Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

CHAPTER 1
1. Euler's theorem
1) For a connected, planar graph, v - e + f = 2

2) polyhedron: finite collection of plane polygons which fit together nicely in the following sense:
a) If two polygons meet they do so in a common edge (Not an edge - CEX: Two cubes
connected at a vertex)
b) Each edge of a polygon lies in precisely one other polygon. (CEX: Cake polygon)
c) polygons fit together to form a piece of surface around the given vertex (CEX: Two cubes
connected at a vertex)
■ If we consider the polygons which contain a particular vertex, then we can label
them Ql, Q2' ....' Qk in such a way that Qi has an edge in common withQi+1
for1~i<k,andQkhasanedgeincommonwithQl
3) (1.1) Euler’s theorem: Let P be a polyhedron which satisfies:
a) Any two vertices of P can be connected by a chain of edges

■
■ CEX1: Surface with 2 distinct pieces = Disconnected
b) Any loop on P which is made up of straight line segments (not necessarily edges)
separates P into two pieces. Then V-e+f=2 for P.

■
■ CEX2: We can find a loop on the surface which does not separate it into two
distinct parts; that is to say, if we imagine cutting round the loop with a pair of
scissors then the surface does not fall into two pieces.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

c) PROOF: v(T) - e(T) = 2 (In textbook)

■ Spanning tree contains all vertices and some of the edges
■ Dual graph:
(1) For each face A of P, we give Γ a vertex A
(2) Two vertices A and B of Γ are joined by an edge if and only if the
corresponding faces A and B of P are adjacent with intersection an edge
that is not in T
(3) Since T does not contain any loops, we deduce that Γ must be
connected.
(4) For if there were a loop in Γ, it would separate P into two distinct pieces
by hypothesis (b), and each of these pieces must contain at least one
vertex of T.
4) A connected set of vertices and edges P will be called a graph
5) A graph which does not contain any loops (connected, acyclic) is called a tree
6) The polyhedron P is made of two disc identified along their boundaries

2. Topological equivalence
● F is continuous if given any x in Em and any neighborhood N of f(x) in En, then f-1(N) is a
neighborhood of x in Em.
● (1.3) Definition of neighborhood (axioms of topological space):
○ This whole structure is called a topological space.

● homeomorphism (or topological equivalence) is a continuous, one-one, and onto function which
has a continuous inverse from space (b) to space (c).
○ (1.2) Theorem. Topologically equivalent polyhedra have the same Euler number.
○ A polyhedron satisfying the hypotheses of Euler's theorem (i.e., a polyhedron which is
homeomorphic to the sphere) merely gives a convenient way of calculating the Euler
number of the sphere
● Examples: Match range to range and domain to domain
○ f(x) = x/(1 + |x|) Range: (-1,1) Domain: (-inf, inf)
○ f(x) = arctan(x) Range: (-pi/2,pi/2) Domain: (-inf, inf)
○ f(x) = tan(x)
3. Surfaces: See examples of paper folding into 3D and 4D spaces for homeomorphisms
4. Abstract spaces
● Definition of Subspace topology
○ Let X be a topological space X and let a subset Y of X.
○ induced topology (open sets of the subspace) on Y = a subset U of Y is open in the
subspace topology if we can find an open set O of X such that U = O ∩ Y
■ For all y in Y, intersecting all of the open sets (neighborhoods of y) in X with Y
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

● (1.4) Definition. A surface is a topological space in which each point has a neigh- bourhood
homeomorphic to the plane, and for which any two distinct points possess disjoint
neighborhoods.
○ Surface with boundary where neighborhoods are either homeomorphic to R2 or the
upper half plane
5. A classification theorem
● (1.5) Classification theorem. Any closed surface is homeomorphic to the sphere, or to the sphere
with a finite number of handles added, or to the sphere with a finite number of discs removed
and replaced by Möbius strips. No two of these surfaces are homeomorphic.
● The sphere with n handles added is called an orientable surface of genus n. We call it orientable
for the following reason.
○ If we draw a smooth closed curve on it, choose tangent and normal vectors at some
point (i.e., choose a coordinate system near the point-orten called a local orientation),
and then push these vectors once round the curve we come back to the same system of
vectors.
○ Any surface which contains a Möbius strip, and therefore all those on the second half of
our list, cannot satisfy this property and is consequently called nonorientable.
6. Topological invariants
● Euler’s Number: If X(x) != X(y), then X is not homeomorphic to Y
● Connectedness (number of connected components): EX. R1 - 1 pt vs. R2 - 1 pt
● isomorphic fundamental groups: a group isomorphism is a function between two groups that
sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects
the given group operations.
○ loops like IY. to produce a group, the so-called fundamental group of the annulus
○ Classification surfaces. No two surfaces on the list given in theorem (1.5) have
isomorphic fundamental groups, so these surfaces are all topologically distinct.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

