UNIT 2

CUTTIN G TOOL M¤TERIALS &

CUTTING FLUIDS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In metalcutting, the characteristics of both tool and work materials play important roles.
These characteristics, to a large extent, affect the cutting forces and cutting conditions. For a
good cutting action it is essential to have a tool material harder than the work material. With
increase in the work material hardness, the need for more harder tool material is also vital,
and cutting conditions are to be decided critically. Also, with increase in work material
hardness, the tool wear and life problems become predominant. Hence, it is necessary to
study the ifferent types of tool materials and their characteristics.
2.2 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
Üntil early years of 1900, for machining only high carbon steels were used. In later
stages, with the discOvery of heat treatment process, high-speed steels were developed for
cutting tools. These tool materials helped to increase the metal removal rate. The advances in
metallurgy have led to the development of much stronger tool materials like cast alloys, cemented
carbides, sintered oxides (i.e., ceramics), TiC/TiN coatings, cermets,polycrystalline diamond
(PCD) and artificial diamond (CBN). These tool materials are characterised by verý high
abrasion resistance, low wear rates, improved thermal properties; high speeds, higher tool
life and improved cutting conditions.

55
56 MANUFACTURING PROCESS-I
2.2.1 Factors in the Selection of Tool Materials
There are a variety of cutting tool materials. Hence the selection of a type of cutting tool
material is not a straight forward case. There are a number of factors that are to be considered
inthe selection of cutting tool materials. The important factors are as follows.
1) Type of work material
2) Type of machining operation
3) Machine tool condition
4) Volume of production
5) Part and tool geometry
6 Finish and accuacy Tequired
7) Tool life
8) Other factors - lubrication, chip removal, operator skill
These fators are discussed in detail here.
1) Type of work material: This is the basic deciding factor as it influences the type of
chip, fiction, ease of machining, etc. For a dyctile and tough materials normally cartbon
and HSS tools are quite sufficient. Expensive and advanced tool materials such as CBN
and diamond are used for strong materials like aloy steels and hardened alloys. In addition,
the chemical nature and the metallurgical state of the work material is alsoimportant as
it affécts the fricion, tool life, finish, etc.
2) Type of machining operation: This factos includes parameters such as continuous
autting or intenittent cutting, rouging or finish operation. HSS tools are suitabie for
roughing operations and interupted cuting at low to medium speeds that yield rough
surface finish. High end tools such as carbides, ceramics, etc are used for high speed,
continuous and firnishing operations.
3) Machine tool condition: This indudes pårameters such as machine rigidity, powe,
speed and feed ranges, along with the work holding conditions. For machining hard
materials and for roughing operations, in high power high rigidity machines, carbide
and diarmondtools are suitable. Machines (automatic types) with wide range of speed
and feed use long life tools, that are capable of mass production.
4) Volume of production: Mas production tools (such as automats) require tools that
have high strength, high hardness and long tool life. Since frequent tool changing aftect
the production rate, finish and accuracy, long 1ite tools are used. In manual nachines
and odd operations that require frequent change of tools, short life tools can be employed
5) Part and tool geometry: Since both the part and tool geonetry influence the production
time, finish and accuracy, appropriate tools are required.
6) Finish and accuracy required: In preci_ion components which require high degree
 2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS performed
surface finish and accuracy (especially in finishing operations), which are are used
of
high hot hardness and wear
resistance
speeds, tools with high strength,
athigh
In low volume production, the tool life has no greater effect
7) Tool life and economy: case of high volume production, in
automatic
on the cost of production. But 'in the criteria. Frequent change of tool, in addition to
machines, the tool life is an important
tool changing time, thus making the cost
the cost of tools, reduces production,increases tools are essential.
of production high. In such applications long life
operator skill: The selection of tooB also
8) Other factors - lubrication, chip removal, All these pararmeters
depends on the operator's skill, effect of chips and the lubrication.
choice of tool material has
in general affect the tool wear and reduce its life,and a good
to be made considering these aspects.
2.2.2 Desired Properties of Tool Materials
The materials used for cutting tools must have the basic properties of high hardness and
ability to retain a sharp cutting edge. The desirable properties of cutting tool material are:
1) Hot hardness
2) Wear resistance
3) Toughness
4) Coefficient of friction
5) Chemical stability
6) Thermal conductivity
7) Economy
1) Hot Hardness: It is the ability of a material to
retain its hardness at higher tenperatures,
developed due to high friction. Acutting tool material must have a high hothardness. A
toolwith low hot hardness will soften with
edge and wears out f¡ast, thus leading to a temperature,
low tool life.
loses the sharpness of its cutting
The hardness of all the tool materials
reduces with increasing temperature. Very few tool
materials have the ability to retain their hardness at higher cutting speeds, and higher
temperatures. The hardness of various cutting
(i.e., hot hardness) is illustrated in Fig. 2-1. tool materials with respect to temperature
2) Wear Resistance: It is the
property of a
abrasive conditions. A harder material willmaterial
naturally
to withstand excessive wear
under
however, it depends upon the relative hardness of the work toolhave a higher wear resistance,
to havea high wear resistance for materials.
a tool material for a longer tool life It is desirable
3) Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a before resharpening.
material
loads. Higher the toughness higher is the capacity of theto absorb energy and withstand impact
impact loads. This is a material to absorb shocks and
combination of
involves high vibrations and shocks, aoptimum strength and ductility. Since, machining
tool material must have a higher toughnesS.
 95

