ASM Specialty Handbook: Tool Materials Copyright © 1995 ASM International®

Joseph R. Davis, Editor All rights reserved

www.asminternational.org

General Guidelines for Selecting

Cutting Tool Materials

SELECTING Tiffi PROPER CUTIING Because of the wide range of conditions and • TYpe, capability, and condition of the machine
TOOL MATERIAL for a specific machining ap- requirements, no single cutting tool material tool to be used
plication can provide substantial advantages, in- meets the needs of all machining applications. • Rigidity of the tool and workpiece
cluding increased productivity, improved quality, Each tool material has its own combination of • Production requirements influencing the
and reduced costs (Ref 1). Increased productivity properties that makes it best for a specific opera~ speeds and feeds selected
can be obtained by increasing cutting speeds tion. The fol1owing factors affect the selection of • Operating conditions, such as cutting forces
and/or feed rates. Increasing the speeds and feeds, a cutting tool material for a specific application and temperatures
however, is limited by the capability of the cUt- (Ref 1): • Tool cost per part machined, including initial
ting tool material and machine tool. Speeds and tool cost, grinding cost, tool life, frequency of
feeds must be kept low enough to provide an • Hardness and condition of the workpiece rna~ regrinding or replacement, and labor cost. The
acceptable tool life. Otherwise, tool changing and terial
most economical tool is not necessarily the one
grinding costs can outweigh the advantages of • Operations to be performed (optimum tool se~
providing the longest life or having the lowest
faster machining rates by increasing the cost per lection may reduce the number of operations
initial cost.
part produced. Machine tool downtime for re- required)
placement of dull or broken tools is a major • Amount of stock to be removed
deterrent to increasing productivity. • Accuracy and finish requirements
Desirable Properties
In evaluating a cutting tool material in a ma-
chining operation, the applicability is dependent
Toughness on having the correct combination of physical
Transverse rupture Abrasion resistance prbperties. Because maximizing one property
strength, MPa (ksi) Hardness, HRA typically means lowering some other property
f-----, (e.g., extremely wear-resistant materials gener-
High-speed
stee I
3447-4826 l ~6.5 ally have poor toughness, as shown in Fig. 1), the
workpiece properties and cutting operations
(500-700) (60-70 HRC)
f---, strongly influence the selection of a cutting tool
Cas t 2068-2413
alloy l 81-84 material. Similarly, developing an understanding
(300-350) Taii:65 HRC) of the tool properties and their relationship to
cutting performance is the key to understanding
Micro grain
carbide
2758-3723 l 91.5-92.0 l the potential application range.
(400-540)
Properties of primary concern in cutting tool
C-1 and C~2
carbide
1655-2241 l 90.0-92.0 l design are fracture resistance (toughness), plastic
or thermal deformation resistance, and wear re-
(240-325)
sistance. Also of concern is the resistance of the
C-3and C4
carbide
'1207-1793 l 92.0-93.0 l material to cracking, notching, cratering, and, in
(175-260) the case of coated inserts, spalling (poor coating
adherence).
C-5 and C-6 1379-2068
carbide l 90.0-92.5 I Machine tests have been developed to measure
(200-300)
the resistance of cutting tools to these failure
C-7 and C-8 689.5-1724
carbide
92.0-95.0 I mechanisms. This is accomplished by matching
the workpiece and tool materials, adjusting ma-
(100-250)
e:---. chining parameters over the likely application
Ceramic ~-758.4 93.5-94.0 I range, and then carefully evaluating the failure
(80-110) modes and their relationship to basic physical
Polycrystalline properties of materials. Common failure mecha-
diamond ~379
6500·8000 HK
nisms are shown in Fig. 2. The cutting tool prop-
(100-200)
erties of most concern in evaluating these failures
Fig. 1 Comparison of toughness and wear resistance for various cutting tool materials. Source: Metcut Research Associates, are described below. Additional information on