○ Jordan separation theorem. Any simple closed curve in the plane divides the plane into
two pieces (inside and outside curve)
○ Brouwer fixed-point theorem. Any continuous function from a disc to itself leaves at
least one point fixed.
○ Nielsen-Schreier theorem. A subgroup of a free group is always free.

CHAPTER 2
1. Open and closed sets
● Let X be a topological space and call a subset O of X open if it is a neighborhood of each of its
points
○ both the whole set and the empty set are open
○ union of any collection of open sets is open by axiom (c) of definition (1.3)
○ intersection of any finite number of open sets is open by axiom (b)
○ Given a neighborhood N of a point X, axiom (d) teIls us that the interior of N is an open
set which lies inside N and which contains x

● Given a point x of X, we shall call a subset N of x a neighborhood of x if we can find an open set O
such that x (element of O) in N.
● A topology on a set X is a nonempty collection of subsets of X, called open sets, such that any
union of open sets is open, any finite intersection of open sets is open, and both X and the
empty set are open.
○ A set together with a topology on it is called a topological space.
● Limit points: every neighborhood of 𝑥 with respect to the topology on 𝑋 also contains a point of
𝑆 other than 𝑥 itself. Note that 𝑥 does not have to be an element of 𝑆.
○ Check by creating a tiny nbhd around p and checking to see if there are other points in A
-> often breaks for noncontinuous functions (ex. integers, whole numbers, etc.)
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

● Definition of closed
○ A subset of a topological space is closed if its complement is open
○ (2.2) Theorem. A set is closed if and only if it contains all its limit points.
○ (Theorem) Union of open is always open, but the union of closed is not always closed
■ Intersection of two open sets is open, intersection of two closed sets is closed
■ EX. [1/n, ½]
● Definition of closure
○ (2.3) Theorem. The closure of A is the smallest closed set containing A (the intersection
of all closed sets which are contained in A)
■ For all x in A, there exists a nbhd that intersects A.
■ x is in Ā if and only if for every open set O containing x, O ∩ A ≠ ∅
○ The union of A and all its limit points is called the closure of A and is written A bar
○ (2.4) Corollary. A set is closed if and only if it is equal to its closure.
● A set whose closure is the whole space is said to be dense in the space.
○ A dense set intersects every nonempty open subset of the space.
● Definition of interior (A knot)
○ Union of all open subsets of A
○ An open set is its own interior
○ If closed, just remove the =
● The frontier of A is the intersection of the closure of A with the closure of X - A (i.e. boundary)
○ points of X which do not belong to the interior of A nor to the interior of X - A.
○ Where = (not < or >)
● The base of A is a collection ß of open sets s.t. every O set is a union of members of the set.
○ (2.5) Theorem. Let ß be a nonempty collection of subsets of a set X
■ If the intersection of any finite number of members of ß is always in ß AND
■ If Uß= X
■ Then ß is a base for a topology on X
■ (each element of b is a nbhd of x AND for any open set O containing X, there
exists a set in B s.t. B is a subset of O)
○ EX1. topology of the real line, where the set of all open intervals is a base.
○ EX2. a set of open intervals which have rational endpoints is a smaller base. (Notice that
this second base is countable)
○ Elements of ß are called basic open sets.
○ (Theorem) A base must be an open cover, but an open cover need not be a base.
■ A base must be able to produce any open set by taking unions of sets in the
base; an open cover only needs to cover the whole space.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

