Low Alloy Steel

Low-alloy steels are a category of ferrous materials that exhibit

mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels, due to the
addition of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum.
From: Applied Welding Engineering, 2012

Related terms:

Chromium, Carbon Steel, Austenite, Corrosion, Heat Treatment, Hydrogen,

Hardness

Pressure System Design

In Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (Fourth Edition), 2012

12.3.12 Low Alloy Steel

The low alloy steels which are important in process plants are mainly those which
have a carbon content less than 0.2% and contain a total <12% alloying elements
(Ni, Cr, Mo, V, B, W, or Cu).
Many low alloy steels are given a heat treatment of normalizing and tempering by
the manufacturer, but there is an increasing tendency to a quenching and
tempering treatment. Low alloy steels are all weldable, but for some steels pre- or
post-weld heat treatment is necessary in order to avoid weld zone cracking.
Some principal low alloy steels are:

0.5 Mo 12 CrMoVW

1.25 CrMo 0.25 Cr 0.25 Mo 1.5 Ni

2.25 CrMo

Some significant advantages of low alloy steels over mild steel are:
(1) yield strength;
(2) high temperature properties
(a) creep strength,
(b) oxidation resistance,
(c) hydrogen resistance;
(3) low temperature ductility.
The improvement in yield strength and in creep strength is illustrated in Figure
12.7. Yield strength is the main design parameter used in advanced codes for
pressure vessels and the gain in yield strength is valuable. Low alloy steels make it
possible to have thinner walled pressure vessels. Low alloy steels such as 0.5 Mo,
1.25 CrMo, 2.25 CrMo, and 12 CrMoVW are used for their creep properties in
applications such as steam boilers and refinery crackers and reformers. The upper
temperature limit for low alloy steels is about 600°C.
Oxidation resistance is another important property of low alloy steels. The principal
alloying element which imparts oxidation resistance is chromium. Low alloy steels
also offer greater resistance to hydrogen attack in such operations as cracking and
reforming. Mild steel ceases to be suitable above 250°C, 0.5 Mo steel can used up
to about 350°C, while 2.25 CrMo steel can go up to about 550–600°C. Apart from
resistance to oxidation and hydrogen attack, low alloy steels do not offer much
greater resistance to corrosion than does mild steel.
An increase in low temperature ductility down to −50°C can be obtained by
addition of 1.5 Ni to 0.25 Cr 0.25 Mo steel. This is a most valuable modification,
since low temperature embrittlement is a serious problem. Nickel is the main
alloying element used to give low temperature ductility.

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Classification of Steels
Ramesh Singh, in Applied Welding Engineering, 2012

Low-Alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical
properties superior to plain carbon steels, due to the addition of alloying elements
such as nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. Total alloy content can range from
2.07% up to levels just below that of stainless steels, which contain a minimum of
10% chromium.
For many low-alloy steels, the primary function of the alloying elements is to
increase hardenability in order to optimize mechanical properties and toughness
after heat treatment. In some cases, however, alloy additions are to reduce
environmental degradation under certain specified service conditions. As with
steels in general, low-alloy steels can be classified according to their chemical
composition, such as nickel steels, nickel-chromium steels, molybdenum steels,
and chromium-molybdenum steels.
They are also classified on the basis of their heat treatment, such as quenched and
tempered, normalized and tempered, or annealed.
Because of the wide variety of possible chemical compositions, and the fact that
some steels are used in more than one heat-treated condition, some overlap exists
among the alloy steel classifications. Four major groups of alloy steels are
identified and discussed here.
Low-Carbon Quenched and Tempered Steels
These steels combine high yield strength, ranging from 50  to 150 ksi (350 to
1,035 MPa) with good notch toughness, ductility, corrosion resistance, and
weldability. There are different combinations of these steels with varying
characteristics based on their intended applications.
Medium-Carbon Ultrahigh-Strength Steels
These are structural steels with yield strengths that can exceed 200 ksi (1,380 MPa).
Many of these steels are covered by SAE/AISI designations, or are proprietary
compositions. Product forms include billet, bar, rod, forgings, sheet, tubing, and
welding wire.
Bearing Steels
Bearing steels, as the name suggests, are used for ball and roller bearing
applications. They contain low carbon, of about 0.10 to 0.20%, and these steels are
casehardened. Many of these steels are covered by SAE/AISI designations.
Chromium-Molybdenum Heat-Resistant Steels
Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels contain 0.5 to 9% chromium and
0.5 to 1.0% molybdenum. The carbon content is usually below 0.2%. The
chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance, and the
molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures. They are generally
supplied in the normalized and tempered, quenched and tempered or annealed
condition. Chromium-molybdenum steels are widely used in the oil and gas
industries, and in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.