90 -
Ceramics
70

NH'SseupseH
85

80
Carbides 60
OYH'SseupJH
5%

75
Cast alloys 50
45

70

65
Carbon
tol stel High-sped st
Steis
40
35
30
25
60 20

55
100 300 500 700
Temperature, °C
Fig. 2-1.Hardness v/s temperature of cutting tool materials
4) Coefficient of Friction:The coefficientof friction for a tool material must be low, so
that the tool wear willbe minimum andresult in a good surface finish.
5) Chemical Stability: The tool material must be chemically stable or inert with respect
to the work material, so as to reduce tool wear and increase tool life.
6) Thermal conductivity: The tool material should have high thermal conductivity to
dissipate the heat absorbed at the tool-metal interface while machining. A low thermal
conductivity will reduce the tool life.
7) Economy: The properties and the cost of the tool material selected should be such that,
it gives long life and good machined surface, resulting in economical
machining process.
2.2.3 Types of Tool Materials
The different materials used for cuttingtools are as follows:
1. Plain carbon steels
2. Alloy steels
3. High speed steels
4. Cast Cobalt alloys or Stellites
5.Carbides (Cemented or sintered carbides)
6. Ceramics (Aluminium oxide)
7.Cermets
8. Coated Tools
9. Diamonds & PCD
10. Cubic Boron Nitrides (CBN)
 2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS 59

The composition,properties, applications, advantages and limitations of important tol

subsequent sections.
materials are briefly discussed in the
2.2.3.1 Plain Carbon Steels
steels and are the earliest tool materials
Plain carbon steel tools are usually high carbon
extensively for turning, drilling, planing, reaming and other metal cutting
They are used 0.8 to 1.5 percent. On proper
applications. These tools have carbon content ranging trom strength and
steels attain high hardness,
heat treatment (hardening and tempering), these edge. However, these tools lose their
toughness, good enough to achieve asharp cuttingtemperingaction.
hardness as thetemperature increases, because of
Hence, these are suitable for low
Generally, they jose their hardness at about 250°C.
are Used for general engineering
speed ad tow-temperature cutting applications. ihese on, and only for machiningof
so
applications in tuming, boring, shaping, broaching, and copper. Also, they are suitable onlu
ductile and soft materials like mild steel, aluminium, and
for lowto medium depth of cut, and for roughing operations.
Advantages
achieve the hardness.
1) Thesetools areeasy to fabricate and
2) These tools are highly cost effective.
applications.
3) Most suitable for general purpose engineering
Disadvantages
resistance.
1) These have low hot hardness and wear
machining
2) The hardnes uops rapidly with increasing tenperature, and hence suitable for
of ductile matérials at low cutting speeds.
3) These are not suitable for high depth of cut operations.
2.2.3.2 Medium Alloy Steels
These are low/medium steel tools, having carbon content up to 1% and alloying elements
up to 5%, which render desirable properties to the toolmaterials. The commonly used alloying
elements are tungsten (W), vanadiun (V), molybdenum (Mo) and chromium (Cr). Any one
or acombination of these alloying elements may be added. These elements impart
hardenability, high hot hardness, improve toughness and wear resistance. Since, the hardness
of the carbon and mediurm alloy steels drops rapidly with increasing temperature (Fig. 2-1),
these tools are suitable only for low speed metal cutting operations.
Advantages
They work satisfactorily for mediurn cutting speeds and slightly harder materials, and
perform better in al respects as compared with the plain carbon steels.
60 MANUFACTURING PROCESS-II