● Definition of countable (not countable = too many numbers to make a 1:1 correspondence)
○ (Theorem) If 𝑋 is finite, then a member of each 𝜏 on 𝑋 is finite, so the base is finite
○ First-countable: each point has a countable neighborhood basis (local base).
■ EX. All metric spaces are first-countable (in this case particularly easy to see, as
{{𝑥}} is a local base at each x)
■ NEX. Cofinite set, cocountable (complement is countable) is uncountable set
● Complement that is finite, is countable in topology
● must show that some point of 𝑋 does not have a countable local base
■ for each point x in X there exists a sequence N1, N2… of neighborhoods of such
that for any neighborhood N of x there exists an integer i with Ni contained in N
(every neighborhood of any point contains an open neighborhood of that point)
■ Note: It is possible for countable space, even a countable regular Hausdorff
space, to not be first-countable -> a collection of subsets of a countable space
can be uncountable
○ Second countable: A space whose topology has a countable base
■ EX. Set of rationals, irrationals
■ (Theorem) every countable first-countable space is second countable -> any
subset of a countable set is countable
■ (Lindelöf's theorem). If X has a countable base for its topology, any open cover
of X contains a countable subcover
■ Second countable (isolated points = not second countable, not countable space
= not second countable)
○ Separable: A space which contains a countable dense subset
○ Discrete space = noncontinuous
■ in a discrete metric space, every subset is both open and closed
○ co–finite topology: the compliments of all the subsets of 𝑋 are finite
■ 𝑋=ℝ (set of real numbers which is an infinite set) with topology
𝜏={𝜙,ℝ–{1},ℝ–{2},ℝ–{1,2},ℝ}

2. Continuous functions
● (2.6) Theorem. A function from X to Y is continuous if and only if the inverse image of each open
set of Y is open in X.
● (2.7) Theorem. The composition of two maps is a map where map is a continuous function.
● (2.8) Theorem. Suppose f: X -> Y is continuous, and let A ~ X have the subspace topology. Then
the restrietion fl A: A -) Y is continuous.
● (2.9) Theorem. The following are equivalent:
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

○ (a) f: X -> Y is a map.

○ (b) If ß is a base for the topology of Y, the inverse image of every member of ß is
○ open in X.
○ (c) f(Ā) is a subset of the closure of f(A) for any subset A oJX.
○ (d) The closure of f-1(B) is a subset of f-1(closure of B) for any subset B of Y.
○ (e) The inverse image of each closed set in Y is closed in X.
■ Homeomorphism check: its inverse is not continuous. To see this we need only
produce an open set 0 of [0,1) such that (f-1)-1(0) =f(O) is not open in C
● (2.10) Lemma. Any homeomorphism Irom the boundary of a disc to itself can be extended to a
homeomorphism of the whole disc
● (2.11) Lemma. Let A and B be discs which intersect along their boundaries in an arc. Then A u B is
a disc
3. A space-filling curve
● Peano curve or space-filling curve: a continuous function defined on a closed interval of the real
line which maps the interval onto a two-dimensional region in the plane, say onto a square or
triangle (must be compact)
● Continuous functions on a closed subset of a normal topological space can be extended to the
entire space, preserving boundedness if necessary
4. Tietze extension theorem
● Infimum: the greatest lower bound of a set

● (2.13) Lemma. The real-valued function on X defined by x -> d(x,A) is continuous.

●
● (2.15) Tietze extension theorem. Any real-valued continuous function defined on a closed subset
of metric space can be extended over the whole space.

CHAPTER 3
1. Closed bounded subsets of IEn
● clopen: both closed and open (EX. empty set, entire space X)
● bounded: can put inside a ball of finite radius
● open cover: Let X be a topological space and let F be a family of open subsets of X whose union
is all of X where the family is the open cover
○ EX1. Let X be the plane and for fF take the collection of all open balls of radius 1 whose
centers have integer coordinates. These balls form an open cover of the plane. Notice
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

that if we remove any ball B from F then the resulting family of balls fails to cover the
plane, since its union does not contain the center of B. Therefore fF has no proper
subcover
● subcover: If F' is a sub- family of F and if UF' = X, then F' is called a subcover of F.
○ any open cover of [0,1] contains a finite subcover
○ EX1.
○ EX2. (0,1) and (0,1] do not have finite subcover
1. These open sets are in (0,1) and have endpoints getting closer and closer to the
limit points 0 and 1, but any finite number of them won't contain all of (0,1) ->
there will always be gaps
2. union of a finite number of them is the largest one and none of those intervals
contains the whole of (0,1]
● Definition of compact:
○ (3.1) Theorem. A subset X of En is closed and bounded if and only if every open cover of
X (with the induced topology) has finite subcover.
○ (3.2) Definition. A topological space X is compact if every open cover of X has a finite
subcover.
○ (a) A continuous real-valued function defined on a compact space is bounded and
attains its bounds.
○ (b) An infinite set of points in a compact space must have a limit point.
○ (3.3) The Heine-Borel theorem: A closed interval of the realline is compact.
○ EXAMPLES
1. (0,2] - NO - not closed, yes bounded
2. space of rational numbers - NO - not closed or bounded
1. Q not open because every neighborhood of a rational number contains
irrational numbers and vice versa for complement
3. Sn with a finite number of points removed - NO - yes bounded, not closed
4. torus with an open disc removed - YES - yes bounded, yes closed
5. Klein bottle - YES
6. Möbius strip with its boundary circ1e removed - NO - yes bounded, not closed