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Stresses, Shrinkage, and Distortion in Weldments

Ramesh Singh, in Applied Welding Engineering (Second Edition), 2016

Welding and Fabrication of Low-Alloy Steels

Low-alloy steels present specific challenges regarding welding and fabrication. The
complexity of the weldability is as varied as the alloy steel composition and its
application. Each alloy combination presents its own weldability challenge, and
they must be treated as such. There cannot be one fit all solution in these cases.
What can be generalized is the fact that each of these grades and even the modified
versions require full knowledge of their metallurgical structures, and that must be
matched with the service demands on those material after the welding is
completed. This requires that the preheat, interpass, temperatures, and PWHT are
very carefully considered and strictly followed. Steel with 9% chromium and
molybdenum is one such steel that is often used in industrial and heat exchangers’
construction. Very carefully developed welding procedure with well-laid-out heat
control plans to prevent formation of a detrimental phase in steel is required to
have a successful weldment.
A case study is provided on the weldability challenges of 9-chrome-moly and
microalloyed 9-chrome steel.

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Classification of Steels
Ramesh Singh, in Applied Welding Engineering (Second Edition), 2016

Low-Alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical
properties superior to plain carbon steels because of the addition of alloying
elements such as nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. Total alloy content can
range from 2.07% up to levels just below that of stainless steels, which contain a
minimum of 10% chromium.
For many low-alloy steels, the primary function of the alloying elements is to
increase hardenability in order to optimize mechanical properties and toughness
after heat treatment. In some cases, however, alloy additions are done to reduce
environmental degradation under certain specified service conditions. As with
steels in general, low-alloy steels can be classified according to their chemical
composition, such as nickel steels, nickel–chromium steels, molybdenum steels,
and chromium–molybdenum steels.
They are also classified based on heat treatment, such as quenched and tempered,
normalized and tempered, and annealed.
Because of the wide variety of chemical compositions that is possible and the fact
that some steels are used in more than one heat-treated, condition, some overlap
exists among the alloy steel classifications. Four major groups of alloy steels are
identified and discussed here.
Low-Carbon Quenched and Tempered Steels
Theses steels combine high yield strength, ranging from 50 to 150 ksi (350–1035
MPa) and good notch toughness ductility, corrosion resistance, or weldability.
There are different combinations of these steels with varying characteristics based
on their intended applications.
Medium-Carbon Ultrahigh-Strength Steels
These are structural steels with yield strengths that can exceed 200 ksi (1380 MPa).
Many of these steels are covered by Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE)/American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) designations or are proprietary
compositions. Product forms include billet, bar, rod, forgings, sheet, tubing, and
welding wire.
Bearing Steels
Bearing steels, as the name suggests, are used for ball and roller bearing
applications. They contain low carbon (≈0.10%–0.20%); these steels are case
hardened. Many of these steels are covered by SAE/AISI designations.
Chromium–Molybdenum Heat-Resistant Steels
Chromium–molybdenum heat-resistant steels contain 0.5% to 9% chromium and
0.5% to 1.0% molybdenum. The carbon content is usually below 0.2%. The
chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance, and the
molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures. They are generally
supplied in the normalized and tempered, quenched and tempered, or annealed
condition. Chromium–molybdenum steels are widely used in the oil and gas
industries and in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.
As stated earlier, steels may be classified by method of manufacture, their use, or
chemical composition. Manufacturing method categories include Bessemer steel,
open-hearth steel, electric-furnace steel, crucible steel, and so on. Some steel
specifications specify the particular method required to comply with a standard.
Classification based on “use” include machine steel, spring steel, boiler steel,
structural steel, and tool steel. Classification by chemical composition is the most
common method. Steel specifications systems are generated by AISI and SAE in
the United States; they use elaborate numbering system to indicate the
approximate alloying content.
Sometimes letter prefixes are included to designate the steelmaking process (B =
acid Bessemer, C = basic open-hearth, E = basic electric furnace). The last two
numbers indicate the carbon content, for example the AISI 1020 steel has 0.20%
carbon. The following is a list of some AISI steels and their general descriptions.
For more detailed information about any of these steels, AISI publications must be
referred.