Disadvarntages
They can retain hardness onlyup to a temperature of 350°C. Because of the inclusion of
alloying elements the cost increases and are slightly difficult to fabricate as compared to plain
carbon steels.
2.2.3.3 High Speed Steels (HSS)
The tools made of such steels are popularly known as HSS tools. These are the most
widely used tool materials in the present day engineering industries. Basically,these are the
highly alloyed tool steels. These tools are known by the name high speed, since they can
retain their hardness under high cutting speeds where temperatures are as high as 650°C,
and can operate satisfactorily at speeds 2 to 3 times of those of plain-carbon steels. These
tools have a hardness of the order of about 65 HR, and can satisfactorily function in the
cutting speed (surface) range of 15 to 30 m/min.
Types of HSS tools
There are three classes of high speed steel tools, viz., high tungsten (W), high
(Mo),and high cobalt (Co)steels. Tungsten imparts higher hot hardness, molybdenum
a sharp cutting edge and cobalt provides high wear resistance. molybdenum retains
a) 18-4-1 High Speed Steel: This is the high tungsten steel
(also
containing 18% W, 4% Crand 1% Va. Thisis the highlyefficienttermed T-series HSS)
of allhigh speed steel
tools, since it possesses good wear resistance and high heat
resistance.
b) 6-6-4-2 High Speed Steel: This is the high
HSS), and contains 6% Mo, 6% W. 4% Cr andmolybdenum steel (also termed M-series
2% Va. Such a steel has high toughness
(impact strength) and cutting strength. The percentages of the alloying
be raised to suit the requirements. constituents can
c) Super high speed steel: This is known by the name
its high hot hardness and wear resistance at higher super high speed steel because of
Co with 10-20% W, 2-4% Cr and 2-4% Va. This cutting speeds. It contains up to 15%
tool offers
can take heavier cuts and function at higher temperatures. higher cutting efficiency,
Alloying Elements &their Effects in HSS
The high-tungsten HSS, also termed the T-series HSS, need not
have the fixed
proportion of W-Cr-V. In fact, AISI specifies ten different classes of this alloy, designated as
Tlto T9, and T15 depending upon the varying proportion of W, Cr and V
to 1.5%), Mo (<0.9%) and Co in some cases (5 to 12%). along with C (0.7
The typical alloying elements in
18-4-1 HSS tools and their effects on the properties of the tool
below: material are summerised
1) Carbon (C): Carbon, about 0.7 to 1.5%, is the
to iorm the steel. It is the element that fundamental alloying element in ferite
steel, by forming the hard imparts basic hardness and strength in the tool
martensitic structure.
 61
2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
(W): Tungsten, in the range of 12 to 18%, is the major alloying element in
2) Tungsten property of the tool, as it provides strengthening
HSS tools. This improves the hot hardness
beyond the tempering temperature.
of 4 to 4.5%, is the second major alloying
3) Chromium (Cr): Chromium, in the range high hot hardness.
ingredient in HSS tools. It alsocontributes to
Vanadium (): Vanadium, in the range of 1 to 5%, forms vanadium carbide in the
4) good wear resistance to the
steel which is highly abrasion resistant. Hence, it imparts
HSS tool.
cutting edge at higher
5) Molybdenum (Mo): Mo, less than 0.9%, helps to retain the sharp
temperatures and improve the toughness.
resistance
6) Cobalt (Co): Co, in the range of 5 to 12%, improve the hardenability and wear
of the tool material.
Applications
They are widely used in variety of cuttingoperations. They are used in the formn of drills,
reamers, taps, millingcutters, and as single point cutting tools in general machining operations.
HSS tools can be processed three by methods: cast, wrought and sintered (powder
metallurgy). These tools can be coated, and surface treated to improve hardness, wear
resistance and overall performance.
Advantages (compared to carbon and medium alloy tools)
1) High hot hardnes.
2) High wear and abrasion resistance.
3) Improved hardenability and toughness.
4) Overall better machining performance, cutting efficiency with longer tool life.
Disadvantages
1) These are expensive.
2) Difficult to process / fabricate.
2.2.3.4 Cemented Carbides
For machining metals with high strength and hot hardness for special applications
involving
very high temperatures and cuttingspeeds carbide tools are used. Carbides are nonferrous,
carbon based cutting tool materials with other elements: These tools have high modulus, high
thermal conductivity, besides high hot hardness and low thermal expansion. These are
termed
sintered or cemented carbides, since they are manufactured by powder metallurgy teçhniques.
Tungsten Carbide (WC) is the most popular cemented carbide tool material.
WCisa metal matrix composite material, in which fine
mm) are bonded together in cobalt matrix. Initially, the WC tungsten-carbide particles (1-5
particles are produced by
carburizing process. In this, pure tungsten (94 parts by weight) powder is mixed with pure
carbon (i.e., lamp black, 6 parts byweight) under high temperature
(1500°C.). These hard
 62 MANUFACTURING PROCESS.I
particles are mixed with cobalt and blended in large ball mills, so that the
cobalt matrix
SuToundsthe WC particles, This powder is then pressed into
insert forms and presintered at
about 750°C. These presintered blanks (havingthe consistency of chalk) are
machined tothe
required shape. Finally, these inserts are sintered in high temperature vacuum furmace to
achieve the full strength and the hardness, which are finish ground and honed.
i Additives, such as titanium and tantalum are added to improve the mechanical properties.
Titanium improves the hot hardness, while tantalum minimises wear on the tool surface (i.e.,
crater wear). Atypical carbide tool will have 82% tungsten carbide, 10% titanium carbide
and 8% cobalt. Carbide inserts are available in square, triangle, round and diamond shapes.
These inserts are brazed or fastened on to the tool shanks as shown in Fig. 2-2. Mechanical
fastening is convenient, as the dull edge/worn edge after use can be rotated and the unused
edge can be made the cutting edge. The carbide tools are also termed disposable or throwaway
inserts, as they can be replaced with new ones.Generally, the inserts are recycled to recover
the expensive alloying elements, or in some cases, reground for further use.
Insert
Clamp Shank Lockpin
Screw Shank Shank
damp Insert
Seat

Insert Braze
Seat

(a) Clamping (b) Wing lockpin (c) Brazing

Fig. 2-2. Carbide inserts on tool holders

WC tools are most suitable for machining steels, cast irons and high strength nonferrous
alloys. Obviously, carbide tools are superior to HSStools.
Another type of carbide, TiC inserts are made by blending TiC particles in a nickle
molybdenum alloy matrix. These tools have a higher wear resistance than the WC tools, but
lower toughness because of the atbsence of cobalt. These tools are most suitable for high
speed machining of hard steels and cast irons.
Advantages
These have very high hardness and wear resistance, hence a higher tool lite.
*2) These can be used under very high cutting speeds.
Disadvantages
1) These are very expensive and involve difficult fabrication process.
i2) These are very brittle and have low toughness.
 2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS 63