Inc. cutting tool failures can be found in the articles
4 I Materials for Machining and Grinding
"Cemented Carbides" and "Wear and Failure
Modes for Cutting Tools" in this Volume.
Toughness is commonly defined by cutting
tool users as the resistance of the cutting edge to
breakage or fracture under unfavorable condi-
tions, which typically include one or more of the
following:
• High feed rates
• Moderate-to-severe interruptions
• Inconsistent or difficult workpiece material
• Lack of rigidity
Flank Wear Resistance. The resistance of the
cutting tool to flank wear is a primary concern in
the applicability of the material to a cutting opera-
tion. The tool must have adequate resistance to
both abrasive and chemical wear, so the chemical
inertness of the material as well as its hardness
must be considered. Figure 3(a) shows a typical
wear land generated during a turning or facing
operation. The balancing of abrasive and chemi-
cal wear resistance, along with toughness, gives
each tool material family its own application
range. Generally, as the cutting speed increases,
chemical wear resistance becomes more impor-
tant. Therefore, inert materials such as oxides and
nitrides perform better at higher cutting speeds.
Deformation. A secondary effect of high cut-
ting speeds is plastic deformation due to in-
creased cutting temperatures . .Under these condi-
tions, the binder phase of a cemented carbide
cutting tool material may soften and deform,
causing a bulging effect (Fig. 3b). Such an effect
can cause breakage, a higher flank wear rate, or
spalling of the coatings. This effect is accentuated
under high chip loads and is a typical failure
mode for rough cutting, in which the toughness
requirements prevent the use of ceramic or other
binderless cutting materials.
Crater Resistance. A secondary result of abra-
sive and chemical wear is the formation of a
crater on the rake surface of the insert. In this
case, the chips formed during the operation rub
and weld on the rake face, causing a dish-shaped
depression to form (Fig. 3c). As a result of this
formation, cutting forces can increase and, cou-
pled with the weakening of the insert, can result
in catastrophic failure due to chipping or break-
age. Crater formation can be inhibited, however,
with the proper chip-breaker geometry.
Cracking occurs under heavy mechanical load
and/or as a result of rapid and repeated tempera-
ture changes during the cutting operation. Cracks
typically initiate at high-stress areas and extend
parallel or perpendicular to the cutting edge (Fig.
3d). Commonly seen in milling operations, these
cracks eventually lead to catastrophic failure due
to chipping or breakage.
Notching occurs most commonly in the ma-
chining of high-temperature materials such as
nickel-base superalloys. It arises in a localized
area at the depth of cut and is a result of the high
stresses in that area. Under these conditions, mi-
nor chipping, coupled with an accelerated wear
rate, results in a failure of the type shown in Fig.
3(e). As this notch grows, the likelihood of crack
formation and subsequent breakage is increased.
Predominant failure mechanisms
Heavy roughing Roughing Semifinishing Finishing
Wear land Deformation
Fracture Chipping
Chipping Deformation Deformation Crater
Deformation Cracking Crater Wear land
Crater
Increasing feed \ Increasing speed
~---------------------t--------------------~
Fig. 2 Predominant failure mechanisms of coated carbides when machining steels
The resistance of whisker-reinforced ceramics to Other alloying elements include tungsten, chro-
this crack formation is one reason they have been mium, vanadium, and cobalt. These steels reach
successful in cutting this type of material. ·exceptionally high hardness after heat treatment
Chipping is a less severe and more common and can maintain that hardness at relatively high
form of breakage. If the strength of the cutting temperatures.
tool material is exceeded in localized areas due to Type T steels also have high carbon contents,