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Control of carbon content in metal injection molding

Gemma Herranz, in Handbook of Metal Injection Molding (Second Edition), 2019

14.3.3 Low-alloy steels

Low-alloy steels are generally used for structural applications. They are ideal for
applications that require hardness and strength. These alloys include MIM-4140,
MIM-4340, MIM 4605, and MIM 52100 and those of FeNiC with different contents
of Ni: Fe2NiC or Fe8NiC. These alloys are frequently heat treated to maximize their
properties. These thermal treatments include different processes of quenching and
tempering. The quench-and-temper heat treatments are processes that offer
various strength and wear-resistance properties, then the resultant parts could be
used in a wide range of sectors including automotive, consumer products, and
firearms at modest cost.
The carbon content of these alloys could vary in the range from 0.35 wt% to
0.8 wt% (ISO 22068:2012, 2012). The powder contains these amount of carbon or
slightly higher in order to keep the carbon content in the target specifications after
the whole MIM process. To ensure a minimum loss of carbon content, the
debinding and sintering atmosphere most commonly used is pure nitrogen. To
minimize the prices of these products and optimize the properties, different initial
powders have been tested to prepare the feedstock. Different experimental studies
described that it is possible to use powders from different routes: prealloyed (PA),
MAs, or using carbonyl iron powder (CIP) with the additions of the rest of alloying
elements. Different studies have demonstrated that the use of PA and MA powders
lead to improved mechanical properties, better control of distortion, better control
of chemistry, and cost advantages (Coleman et al., 2012).
Another suitable possibility to increase the final properties of MIM parts of low-
alloy steels consist of modifying the proportion of the elemental powders. For
example, varying the nickel content (increasing up to 6 wt%) is possible to produce
steel with superhigh strengthening properties achieving 2000 MPa of tensile
strength without loss of ductility. Moreover, it is possible to produce successfully
steel with reduced amounts of Ni, substituting it by another less harmful element
as Mn, keeping tensile strength of 1570 MPa for the heat-treated samples. In all
the cases, the sintering atmosphere of N2 or H2-N2 has to ensure a carbon content
around 0.4 wt% in the final parts. The subsequent thermal treatments of reheating,
quenching, and tempering are usually carried out in argon atmosphere to avoid
oxidation and maintain the carbon content (Miura & Matsuda, 2002).

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Development of advanced alloys with improved

resistance to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) in power plants
S. Prakash, in Structural Alloys for Power Plants, 2014

10.3.2 Development of ferritic steel

Low alloy steels are usually used in power plants when temperatures are lower than
approximately 580 °C. However, when the temperatures are higher than 580 °C,
low alloy steels are no longer appropriate as their low creep resistance means that
the walls will have to be much thicker, which results in greatly increased costs, and
they do not have sufficient oxidation resistance to cope with high temperatures.
Since the 1950s, austenitic stainless steels have been used to make the
components that are exposed to temperatures exceeding 580 °C. However, despite
the benefits of austenitic stainless steels over low alloy steels at high temperatures,
there are problems with steam oxidation and high temperature corrosion when
they are used in boilers that are fuelled by oil. They are also expensive and
susceptible to SCC and weld problems. Ferritic steels overcome several of these
problems, have high thermal conductivity, offer a lower coefficient of thermal
expansion and are easier to work with. Over the past 40 years, high-alloy ferritic
steels have been developed to create a material that combines the benefits of
ferritic steels and austenitic stainless steels. Figure 10.4 shows the development of
ferritic steels for boilers, showing an improvement in creep ruture strength at
600 °C from 35 MPa to 150 MPa. After a lot of research, 9Cr and 12Cr steels were
introduced into power stations. There are more than 200 grades of 12Cr steels with
different trade names, many of which are used in gas turbines and a few of which
are used in both thermal and nuclear power stations (Singh, 2006).