2.2.3.5 Coated Carbides

To machine the modern high strength and abrasive metals and alloy, coated carbide
tools are used. Carbide inserts are- coated by two types of processes - Chemical Vapour
Deposition (CVD) and Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD). Various coating materials such
as titanium nitride (TiN),titanium carbide (TiC), titanium carbonitride (TiCN) and aluminium
oxide (AL,0,)are used on carbide inserts, dies and HSS tools. The coatingthickness is of the
order of 2 to 10 um. The important properties required for coating materials are:
1) Hot hardness (high hardness at high temperatures)
2) Inert to work materials (chemical stability)
3) Good bonding characteristics with the base material (substrate)
4) Lowthemal conductivity
The coating becomes more effective when the substrate material has optimum strength,
hardness, toughness and thermal conductivity. To avoid chipping of the coated material at
the sharp edges, honing of the tools after coating is essential.
The coated tools perform better in metal cutting and have life 2 to3 tirmes of the normal
uncoated tools. The wear characteristics improve upon coating a suitable material, especially
the flank wear is reduced in coated tools.
TiC coating are commonly used on tungsten-carbide (WC) inserts. It offers better
cutting efficiency along with improved flank wear resistance and tool life. Such tools are
suitable for machining abrasive metals at higher speed and feeds.
Mutiphase coatings are used many tools toobtain theoptimum performance and higher
tool life. The modern carbide tools are coated with twO or three layers of
coatings, that are
most suitable for machining of steel ¡nd cast iron materials. Each of these layers impart its
own characteristic to the tool and in allcontribute to enhance the overall tool
perfomance.
The typical three-layer multiphase coating on a
tungsten-carbide tool comprises afirst
layer of TICon thesubstrate, followed by AL,O,, and the outer layer of TiN (Fig. 2-3). In this
effective multiphase coating, the layers perform as follows:

Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1
WC
A
substrate
Layer 3: TiN coating

Layer 2: AI,O, coating

~Layer 1: TiC coating
-WC substrate

Fig. 2-3. Multiphase coated tools

 MANUFACTURING PROCESS-I|
64
and wear
a) The first TiC layer bonds well with the substrate, gives the basic strength
resistance to the tool.
b) The intermediate Al,0, layer also bonds well, compatible with the first and third layers,
and has proven chemical stabilityand resistance to abrasion wear.
c) The outermost TiC layer has high wear resistance, low coefficient of friction, low thermal
conductivity and helps reduce the built-up edge.
Advantages
1) Typically the coatings (TIN &TIC) have high hardness (about 3000 DPH, equivalent of
84 HR). This hardnes is higher than tungsten carbide, and four times harder than
HSS. Thus, coated tools can perform better at very high speeds and feeds.
2) Coatings act as barier to the diffusion process that occurs during adhesion wear. Also,
the coatings are chemically inert and hence have lower flank and crater wear af higher
temperatures.
3) Coatings offer higher cutting efficiency and higher life.
Limitations
1) Coated tools are not suitable for cutting actions with high abrasion wear.
2) Coated tools are not suitable for intermittent cutting actions, as the coating may fracture.
3) Coated tools are not suitable for tool regrinding operations.
2.2.3.6 Ceramics
Theseare pure aluminium oxide (AL,O,)material tools having very high hardness, of the
order of 92-94 HR,. Ceramic tools are generally manufactured by cold pressing and _intering
processes. This involves compacting aluminium oxide powder in a mould under highpressures
(about 300bar), and the resulting product is termed the billet. The billet is then baked at
about 1200°C and this operation is temed sintering. Sintering bonds the aluminium oxide
particles strongly. This product, in the form of tool tips, is ready for use as a cutting tool
material. These tool tips are fastened to the tool shanks, similar to the inserts.
The ceramic tips are as hard as the carbide inserts, but are very brittle. Hence, they
require more rigid and tougher shanks to hold and operate under severe cutting conditions.
Advantages
1) These tools have high compressive strength and high hardness.
2) These have very high wear resistance, hence a longer tool life.
3) These can withstand very high temperatures (1200°C).
Disadvantages
1) These are very brittle and hence are not suitable for cutting under impact loads.
2) These cannot withstand vibrations and shocks.
3) These materials have a very low thermal conductivity.
 65
2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
Applications
generally used for finish turning of cast iron and other ductile metals.
These tools are
2.2.3.7 Cermets
most finishing operations.
These are new class of cutting tool materials that are suitable forstands for ceramic+ metal.
Cermet
These are ceramic materials in metal binders. The term
Cemets are made
Hence, cermets can be considered as metal matrix composite materials.
TiC, or
ofceramic (aluminium oxide) and metal binders such as nickel, cobalt, TiN, TaN,
other metal carbides. A typical cemet consists of 70% AI,0, and 30% TiC. Cermets can be
produced byhot- and cold-presing.
Cermets offer higher hot hardness and oxidation resistance as compared to normal
cemented carbide tools. They yield superior surface finish on steel materials due to their high
chemical stability, and its ability to machine with low crater wear and built-up edge.
They have low toughness (as compared to carbides), lower thermal conductivity, and
higher thermal expansion. This may lead to thermal cracking in interrupted machining
operations. However, new cermets have been designed to have finer grains that offer improved
toughness and resistance to thermal shocks.
2.2.3.8 Diamond
Natural diamond or single crystal diamond is the hardest of all available cutting tool
materials. This is rated number 1 in the Moh's hardness scale. Diamonds can be shaped or
lapped to the shape of a cutting tool, having a sharp and straight cutting'edge. It can cut
materials at very high speeds (about 50 times that used for HSS tools) and at higher
temperature (about 1600°C). Single-crystal diamonds of various carats are used in special
machining operations. Since it has high ability too maintain sharp cutting edge, it is useful
for machining metals requiring high surface finish and dimensional accuracy. As diamond is
very brittle, its cuttingedge shape and sharpness are important parameters. Usually in diamond
tools, low rake angles (high included angles) are provided to obtain a strong cutting
Also, to achieve optimum tool life, it is important to maintain crystal orientation and edge.
proper
mountingon the tool base.
It is very hard, incompressible and has very low coefficient of friction. It can be used to
cut very strong metallic and non-metallic materials.
It is expensive, and because its hardness difficult to process to the
required shape.
Diamonds are used for cutting very hard materials like steels, glass, ceramics and
abrasives. Adiamond tool is used for dressing of a grinding wheel. For a longer life of the tool
the depth of cut should be within 0.125 mm.
2.2.3.9 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
Veryhigh costs and low supply of natural single crystal diamonds, in addition to the
operational / tool breakage problems, led to the development of polycrystalline diamonds
PCD (Fig. 2-4).
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS-I|
66
Standard tungsten PCD Segment
carbide insert