chatter, variations in the workpiece, or buildup on with tungsten as the primary alloying element.
the cutting edge, small fragments of the cutting Chromium and vanadium are present as alloying
edge break away during the cutting operation elements in all type T steels; most also contain
(Fig. 3!). Edge preparation plays an important cobalt. The tungsten types tend to be less tough,
role in minimizing chipping. more resistant to heat, and slightly higher in abra-
Ultimately, the intent in targeting application sion resistance than type M high-speed steels.
ranges is to avoid fracture of the insert (Fig. 3g). Compositions and properties of both types can be
When this occurs, the insert (and often the work- found in the articles "Wrought High-Speed Tool
piece) is rendered unusable. Steels" and "Powder Metallurgy High-Speed
Tool Steels" in this Volume.
When compared with competing cutting tool
materials, high-speed steels are characterized by
Cutting Tool Materials moderate wear resistance and high transverse
rupture strengths (Fig. 1), giving them wide ap-
The classes of tool materials currently in use plicability on machining operations. Their pri-
for machining operations are high-speed tool mary limitation is speed/metal removal rate, as
steels, cobalt-base alloys, cemented carbides, cer- they typically suffer plastic deformation at rela-
mets, ceramics, polycrystalline cubic boron ni- tively low cutting speeds (30 to 60 rn!min, or 100
tride, and polycrystalline diamond. The different to 200 sfm). As a result, their primary applica-
materials vary greatly in wear resistance and tions are in form cutters, reamers, taps, drills, and
toughness. Figure 4 shows schematically their small-diameter end mills. High-speed steels are
relative application ranges in terms of machining also used in the milling of high-temperature ma-
speeds and feed rates. Higher machining speeds terials and on older machines with less rigidity
require tool materials with greater wear resis- and limited speed capability.
tance, whereas higher feed rates require tools Cobalt-based cutting tools have been avail-
with increased toughness. High-speed tool steels able since about 1920 (Ref 1). These materials are
are the toughest materials; however, their rela- generally cast cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys
tively low wear resistance limits their application with carbon and other alloy additions. They are
to lower-speed machining operations. At the not heat treatable, and the maximum hardness (55
other end of the spectrum, ultrahard materials to 65 HRC) occurs near the cast surface. As a
such as CBN and PCD are highly wear resistant result, cast alloy tools must be used as-cast with
and can be employed at high speeds. However, as little grinding as possible.
there is a tradeoff between wear resistance and Cast alloy materials are not widely used. How-
toughness that can limit the application of these ever, they find limited use as a compromise, be-
ultrahard tools to slower feed rates. Figure 5 pro- cause th~y perform well at higher surface speeds
vides specific cutting tool recommendations for than conventional high-speed steels and are more
machining a variety of ferrous and nonferrous resistant to chipping than standard carbide
materials. Manufacturers of cutting tool materials grades. More detailed infonnation on both cast
should also be consulted for information on se- and powder metallurgy forms of these alloys can
lection criteria of the various grades they pro- be found in the article "Cobalt-Base Alloys" in
duce. this Volume.
High-Speed Tool Steels. There are two classi- Cemented carbides belong to a class of hard,
fications of high-speed steels: molybdenum high- wear-resistant, refractory materials in which the
speed steels (type M) and tungsten high-speed hard carbides of Group IVB-VIB metals are
steels (type T). bound together or cemented by a ductile metal
l'ype M steels have high carbon contents, with binder, usually cobalt or nickel. The first ce-
molybdenum as the major alloying element. mented carbide was produced in the 1920s and

