is given as 30%, :

8,33 kWh /kg∗30 %=2,5 kWh /kg will be successfuly turned into electricity
Amount of coal required to power the plant:

56,94 MWhrs
=22776 kgs of coal
0,0025 MWhrs /kg

Question 4

(a) List the factors that influence the efficiency of a coal powered plant [5]
Ans.
Efficiency is expressed as the ratio of electric energy output to the fuel energy input of a
thermal power plant, expressed in percentages. Some of the factors that affect the efficiency
of coal fired plants are listed below:
 coal type and quality (e.g., high ash/moisture content), (1)
 steam temperature and pressure (steam cycle severity), (2)
 Boiler design, and (1)
 condenser cooling water temperature, and so on.(1)
(b) Given Fig 4.1 of the Rankine cycle, describe processes 1-4 [8]
Fig 4.1 Rankine cycle
Ans:
Rankine cycle is a way of describing the process by which steam-operated heat engines
generate power in a power plant. There are four processes in the Rankine cycle Figure 4.1
 Process 1–2: The working fluid entering at state 1 is pumped from low to high
pressure. As the fluid is a liquid at this stage, the pump requires little input energy;
this is an isentropic compression in pump
 Process 2–3: At state 2, the high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at
constant pressure by heat from combustion gases to become a dry saturated vapor, it
is constant pressure heat addition in boiler which acts as a heat exchanger
 Process 3–4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power;
the temperature and pressure of the vapor are decreased resulting in some
condensation. It is isentropic expansion in the turbine.
 Process 4–1: The wet vapor (water-steam mixture) then enters a condenser where at a
constant temperature it condenses to a saturated liquid. It is constant pressure heat
rejection in the compressor to a cooling medium. So, steam leaves the condenser as
saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle

(c) Discuss the applications of coal gasification [7]

Ans.
Coal gasification means turning coal into more useful gaseous form (coal gas) containing a
mixture of gases usually CO and H2.(2)
 Synthesis gas production: electricity generation (1)
 Methanol production (1)
 Hydrogen formation: powering hydrogen economy (fuel cells), upgrading fossil
fuels(1)
 Ammonia fertiliser(1)
 Hydrocarbons (synthetic natural gas , liquid fuels production)(1)

SECTION C: FUEL CELLS

Question 5
(a) Define the term Gibbs free energy [1]
Ans.
Gibbs free energy: defined as the ‘energy available to do external work, neglecting any work
done by changes in pressure and/or volume (1)
 (b) With the aid of half-cell equations, compare and contrast an acid electrolyte fuel cell
and an alkaline electrolyte fuel cell [4]
Ans.
Acid electrolyte fuel cell Alkaline electrolyte fuel cell
At the anode of an acid electrolyte fuel At the anode, OH- ions react with hydrogen,
cell, the hydrogen gas ionizes, releasing releasing energy and electrons, and
electrons and creating H+ ions (or protons). producing water.

At the cathode, oxygen reacts with electrons At the cathode, oxygen reacts with electrons
taken from the electrode, and H+ ions from taken from the electrode, and water in the
the electrolyte, to form water. electrolyte, forming new OH− ions.

(c) List and explain any four advantages of fuel cells [8]
Ans.
 Efficiency, fuel cells are generally more efficient than combustion engines whether
piston or turbine based (2)
 Simplicity. The essentials of a fuel cell are very simple, with few if any moving parts.
This can lead to highly reliable and long-lasting systems (2)
 Low emissions. The by-product of the main fuel cell reaction, when hydrogen is the
fuel, is pure water, which means a fuel cell can be essentially ‘zero emission’.
However, it should be noted that, at present, emissions of CO2 are nearly always
involved in the production of hydrogen that is needed as the fuel (2)
 Silence. Fuel cells are very quiet, even those with extensive extra fuel processing
equipment. This is very important in both portable power applications and for local
power generation in combined heat and power schemes (2)

(d) Calculate the following for a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell;

i. The voltage output of the fuel cell [3]

ii. The cell efficiency if the fuel utilisation coefficient is given as 0.90 and also;
[4]
Given;
3
( ∆ H o ) 25 ℃=−286 x 10 J −mol H 2
g
 J
( ∆G¿¿ o)25 ℃=−237.3 x 103 −mol of H 2 ¿
g

Ans.
−∆ G f 237300
i. E= = =1.229725V =1.23 V ¿ 2 d . p
2F 2∗96485

ii. Cell efficiency is given by:

∆ Gf
efficiency = 0
∗μ f where µf is the fuel utilisation factor
∆H

237300
efficiency = ∗90 %=74,67 %
286000