PCD-substrate bond
0.5 mm thick
diamond layer with
carbide substrate Braze line

Fig. 2-4. PCD tool

PCD tool blanks, in the-fom-of this layers-(0.5-tol5-ma thick), are produced by

sintering process of fine grain size diamond particles (1 to 30 um) at high temperatures
(1500-C) and ultrahigh pressures (50 kbar). The sintering process is performed well within
the diamond stable region, so as to obtain a tough isotropic structure. This PCD layer during
the sintering process is carefuly bonded on to a tungsten carbide substrate by a metallurgical
operation. This sintered diamond is then finished to required shape, size and accuracy by
laser cutting, grinding and lapping operations. The tungsten carbide substrate gives the
required tough support to the hard and brittle diamond.
Compared to single arystal diamonds, the PCD tools offer better quality, higher toughness,
and improved wear resistance. Since they are made of a number of crystals and possess
random orientations, there is no single deavage plane and hence the tool tip breakage problem
does not exist in these toois. They offer higher cutting efficiency, long tool life, reduced cuting
costs. Hence, their perfomance is far superior to that of carbide tools.
PCD tools aremore expensive compared to ceramic and other tools. This is both because
of the high cost of the rawmaterial and procesing. Usually, positive rake in PCD tools and
high speed operations are is suggested to eliminate BUE problem. Feed rates can be optimised
to minirise to avoid edge breakage and chipping problems, if any. Another speciality of
diarnond tcols is that they can be reground after the loss of cutting edge.
PCD tools are suitable for high speed, light and uninterupted finishing operations.
Because their strong chemical affinity, usually diamond tools are not recommended for
machining of plain carbon steels, titanium, nickel and cobalt base alloys.
2.2.3.10 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Polycrystalline cubic born nitride (CBN) is an artificial dianmond, and is the second
hardest material available next to diarmond. It is produed by transtoming the crystal structure
of carbon from hexagonal to cubic under high temperature andpressure conditions. This
process is sirnilar to that used in the production of polycrystalline diamond (PCD). These
tools are available in round, triangle and square shapes. The CBN layers are usually mounted
onthe tungsten carbide inserts (similar to PCD),so that the carbide basegives toughness.
 2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS 67

while the CBN layer gives the required wear resistance and hardnessfor cuting action,At
the same time,CBN tools are vey britle, and one has to take care of the stiffness requirements
of the machine tool and fixtures to minimise vibration and chatter problems in machining.
Compared to diamond, CBN is less harder, but it is chemically less reactive at the tool
chipinterface with metals such as hardened steels, chilled cast iron, and many super alloys.
CBN has theability to retain its hardness at high temperatures (about 4000Knoop at 1000°C,
as against 4700 at 20C). Hence, it is widely used to machine very hard aerospace and
automotive materials. In fact,CBN can be used to machine at very high speeds (about 4to 5
times the speed of cemented carbides), and still achieve better accuracy and surface finish.
2.2.4 Summary of Cutting Tool Materials
Abtef surnmary of the different types of common tooi materiais, their properties
applications and limitations are listed in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1: Summary of cutting tool materials
Tool Material Properties Applications Limitations
High Speed Steel High toughness, Roughing and Low hot hardness &
resistance to wear finishing cut, limited wear resistance.
(HSS) and fracture interrupted cuts. All Medium cutting speeds
materials up to
medium strength
Cemented carbides High hardness, high Variety of applications Not for low speed
toughness and wear on all kinds of metals operations;
(WC)
resistance & alloys microchipping problem
Coated carbides High hot hardness, Alloy steels, stainless Not for low speed
(T1C, TiN) improved wear steels, alloy steels, operation, not for
resistance, better superalloys and cast nonferrous and titanium
friction and thermal iron alloys.
properties
Ceramics High hot hardness, Cast iron, Ni-based Lowtoughness, not for
(A,0,) high abrasive & superalloys, non interuptedoperations;
wear resistance ferrous alloys and not for Aland Ti alloys
plastics
Polycrystalline Very hard, tough; All nonferrousalloys Not for ferrous metals;
Diamond high abrasive & and plastics. lowchemical stability at
PCD wear resistance higher temperatures
Cubic BorÍn Nitride High hot hardness, HSS, alloy steels, Ni Expensive, low
(CBN) toughness, high based superalloys,chill chemical stability at
strength of the cast iron & nickei. For higher temperatures
cutting edge hard metals up to 62
HRc
 MANUEACTURING PROCESS-II
68