(a)
(d)
(f)
fig. 3 Failure mechanisms of cutting tools. (a) Typical flank wear on a carbide insert. (b) Typical edge deformation on a carbide insert. (c) Typical crater wear on a carbide insert. (d) Typical
perpendicular cracks on a carbide insert. (e) Typical notching at depth of cut on a whisker-reinforced ceramic insert. (f) Typical chipping on a carbide insert. (g) Typical fracture on
a carbide insert
consisted of tungsten carbide (WC) with a cobalt
binder (Ref2). A remarkable feature of cemented
carbides is that they can be tailored to provide
different combinations of abrasion resistance and
toughness by controlling the amount of cobalt
and the we grain size.
Over the years, the basic WC-Co material has
been modified to produce a variety of cemented
carbides containing WC-TiC, WC-TiC-TaC,
H (b)
100 J.l.m 1 mm
H (e)
100 p,m
(g)
1 mm
WC-TiC-(Ta,Nb)C, and other solid-solution cu-
bic carbides. The commercially significant alloys
for machining contain 5 to 12 wt% Co and up to
15 wt% cubic carbides. Carbide grain sizes from
0.5 to 5 Jlm are commonly used. Compositions
and properties of these materials are described in
the article "Cemented Carbides" in this Volume.
Cemented carbides dominate the metal re-
moval market. They possess high wear resistance
Selecting Cutting Tool Materials I 5
(c)
1 mm
1 mm
1 mm
and compressive strengths that enable them to cut
a wide variety of materials at favorably high
material removal rates. Uncoated carbides are
typically found in the machining of cast irons,
steels, stainless steels, and nonferrous and high-
temperature materials at speeds up to 150m/min
(500 sfm).
Coatings such as titanium nitride (TiN), tita-
nium carbide (TiC), and aluminum oxide (A[z03)
6/ Materials for Machining and Grinding
~
~
I
"C
Q)
Ceramics
Q)
.,c. Cermets
Cl
r:::
~(,)
Cl
c:
"iii
"'~
(,)
c:
increasing feed rate
Fig. 4 Relative machining application ranges of various cutting tool materials
were added to enable still-higher metal removal
rates to be achieved (Fig. 6). These coatings en-
hance the wear and crater resistance of cemented
carbides with a modest loss in strength. As a
result, a major portion of the market in cast iron,
steel, and stainless steel machining is served by
these materials, with machining speeds up to 275
m/min (900 sfm). More detailed information on
coating methods used to extend the life and pro-
ductivity of cemented carbide inserts can be
found in the article "Coated Carbide, Cermet, and
Ceramic Tool Materials" in this Volume.
Cermets. A cermet is a composite of a ceramic
material with a metallic binder. Although WC-Co
tools also fit this definition, in the North Ameri-
can machining industry the term cennets is ap-
plied more specifically to TiC-based tools that
contain mainly nickel as a binder. The first cut-
ting tool in this family, a TiC-Ni alloy, was com-
mercialized as early as the 1930s but could not
compete with the inherently stronger WC-Co-
based tools. Additions of molybdenum to TiC-Ni
alloys in 1960 brought cermets closer in perform-
ance to WC-Co-based tools for finish machining
of steels.
Titanium carbonitride cermets based on
Ti(C,N)-Ni-Mo were introduced in 1970, fol-
lowed by (Ti,Mo)(C,N)-based compositions that
provided a balance of wear resistance and tough-
ness due to their finer microstructures (Ref 4).
Continued development in this area has resulted
in complex cermets having a variety of additives,
such as Mo 2C, TaC, ZrC, HfC, we, vc, Cr3c 2,
and aluminum (Ref 5). Various mixes of these
additives impart different combinations of wear
resistance, thermal-shock resistance, and tough-
ness, and they allow tools to be tailored for a wide
range of machining applications. The newer cer-
mets are used in semifinishing and finishing of
carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, ductile
irons, free-machining aluminum and other non-
ferrous alloys, and some high-temperature alloys.
Carbides
High-
Speed
Tool
Steels
The metal removal operations may include turn-
ing, boring, milling, threading, and grooving;
speeds up to 365 rn!min (1200 sfm) are common.
Ceramic tools are inherently more stable than
carbide tools at high temperatures (high cutting
speeds) but are less fracture resistant, so recent
work has focused on improving their fraclure
toughness. There are basically two classes of ce-
ramic cutting tools: A)z03-based ceramics and
