1. The innate immune response is always the first response to an infection.

2. The innate immune response acts fast, but never changes from exposure to exposure.
3. Barrier defenses like the skin, mucous membranes and secretions. In humans and in most vertebrates, the skin with other
ectodermal derivatives is the first line of defense against infection.
4. If there is an invading pathogen like a virus (or bacteria or any foreign substance) the body reacts through mucous
secretions. Even the saliva contains agents, which are antimicrobial.
5. Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist of phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial proteins
(interferons; the complement system) and the inflammatory response (that involves histamines, mast cells and cytokines).
6. Without the innate immune response, the adaptive immune response cannot be activated, because the innate immune
response gives the rest of the immune system signals that say there is a real threat to the body that must be eliminated.
7. Inflammation is characterized by fever, redness, swelling, pain, and loss of function in the infected area.
8. Inflammation can help kill the pathogen (fever produces heat that may kill the bacteria/ viruses or make them stop
replicating for example)
9. Adaptive immune response (for vertebrates only) involves the recognition of traits specific to particular pathogens using a
vast array of receptors. The adaptive immune response is made possible because of:
a. The Humoral response- production and secretion of antibodies or immunoglobulins against specific antigens (any
foreign body/structure- pollen, bacteria, virus, dust). Antibodies are produced by cells that secrete them in the
bloodstream or display them in the surface of some cells, ready to face and combat any antigen.
b. Cell mediated response- occurs when cytotoxic cells defend the body against infection. The development of B and T
cells, memory cells and plasma cells are important aspects of cell mediated immune mechanism.

1. The cell mediated adaptive immune system is due to the production of T cells.
a. T cells are white blood cells that are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus.
b. T cells are activated when they encounter antigens in the lymph nodes.
c. However, unlike B cells, T cells need to recognize an antigen in the context of self-molecules called major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.
2. There are 3 major types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells and regulatory T cells
a. Cytotoxic T cells recognize virus-infected cells and kill them.
b. Helper T cells secrete proteins that help other immune cells (B cells, macrophages, etc.) survive and perform their
function.
c. Regulatory T cells control the immune response by turning it off. This prevents the immune system from harming the
body.
3. T cells have to recognize the foreign antigen in the context of a self-molecule, the MHC molecule. This ensures that the
immune system will only be activated when there is a real infection in the body.
4. It is important to only activate the T cell response (particularly the cytotoxic and helper T response) only if there is a real
infection because these responses are very potent and could potentially harm the body if they are not regulated properly.
5. Regulatory T cells are very important because loss in their function can lead to autoimmune disease. This occurs when the
immune system starts to attack the body itself.

1. The adaptive immune response has two aspects: the humoral and cellular response.
2. The humoral response is due to the production of antibodies by B-cells.
a. B cells are white blood cells that develop and mature in the bone marrow.
b. B cells are activated when they encounter antigen in the lymph nodes.
c. Activated B cells produce antibodies, proteins that recognize and bind to specific parts of the pathogen, called
antigens. Each B cell produces only one antibody which recognizes only one kind of antigen (specificity)
3. Antibodies are of five major types; IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE.
a. IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and promotes endocytosis by macrophages.
b. IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of the immune response and leads to neutralization and
destruction of pathogen.
c. IgA is the important antibody for the mucosal immune response. It prevents pathogens from crossing the epithelium
and entering the blood stream.
d. IgE activates mast cells and leads to the production of histamine, which is why it is also associated with allergic
reactions
e. IgD. (The role of this antibody is still unclear at this point.)
4. The antibody response is best suited to combat pathogens that survive outside of the cell, such as bacteria, fungi, and
some worms.