2.3 CUTTING FLUIDS

and grinding
Cutting fluids or coolants are the lubricants used in metal cutting
generated,
operations. Acutting fluid primarily acts as the coolant to carry away the heat
and secondly as a lubricant to reduce friction at the too/chip interface and work/flank regions.
The use of a cutting fluid makes the cutting operation more efficient, by way of reducing tool
wear, increasing the tool life, improving surface finish, reducing friction, and reducing the
power required. In most machining operations the cutting fluid is recirculated, hence the cost
involved is almost negligible as compared to the benefits gained.
2.3.1 Theory of Cutting Fluids
A cutting fluid is intended to reduce the coefficient of friction in addition to carrying
away the heat generated. Atheory of cuttingfluids has been formulated by Merchant, to
showthe effect of cutting fluids in reducing friction. It is assumed that minute capillaries exist
at the work-tooVtool chip interfaces as shown in Fig. 2-5.

Chip

Tool

Chip

Tool
Feed
Cutting fuid

Work

Fig. 2-5. Cutting fluid at work-tool/tool chip interface

As the chip moves upon the tool surface or as the tool cuts against the work surface,
various point contacts exist because of the surface unevenness, which creates capillary action
between the contact surface. Thiscauses the fluid to be sucked into the micro gaps and the
cuting fluid chemically reacts to produce a solid, low shear strength film, under the existing
high temperature and pressure conditions. This weak, solid film separates the tool-chip
interface or work-tool surfaces and helps in reducing the coefficient of friction.
2.3.2 Functions of Cutting Fluids
The various functions /requirements of cüfting fluids are as follows:
1) To carryaway the heat generated: Due to high friction at the work-tool interface, a
larde amount of heat is generated, and both work and tool get heated. Higher temperatures
reduce the cutting efficiency and the heat has to be removed from the work-tool surfaces
has to
to improve the cutting efficiency. lo achieve this, a cutting fluid is used and it
surfaces.
camy away the maximum amount of heat from the work-tool
2. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS 69
Other benefits of removal of heat form the work-tool interface include, retaining the
hardness of the tool, thus improving the tool life and high speed operations This also
helps in reducing the themal distortions and maintain higher dimensional control on
the finished surface.
2) To provide proper lubrication: Lubrication is a means to reduce friction, that results
in lesser amount of heat generation and power consumption in the metal cutting operation.
Higher friction also causes vibration and chatter problems. Acutting fluid used shouid
provide an efficient lubrication, to help in lesser power consumption, fine surface finish
and smooth cutting operation.
Acutting fluid as a lubricant can easily change the geometry of chip formation process.
and produce less deformed, cooler, thinner and easy to break chips. This condition
helps inreducing the possibility-of formation of buit-up edge ttEo the tooi, hence
improve surface finish.
3) To carry away the chips: Chips produced during cutting operations should be carried
away from the work-tool interface, to avoid damages to the finished surface. Acutting
fuid is required to carry away the chips from the cutting area, and help improve the
surface finish.

4) To cool and break the chips: Depending upon the. cutting conditions, the chips
produced may be long and very hot. This commonly happens while machining ductile
materials, especially when the depth of cut and cutting speeds are very high. The hot
and longer chips are dangerous as they may bum or hurt the operator. Acutting fluid
should be able to cool the chip and assist in breaking it by the quenching effect.
5) Toprotect the finished surface: The cutting fluid used should provide an oily surface
on thefinished machined work part to protect it from corosion and dust.
2.3.3Properties of Cutting Fiuids
The desirable properties of cutting fluids are as follows:
1) It should cary away the heat immediately from the work-tool chip surfaces.
2) It should providegood lubrication to reduce the coefficient of friction.
3) It should have high flash and fire points.
4) It should be chemically neutral.
5) It should be odourless under normal and high temperature condition.
6) It should be non-corrosive.
7) It should be non-toxic.
8) It sBhould have a low viscosity.
9) It should not get oxidized.
10) It should not be very thick and opaque.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS-I
10
Types of Cutting Fluids
23.4 Diferent kinds of cutting fluids are used dependingupon the requirernents. Cuttingfluids
follows:
canbe classified under four groups as
1. Water
mixed oils
2. Oils -Straight (neat or plain) oils, emulsions mixed oils, chemical
3.Chemical compounds
4. Solid lubricants
briefly here.
The formation and characteristics of these fluids are discussed . ..........