silicon nitride (Si]N4)-based ceramics. The white
Ab03-based ceramics may contain low levels of
zirconia (Zr02) as a sintcring aid and are used for
machining cast iron. Higher Zr02levels are used
in tools to machine steels. The Zr02 improves
fracture toughness by a transformation toughen-
ing or crack deflection mechanism (Ref 6, 7), but
it decreases the thermal conductivity and hard-
ness of the tool.
Additions of up to 30 val% TiC to Ah03 make
the inserts black and improve the thermal con-
ductivity, hardness, and toughness of the tools
without seriously degrading their chemical stabil-
ity. The Ah03-TiC ceramics are employed on a
wide range of workpiece materials, including cast
iron, steel, and nickel-base superalloys.
Silicon carbide (SiC) whisker~reinforced
A]z03 (A]z03-SiCw) ceramics, developed in the
early 1980s (Ref 8), are tougher than white ce-
ramics due to crack deflection by the dispersed
SiC whiskers in the microstructure (Ref 9). The
whiskers also increase hardness and improve
thermal-shock resistance by increasing thermal
conductivity and reducing the thermal expansion
coefficient. The major application of these tool
materials is high-speed, high-feed machining of
nickel-base superalloys. These ceramics can be
used on cast irons but are rarely used on steels
because of the poor chemical stability of SiC.
Tools based on Si3N4 and solid solutions of
aluminum and oxygen in Si]N4 (Sialons) were
introduced in the early 1980s. Their whisker-like
grain structure makes them tougher than the
white Ah03 ceramics, and they also possess ex-
ce11ent hot hardness and thermal-shock resis-
tance. These characteristics pennit them to be
used at high speeds and feed rates and in inter-
rupted cutting of nickel-base superalloys and cast
irons (Ref 10, 11). However, the chemical stabil-
ity of SbN4/Sialon tool materials is lower than
that of alumina ceramics, which prohibits their
application in most steel machining.
The high hardness and thermal-deformation
resistance of ceramic cutting tool materials allow
metal removal at speeds as high as 1220 rn!min
(4000 sfm). Additional information on the prop-
erties and applications of Ah03- and Si3N4-based
cutting tool materials can be found in the article
"Ceramics" in this Volume.
Ultrahard Tool Materials. Cubic boron ni- ·
tride (CBN) and polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
are extremely wear-resistant materials commonly
referred to as ultrahard or superhard tool materi-
als. Synthesis, properties, and applications of
CBN and PCD are described in the article ..Ultra-
hard Tool Materials" in this Volume. The use of
CBN and PCD as abrasive grains for grinding
applications is described in the article ..Abrasives
for Grinding Applications" in this Volume.
Cubic boron nitride, which has a hardness of
4500 HK, is the material of choice for machining
steels with hardnesses exceeding 50 HRC. Other
applications include machining of cast irons
(typically 180 to 240 HB) and superalloys (>35
HRC). Polycrystalline diamond, on the other
hand, cannot be used for steel machining because
of its solubility and the catalytic effect of iron,
which causes graphitization of the diamond. The
primary application of PCD tools is in the very-
high-speed machining of aluminum-silicon al-
loys, composites, and other nonmetallic work-
pieces. Speeds as high as 2000 m!min (6500 sfm)
can be achieved during machining of aluminum-
silicon alloys with PCD tooling.
Application/Grade Selection
Knowledge of the machinability charac-
teristics of the workpiece material and the prop-
erties of the cutting tool material is the starting
point for selecting a grade-geometry combination
for any machining operation. The task of the
tooling engineer is to select, from the vast num-
bers of possibilities, the grade that will give the
best performance, predictability, reliability, and
cost. To accomplish this, it is necess&ry to evalu-
ate the operation characteristics, insert and chip
groove selection criteria, and machining econom-
ics (Ref 12).
Operation Characteristics
The operation category involves determin-
ing whether heavy roughing, roughing, semifin-
ishing, or finishing is needed. For example, the
high-speed finishing of steel requires high wear
and deformation resistance. Coated grades, cer-
mets, and ceramics are candidates fm: this type of
operation.
 Selecting Cutting Tool Materials I 7