10.4. Development of ferritic steels (for boilers Viswanathan et al., 2005).

For heavy section components such as pipes and heads, minimising thermal
fatigue and achieving high creep strength has been the main aim. For this reason,
alloy development has focused on ferritic steels containing 9–12% Cr.
Optimisation of C, Nb, Mo and V and partial substitution of W for Mo in the 9–
12% Cr ferritic steels has resulted in three new alloys, HCM12A, NF616 and E911,
which are capable of operating up to 620 °C at steam pressures up to 35 MPa.
Beyond 620 °C, oxidation resistance may become an additional limiting factor,
especially for the steels containing 9% Cr. A newer class of 12% Cr alloys, NF12
and SAVE12, containing Co and additional W, is being evaluated for potential use
at temperatures of 650 °C (Viswanathan et al., 2003).
Ferritic steels have certain useful corrosion properties, including resistance to:
• chloride SCC;
• corrosion in oxidising aqueous media;
• oxidation at increased temperatures and pitting;
• crevice corrosion in chloride media.
There is approximately 13% Cr in these steels and they precipitate a prime phase in
the temperature range between 350 and 540 °C. The maximum effect is achieved at
470 °C. When working with ferritic stainless steels (particularly those containing
large amounts of chromium), it is important to remember precipitation hardening
as this decreases the material’s temperature ductility. The ferritic structure of this
material can be maintained at room temperature and increased temperatures
through the introduction of titanium or columbium to the steel, or by melting the
material until there are very low levels of carbon and nitrogen. Ductility and
resistance to corrosion in weldments can be provided by these microstructures.
The pitting corrosion resistance can be improved through the addition of
molybdenum, whereas the high temperature oxidation resistance can be improved
with silicon and aluminium. Ferritic steels that have been developed recently
contain higher proportions of chromium, which is achieved through vacuum and
argon-oxygen decarburisation, melting with electron-beams and large-volume
vacuum induction melting. These metals include ASTM designations 409 and 439.
Type 409 contains 12% Cr and is reasonably inexpensive and features good
formability and weldability. Type 439 contains 18–20% Cr and has a higher
resistance to chloride SCC. It is suitable for use in aqueous chlorides, heat transfer
operations, condenser tubes for use in power plants that use fresh water, food-
handling uses and pipes that carry water in both domestic and industrial buildings
(Key to Metals, 2001).
Ferritic grades, containing chromium and possibly other elements (Mo,Ti, Nb,
etc.), are well known for being less expensive than austenitic steels since most of
them have no expensive nickel additions. Superferritic grades have also been
developed over many years. They have a high chromium content (25–29%) and the
addition of Ni and Mo alloys makes them highly resistant to corrosion, albeit
restricted to marginal applications. This is due to their high sensitivity to
embrittling phase transitions (Charles et al., 2008).

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Two modes of metal transfer phenomenon in friction

stir welding of low alloy steel plates
A. Pradeep, S. Muthukumaran, in Proceedings of the 1st International Joint
Symposium on Joining and Welding, 2013

Conclusion
Low alloy steel plates are successfully welded by FSW and the important
conclusions drawn from the present study are listed below:
1. Defect free welds were obtained on 3 mm thick mild steel plate with FSW over
a range of tool rotation speed of 900-1400 rpm and traverse speed of 8-
20 mm/min.
2. The stir zone, heat affected zone showed micro structurally distinct region. The
upper surface of the stir zone showed fine structure compared to lower surface
which have coarse grain structure. HAZ had a coarse structure surrounds the
stir zone and a fine structure adjacent to coarse area.
3. Welded sample failed in a region away from the welded region which shows
ultimate tensile strength of weld is comparable to base plate; this may be due
to grain refinement.
4. The tensile strength increase with the increasing rotary speed and there is a
decrease in tensile strength when rotary speed is increased more.
5. The joint efficiency, showed similar increasing trend with the mechanical
properties.
6. When the rotary speed is increasing, there would be extensive plastic
deformation at the weld nugget zone which result finer grains at the weld
nugget zone. So due to this the mechanical properties improve.
7. When the rotary speed is increased more, due to high rotation speed large
amount of plastic flow arises turbulent flow of weld metal and may cause
 defects in the welds which decrease mechanical properties.
8. Hardness value found to increase in the stir zone compared to the base
material. This may be due to grain refinement at that region or may be due to
formation of higher harder structure.
9. The first mode increases the compactness of the weld and eliminates defects.
Hence, an increase in the first mode of metal transfer improves the tensile
properties. There exists a linear correlation between the percentage of first
mode in the fractured surface and the ultimate tensile strength.

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Corrosion Protection
Mohamed A. El-Reedy Ph.D., in Offshore Structures, 2012