additive with little or

1. Water Plain water or water with an alkali, salt or water soluble
of its tendency to
Re- eil eaA beused as coelants. Plain water is generally not used because
corrode metals.
2.Oils: Oils are the generally used cutting fluids since they satisfy almost al requirerments.
as
Either plain oils or oils in various mixed foms are used. The different oil foms used
cutting fuids are
a) Straight or Neat or Plain oils: Straight or plain mineral oils like kerosene, low
viscosity þetroleum products, or animal, vegetable oils perform best as cutting fuids.
They possess very good lubricating and heat absorbing characteristics. In addition, they
protect the finished surface because of their oilynature. These are generally used in light
cutting operations.
b) Water miscible or soluble oils: These are the emulsions formed by mixing about
80% of water, rest with soap and mineral oils. The soap acts as a emulsitying agent,
thus breaking the oil into minute particles and disperses them throughout water. This
gives best possible results, since water gives the best cooling effect, while oil
provides
lubricating and non-corrosive properties. Thus, these are suitable for heavy cutting
operations.
c) Mixed oils: These are the combinations of plain
mineral and
very good lubricating and cooling characteristics. These are fatty oils. These oils have
used in automats, for high
precision and superior surface finish.
d) Sunthetic or chemical Mixed oils: Oils
or chlorine have an increased
mixed with chemical additives like sulphur
lubricating and cooling qualities. These are used for
machining tough and very ductile materials.
3. Chemiçal Compounds: These are mixtures of a
chemical rust inhibitors like sodium
nitrate and high percentage ofwater. 1hese are suitable in grinding operations and machining
of ferrous måterials that are more prone to rusting.
A SoliaLubricants: In metal cutting, solid
lubricants are not commonly used because
of their non-sticking and non-flowing characteristics. Sometimes waxes and soans ae
as lubricants in machining.
 2
CUTING TOOL MATERIALS
2.3.5
A
Selection of Cutting Fluids 71

cutting fluid is intended to meet the

lubrication, to carry away the heat generated basic functions of reducing friction/providing
functions the various characteristics of the cutingandfluid
protect the finished surface. To meet these
chemical stability, corrosiveness, etc., are such as the viscosity, thermal
important. The selection is also dependentproperty,
work-tool properties, cutting conditions, etc. on the
The major factors that are
selection of a good cutting fluid for a given considered in the
machining operation are:
1) Machining parameters such as the
speed, feed and depth of cut
2) Metallurgical properties of work and
tool material
3) Type of finish and protection
required on the work part
4) Chemical stability and corrosive nature of
the fluid
5) Method of application and ease of handling the fluid
6) Recyclable or disposable fluid
7) Storage life the fluid
8) Cost of the fluid /economy
The most commonly machined materials and suitable cutting fluids selected for them
are listed in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2: Selection of cutting fluids
Material to be machined Recommended cutting fluid
Aluminium & its alloys Soluble oils,kerosene, straight oils
and soluble oil mixtures
Brass Dry or soluble oils
Cast iron Soluble oil, or dry with compressed
air jet for cooling
Copper Soluble oil, strained lard oil, oleic
acid compounds
Steels (carbon & low alloy) Soluble oils, sulphurised oil,
extreme-pressure mineral oils
Steels (hard & high alloy) Soluble oils, sulphurised oil,
turpentine
Stainless steels Soluble oils,sulphurised oil
Synthetic oils & emulsions
Titanium
Mineral oils,Synthetic oils &
Zinc emulsions
 MANUFACTURINGPROCESS-II
72

2.4 HEAT GENERATION IN METAL CUTTING

converted into heat. While
During metal cutting, energy spent in plastic defomation is
rate. During this
metal cutting, the plastic defomation is large and occurs at a very high
temperatures in
almost 99% of the energy supplied is converted into heat. This causes high
a great
the region of tool cutting edge and chip tool interface. These temperatures have
influençe on the rate of tool wear and the friction at the chip tool interface.
increase
In cutting low strength and veryductile materials,the heat generation and the
materials,
in temperatures are not very high. But, in cutting ferrousand other high strength
the temperature rise is very high, which reduces the tool strength resulting in faster tool wear
and failure. Since, heat generation increases with increase in cutting speed, there is need to
limit the speed to achieve optimum tool life and productivity in machining.
2.4.1 Heat Zones /Sources of Heat in Metal Cutting
There are three zones or sources of heat generation in a typical machining process.
These are:
1) Zone 1: Primary zone or shear zone
2) Zone 2: Secondary zone or tool-chip interface zone
3) Zone 3: Tertiary zone or tool-work interface zone
These three zones/ sources of heat generation in metal cutting are shown in Fig. 2-6..*