-
=
,,,,,,,,d

100
Speed attainable when cutting free-machining
and/or nonferrous materials
Typical speed range
Occasional usage
Speed, sfm
Generally
successful
Alz03-based ceramics may be more economi-
cal.
Surface finish, part geometry, and part tol-
erance should also be considered. For example,
coated carbide inserts generally produce a better
surface finish than uncoated carbides.
Machine capabilities and limitations are the
Aluminum, final operation characteristics that must be deter-
Rough, mined. For example, older machines with poor
high-silicon aiolminwnl
PCO semifinish,
alloys, nonferrous, rigidity and low horsepower cannot make effec-
finish
nonmetallic
tive use of advanced ceramic materials, and high-
speed tool steels are generally recommended.
Silicon nitride Rough,
Gray, ductile,
{SiAION) semifinish,
malleable irons Insert and Chip Groove Selection
finish
A variety of insert shapes, sizes, nose radii, and
chip grooves are available for any machining
Rough, High-temperature
semifinish, hard steels,
operation. Proper selection is essential to opti-
finish cast irons mize the operation for productivity and cost.
The shape of an insert determines its relative
strength and cost (Fig. 7). In general, the stronger
Rough, Irons, steels,
semifinish, insert has more available cutting edges and there-
powdered metals
finish fore can be more economical on a cost-per-index
basis. However, the part geometry may limit the
Irons and steels, use of the desired insert shape. The general rule is
Rough, above 40 HAC,
semifinish, to select the strongest insert capable of producing
pearlitic gray
finish irons below 30 HAC the required part configuration.
Size and Nose Radii. The size of an insert is
Rough, Irons, steels, detennined by the inscribed circle. The depth of
semifinish, high-temperature cut should not exceed one-half the inscribed cir-
finish alloys, stainless steels cle size, and the insert thickness should be at least
four times the operating feed rate. Finally, the
Rough, largest possible nose radius should be selected.
Irons, steels,
semifinish,
stainless steels Larger radii produce better surface finishes, han-
finish dle heavier feed rates, and strengthen the insert.
Chip groove selection is almost as crucial as
selecting the proper grade. The performance of
Semifinish, Irons, steels,
finish stainless steels the cutting tool is determined not only by the
grade properties and coating type but also by a
chip groove style that will allow lower cutting
Rough, Irons, steels, forces, better chip handling and control, extended
semifinish, nickel-base, tool life, and lower machining costs. Modem
finish stainlesi? steels
numerically controlled machining operations put
a high demand on reliable chip flow. Long chips
Rough, Irons, steels, titanium, cause ihterruptions of the machining cycle, a loss
iii high-temperature
finish alloys, stainless steels
of productivity, and damage to the cutting tool
and workpiece. Long chips also represent a per-
sonal hazard to the operator.
Heavy Commercially available inserts with chip
Irons, steels,
rough,
stainless steels grooves are designed to produce acceptable chips
semifinish
throughout the widest possible range of feed rates
and depths of cut while maintaining high edge
Rough, Irons, steels,
semifinish, high-temperature
strength. General recommendations are listed be-
finish alloys, stainless steels low for proper chip groove selection on carbide
tools:
0 30 60 120 180 245 305 610 915 1220 1525 1830 2135 2440
Speed, m/min • For general-purpose applications, select a
chip groove that has its nominal feed range as
Fig. 5 Approximate speed ranges and applications of various cutting and tool materials. Source: GTE Valenite Corp. near as possible to the intended operating feed
rate. This will ensure acceptable chips, predict-
able and reliable tool life, and a lower cost per
Workpiece material type (hard, soft and Production volume (large or small scale, index.
gummy, or difficult to machine) must also be periodic or long-range production) is a third • For heavy feeds/high material-removal rates,
determined. For example, the machining of soft important consideration. For example, the ma- select single-sided inserts. The improved rigid-
and gummy low-carbon steel at moderate speeds chining of difficult-to-cut Inconel 718 in large- ity and resultant higher effective edge strength
requires a TiN -coated insert or a cermet to resist scale production using whisker-reinforced ce- permit higher speeds and feeds while generat-
buildup at the cutting edge and to provide a good ramics will increase productivity and lower ing lower forces than double-sided inserts. In
surface finish. cost. In small-scale production, conventional most cases, this will improve productivity.
8 I Materials for Machining and Grinding