6.6 General Design Considerations

Low-alloy steels with a minimum yield stress ranging from 275 to 450 MPa are
specified for substructures for fixed offshore platforms. Special attention should be
given to the use of higher-strength steels, particularly those with minimum yield
stress above 400 MPa.
Sacrificial anodes are manufactured from an indium-activated aluminum alloy. The
use of other aluminum activators has to be agreed to by the principal. Tin-activated
aluminum alloys are not be used.
Mercury- or cadmium-activated aluminum alloys may be considered only if
indium-activated aluminum ones are proven to be ineffective in providing
protection. However, statutory regulations limiting the use of these alloys may
apply.
The core material must be carbon steel and must comply with the specification
requirements for tubular structure secondary members. The core diameter and
wall thickness shall be agreed upon with the principal. Anode core attachment by
welding is as specified by drawings and in conformance with the welding
specification for the associated structure.
Anodes of the slender stand-off type should have a minimum stand-off, the closest
distance between the aluminum alloy and the attached steel member, of 150 mm.
Anodes should have a cylindrical or trapezoidal shape. The anode core should exit
at the anode ends.
The sacrificial anode material should have a capacity greater than 3.6 kg/A/year
(efficiency = 2420 Ah/kg). Anode material should have a potential in the range of
−1.05 to −1.15 V versus Ag/AgCl/seawater. The number of anodes, their capacity
and potential should be sufficient to meet both the polarization and current
maintenance requirements for the steel over the design temperature range.
The closed-circuit anode potential (Eoa) used in design calculations for
determination of indium-activated aluminum anode current output should be
−1.05 V Ag/AgCl/seawater.
The objective of the design calculations is to compute by iteration the number of
anodes and anode dimensions to verify the following:
• the initial current, final current, current capacity and current distribution
requirements of the structure are fulfilled
• the lowest installed cost for the CP system, including cost of anode materials,
molds, installation and coating systems (if used), is achieved.
To ensure adequate and efficient use of the anode material, the submerged
structure should be divided into zones to be protected. Three zones are normally
classified:
 • Zone 1: This zone starts from mean sea level to just above the first horizontal
member below it. The depth of this zone is either the trough depth of a 100-
year extreme wave or 20 m, whichever is larger. The calcareous coatings of this
zone are subjected to damage by storm waves.
• Zone 2: The zone below zone 1 and above sea bottom.
• Zone 3: The zone below the sea bottom mud line.
In zone 3, instead of calculating the surface area for well-casing strings extending
beyond the end of the conductor, an allowance of 2.5–3 amperes per well should
be provided. This allowance is provided in addition to the surface area
contributions from other components, such as conductors and piles.
The external surface area of the buried part of piles and conductors is included in
the calculations only up to a depth of 30 m into the seabed.
The current drain to open skirt piles, sumps and caissons should cover an internal
surface area equivalent to 10 times π times their respective diameter.
The internal surfaces of all flooded structural members with unsealed flooding
holes are included in the surface area calculations.

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Boiler steels, damage mechanisms, inspection and life

assessment
A. Shibli, in Power Plant Life Management and Performance Improvement, 2011

7.2.3 Metallurgy of low alloy ferritic steels

The low alloy steels of relevance are those based on the chromium– molybdenum
series with additions of elements such as vanadium, niobium, titanium and others.
They are often designated as creep-resistant steels. Service design requirements
also require other more basic properties such as elevated temperature proof
strength (sometimes tensile strength) and impact/toughness resistance. The most
commonly used ‘standard’ steel grades, which are used for tubes and pipes in
steam boilers and heat exchangers, are shown in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1. Typical low alloy steels used for tubes and pipes

Common name EN name ASTM name

0.3% or 0.5%Mo 16Mo3 (for 0.3 %Mo steel only) T1 (for 0.5 %Mo steel only)

1%CrMo 13CrMo4–5 T11

2.25%Cr–1%Mo 10CrMo9–10 T22

0.5%CrMoV 14MoV6–3 —

These steel types are usually referred to as ‘ferritic’ steels and usually have a bainitic
microstructure, which generally has the best creep resistance [3], although long
term service/testing strength depends mainly on the fine precipitates within the
bainitic microstructure [4]. Different alloying elements can have different effects on
the microstructure. For example, chromium, apart from conferring oxidation
resistance, retards the transformation on cooling from austenite such that when it
is present in the range 9 to 12% martensite becomes the predominant
microstructure. Similarly, different heat treatment types and cooling rates can
result in different microstructures [5], giving different properties to the same
chemical composition alloy.
All steels are in a meta-stable state after tempering and so extended time during
service exposure at high temperatures will produce further metallurgical changes
that can lead eventually to instability, usually beyond the design life. The most
stable carbide formed during tempering in the low alloy steels (without vanadium)
is Mo2C. It has low nucleation energy and forms as very fine needle-shaped
particles, which grow very slowly at normal service temperatures due to a high
coherency between the lattice structures of the carbide particle and the
surrounding ‘ferrite’ matrix. For steels containing vanadium, another distinctive
precipitate forms, namely V4C3, which has a plate-like appearance in the
microstructure. Like Mo2C this is also very stable and confers high creep resistance.

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