Shear Chip
plane
Zone 2

Tool
Feed
Zone 1

Zone 3
Work

Fig. 2-6. Heat zones in metal cutting

t) Zone 1: Primary zone or shear zone

This is termed the primary zone, as the maximum amount of heat is generated in this
zone in a cutting process. This is the shear zone, that is the interface between the work
(undeformed chip) and the chip (deformedchip) where the plastic deformation takes place.
 73
2. CUTTINGTOOL MATERIALS
This is shown as zone 1 in figure. Most of this heat is transferred to the chip as cuttingtakes
place. The heat generated and the heat transferred is basically proportional to the cutting
speed. In a typical machining at medium cutting speed, about 60 to 65% of the heat generated
in the zone 1 is transfered to the chip, while the rest is transferred to the work andthe tool.
2) Zone 2:Secondary zone or tool-chip interface zone
The secondary sourceof heat is zone 2, where the sliding motion of the chip on the
rake surface of the tool and results in secondary plastic deformation. This sliding friction
results in considerable amount of heat generation. Most of the heat from this zone goes into
the chip and the tool. Compared to the heat from zone 1, the heat transferred to the tool in
zone 2 is larger. This in turn increases the tool temperature,leads to tool softening and tool
wear (crater wear), and resulting in reduced tool life.To minimise this problem,an effective
lubricaion is essentiat for this zone,which reduces the sidingfriction between the tooiand
chip, hence the heat generated and the toolwear.
3) Zone 3: Tertiary zone or tool-work interface zone
The zone 3 is the tool-work interface zone, where the work material rubs against the
flank surface of the tool. Though the heat generated in this zone is small compared to zone 1
and 2, it can be a source of heat if the clearance angle is low. It results in flank wear. Also,
as the flank wears out the clearance reduces, thereby increasing the friction between the tool
work interface, and the heat generated.
2.4.2 Factors Affecting Heat Generation
Though the plastic deformation in shear zone and the friction between the tool-chip
work interfaces are the main soürces of heat, there are a number of factors that affect the
heat generation in a metal cutting operation. These factors are:
1) Metal cutting parameters -speed, feed and depth of cut
2) Material characteristics of the work and tool
3) Tool geometry
4) Typeof machining operation
5) Cutting fluid
1) Metalcutting parameters - speed, feed and depth of cut
In ametal cutting operation the heat generated is proportional to the cutting parameters
such as thespeed, feed and the depth of cut. All these parameters, as they increase also
increase the work done, power supplied and hence the heat generated.
2) Material characteristics of the work and tool
This is an important deciding factor in heat gerneration as it influences the coeficient of
deformation is easier, hence
friction. ease of machining, etc. In aductile material the plastic
generated is less. As the
work done is lower, requires less power and consequently the heat
 14 MANUFACTURING PROCESS-II
strength andItoughness increases the
the work
workdone, power input to
cause plastic deformation
the metal, there by generating more heat. In brittle metals forming
ivon. thework involved in plasticdeformation is less, hence heat small chips, such as cast
generated is low.
In the caseof tool, higher the hardness and
strength, lesser is the
lesser is the heat generated. Anyway the heat contribution by the friction/tool wear and
tool is less significant as
compared to th¹ work material.
3) Tool geometry
In metai cutting as the tool wedge becomes more and
more
cutting action is easier, hence heat generated in lower. Thus thesharper
the friction reduces.
factor that affects the heat generation. As a general tool geornetry is a major
practice, positive
cdearance makes the cutting edge sharper, minimise cutting force andrakepower, along with good
generated is less. On the other hand, positive rake and less clearance make the hence heat
tool blunt.
increase cutting force, require more power, and heat generated is higher.
nose radius reduces the cutting force, requires less power and Similarty, a smaller
generates less heat.
4) Type of machining operation
This factors includes parameters such as continuous
cutting or
rougingor finish operation. In continuous and roughing operations, the intermittent cutting,
plastic deformation
is continuous, work done is more and
generates more heat. In intermmittent and finish
operations, the material removed is less, work done is less and hence generate less heat.
5) Cutting fluid
In fact the use of cutting fluid has no direct
influence on the heat
operation. It is aid in removing the heat generated in matching generated in a machining
the effect of heat on the tool life, surface finish and operations and minimise
tool. Depending upon the work size and thë amountmetallurgical characteristics of the work
of heat generated suitable application
method for the cutting fluid (flood type, jet type or mist type) is
heat. used to effectively remove the
2.4.3 Heat Distribution in Metal Cutting
In metal cutting, most of the power
input for the operationis converted into heat due to
the primary and the secondary
between the chip, work and thedeformation process. The heat generated so gets distributed
tool. In fact, all these three along with the
cutting fluid act as the heat sinks. The majorityof the heat environment /
gets
carried away alongwith it. Thechip temperature is modest in theabso bed in thechip, and is
tool also absorbs a considerable amount of range of 360to 600°C. The
heat, but its mass being smaller the
shoots up, and is in the range of 500 to 700°C. The temperature
work part though absorbs sonme heat, it
being large in mass its temperature rise is
130-C. minimum, and the range id of the order of 30 to
 2.CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
Allfigures in c Chip
450500
600
400

600

360 -..-..**..

700) 650
Tool
380
130

Work -80
-30

Fig. 2-7. Heat distribution in metal cutting

Atypical temperature distribution profile due to the heat distribution amongthe work
tool-chip is illustrated in Fig. 2-7. We can hiote that the maximum temperature is at the
middle tool face, due to the sliding friction btween the chip and the tool. In general the
temperature distribution dependson the work tool material,specific heat, thermalconductivity,
cutting parameters and the type of cutting fluid and its application.
2.4.4 Measurement of Tool Tip Temperature
The measurement of temperature at thè tool tip (chip-tool interface) is important for
determining the tool life and calculations of optimum cuttingconditions. The measurement
of temperature in metal cutting operation is a difficult and tedious process. The different
methods available for this purpose are:
1) Tool-work thermocouple
2) Them1ocouple embedded in the tool and/or work piece
3) Infraredphotography
4) Radiation pyrometery
5) Indirect calorimetric techniques
6) Temperature sensitive paints
The most simple and commonly used technique is the tool-work therriocouple method.
This technique is based on the Seebeck effect, which states there exists a
difference between a hot junction and cold juFction of two dissimilar metals. In this potential
the emf developed between the hot junction (the work-tool interface) and the cold method,
junction