1000 Table 1 Different types of ceramic edge preparation with recommended application
BOO
Al~:rcoated Operation Rake angle Chamfer

600 General purpose Negative 0.20 mm X 20° (0.008 in. X 20°)

0

~
Finishing Negative or positive 0.075 mmx25° (0.003 in.x25°)
400 General purpose and milling Negative 0.15mmx 30°(0.006 in x30°)

'"••• Heavy roughing Negative 0.38mmx25°(0.Q15 in. x25°)

IL
Special Negative or positive Special
0.
~

~ 200
Width Width IJ::__t
~~ngle ~"Angle
u

I }' R•dou' I ,A
100 I
1 2
Tool life, min to 0.25 mm flank wear Special applications, fine finishing General-purpose grades,
higher forces, negative rake angles
(a)

1000
600 though the general rule for hones is that less is and the material being machined. Generally, cut-
400 better, the toughness of the cutting tool material ting tool manufacturers supply the optimum cut-
and the integrity of the insert cutting edge should ting speed range for all grades in their grade
.0 200 be considered. A larger hone or chamfer gives handbooks.
.€ additional protection against catastrophic failure
E
-o 100 by fracture, which results in the loss of all cutting
••0. edges .
<IJ
60
Ceramic edge preparation is even more crucial
Testing of Cutting Tool Materials
40 than that for carbides. The brittle nature of the A wide variety of machine tests are used to
material requires that special edge preparation or evaluate cutting tools. In addition to a variety of
20 T-lands be used to increase their effective edge workpiece types, these tests employ variations in
strength. As indicated in Table 1, the choice of speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. These variables
10~-U~~--L_~-U~~--~
4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200 edge preparation depends on the insert shape, can be manipulated to generate the desired failure
Tool life, min to 0.25 mm flank wear
cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and required modes and determine the overall application
surface finish. range of the cutting tool material. Similarly, the
(b)
type of machining operation itself determines the
Fig. 6 Productivity improvements made possible with
Machining Economics primary properties required for success. Milling
coated carbides. (a) Machining of medium-carbon The primary factors in machining economics grades typically require higher strengths than
steel. Workpiece, 1045 steel; hardness, 180 HB; feed rate, vary from operation to operation. However, cut-
0.25 mm/rev; depth of cut, 2.5 mm. (b) Machining of gray
their turning counterparts.
cast iron. Workpiece, G4000 cast iron; hardness, 210 HB; ting speed is important in optimizing the econom- Therefore, to determine the application range
feed rate, 0.25 mm/rev; depth of cut, 2.5 mm. Source: Ref 3 ics of any operation (Ref 13). Too slow a cutting of a cutting tool, it is necessary to vary the speed,
speed results in poor throughput and an increase feed rate, and depth of cut, as well as workpiece
in overall production costs. Too fast a cutting material. The tests described below are typical of
speed can result in lower tool life with higher tool those used in this detennination. Additional in-
• For finishing or for low feeds and depths of cut costs and more downtime. Somewhere between formation on cutting tool evaluation can be found
applications, select a chip groove that pro- these extremes lies the optimum. in Ref 14 and the article "Wear and Failure Modes
duces a good combination of chip control, low Figure 8 shows production costs plotted for Cutting Tools" in this Volume.
cost per index, and reliable tool life. against cutting speed. The optimum cutting range The impact test is a flycut milling test that
lies between the points of minimum cost and uses a 150 mm (6.0 in.) diameter cutter body
Edge preparation is the addition of a radius or maximum production. The size of this range de- loaded with a single insert. This test is conducted
chamfer to the cutting edge of the insert. Al- pends on the operation, the cutting tool material, at a constant speed and depth of cut, but the feed

Increasing strength
Optimum
cutting
speed
I

Minimum/
cost

Cutting speed

Increasing cost
Fig. 8 Chart for determining minimum cost, maximum
production, and optimum cutting speed. Source:
Fig. 7 Relationship among insert shape, strength, and cost Ref13

rate is varied to determine the overall toughness
of the cutting tool. Typical conditions for this test
in Carbide testing are:
• Material: AISI 4150 steel (resulfurized), 265
HB, 75 by 40 mm (3.0 by 1.5 in.) cross section
• Speed: 230m/min (750 sfm)
• Depth of cut: 3.2mm (0.125 in.)
The centerline of the cutter is aligned with the entry
of bar, and the insert is run one pass per comer at
successively higher feed rates until chipping or
breakage occurs.
The turning test is generally used to deter-
mine wear resistance and high-speed deformation
resistance. In this test, speed, feed, and depth of
cut are constant, and tool life is measured as the
time required to form a 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) wear
land ora0.!3 mm (0.005 in.) crater depth. A wide
variety of conditions are used, depending on the
material being tested, but typical conditions
might be:
• Material: AISI!045 steel, 180 HB
• Speed: 210m/min (700 sfm)
• Feed: 0.50 mm/rev (0.020 in./rev)
• Depth of cut: 2.55 mm (0.100 in.)
During the test, inserts are checked and wear lands
are measured at regular intervals. The tool 1ife is
expressed as the number of minutes required to
achieve a 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) wear land or a 0.13
mm (0.005 in.) crater depth.
A facing test is used to provide a rapid means
of evaluating the wear and crater resistance of
cutting tools (particularly coated materials). In
this test, speed, feed, and depth of cut are held
constant while the insert is run through multiple
facing passes. The total number of passes re-
quired to achieve a0.38 mm (0.015 in.) wear land
or a 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) crater depth is consid-
ered-the tool life. Typical conditions for testing a
coated carbide material are:
• Mat",ial: AISI4150 steel, 220 HB, facing 175
to 50 mm (7 to 2 in.) diameter
• Speed: 275 m/min (900 sfm)
• Feed: 0.40 mm/rev (0.015 in./rev)
• Depth of cut: 1.6 mm (0.0625 in.)
Nodular Iron Impact Test. A specialized test
used to determine relative coating adherence is
conducted using a gu,mmy nodular (ductile) iron.
This is a flycut test that uses a !50 mm (6.0 in.)
diameter cutter loaded with a single insert. The
insert is exposed to a single pass at a specified
speed, feed, and depth of cut. Adhered iron is then
removed in an acid bath, and the insert is in-
spected to determine the amount of coating that
has spalled away from the substrate. 'This is ex-
pressed as a percentage of the total chip contact
area. Typical conditions for this test are:
• Material: 80-55-06 ductile iron, 235 HB, 50
mm (2 in.) diameter cross section
• Speed: 275 m/min (900 sfm)
• Feed: 0.23 mm/tooth (0.0092 in./tooth)
• Depth of cut: 3.2 mm (0.125 in.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The information in this article is largely taken
from:
• C. Zimmerman, S.P. Boppana, and K. Katbi,
Machinability Test Methods, Machining, Vol
16, ASM Handbook (formerly 9th ed., Metals
Handbook), ASM International, 1989, p 639-
647
• AT. Santhanam and D.T. Quinto, Surface
Engineering of Carbide, Cermet, and Ce-
ramic Cutting Tools, Surface Engineering,
Vol 5, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
1994, p 900-908
Selecting Cutting Tool Materials f 9
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