2. The Heine-Borel theorem

● (3.3) The Heine-Borel theorem. A closed interval of the realline is compact.
○ an infinite (cardinality of the set is non-finite and countable) subset of a closed interval
must have a limit point because while it’s not closed, it is bounded
○ Every finite set is compact.
● A topological space with the property that two distinct points can always be surrounded by
disjoint open sets is called a Hausdorff space.
○ NEX1. if we give the set of all real numbers the finite-complement topology, then any
two nonempty open sets overlap; line with two origins

○ EX2. Metric spaces are always hausdorff sets

● (2.13) Lemma. The real-valued function on X defined by x -> d(x,A) is continuous.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

● (2.14) Lemma. If A,B are disjoint closed subsets of metric space X, there is a continuous
real-valued function on X which takes the value 1 on points o f A, - I on points ofB, and values
strictly between ±1 on points of X - (A u B).
● (2.15) Tietze extension theorem. Any real-valued continuous function defined on a closed subset
of metric space can be extended over the whole space.
3. Properties of compact spaces
● (3.4) Theorem. The continuous image of a compact space is compact.
○ f(c) is compact
● (3.5) Theorem. A closed subset of compact space C is compact.
○ C is compact and bounded
● (3.6) Theorem. If A is a compact subset of a Hausdorff space X, and if x E X - A, then there exist
disjoint neighborhoods of x and A. Therefore a compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
○ f(c) is closed
● (3.7) Theorem. A one-to-one, onto, and continuous function from a compact space X to a
Hausdorf space Y is a homeomorphism.
○ Want to check that image of a closed set is compact to show f-1 is compact
● (3.8) Bolzano-Weierstrass property. An infinite subset of compact space must have a limit point.
● (3.9) Theorem. A compact subset of a euclidean space is closed and bounded.
● (3.10) Theorem. A continuous real-valued function defined on a compact space is bounded and
attains its bounds.
● (3.11) Lebesgue's lemma. Let X be a compact metric space and let F be an open cover of X. Then
there exists a real number b > 0 (calIed a Lebesgue number of F) such that any subset of X of
diameter less than b is contained in some member of F
4. Product spaces
● (3.12) Theorem. lf X x Y has the product topology then the projections are continuous functions
and they take open sets to open sets. The product topology is the smallest topology on X x Y for
which both projections are continuous.

●
● (3.14) Theorem. The product space X x Y is a HausdorfF space if and only if both X and Y are
Hausdorff
● (3.15) Theorem. X x Y is compact if and only if both X and Y are compact.
● (3.16) Lemma. Let X be a topological space and let fßj be a base for the topology ofX. Then X is
compact if and only if every open cover ofX by members of ßj has a finite subcover.
● (3.1) Theorem. A subset of En is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.
5. Connectedness
● Definition of connected

○
○ A topological space (X, T) is connected if the only clopen sets are the empty set and X
1. “Do open sets go to open sets and closed sets go to closed sets”
○ EX. Let T be a clopen subset of R. Then T= empty set or T = R. (Therefore, R is connected)
○ EX. A = [0,1) and (3,5) -> [0,1) is clopen because [0,1) is open and R - [0,1) = (3,5) is open,
so not connected (CHECK subspace topology)
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

○
● Supremum (least upper bound)
○ Upper Bound: if for all x in S, x <= C where s is in X (not necessarily in S)
○ (Lemma) Suppose S is a subset of R. If S is closed, then the Sup(S) exists
○ (Lemma) Suppose S is a subset of R, and S is bounded above. Let p=sup(S). If S is closed,
then P is an element of S (i.e. closed sets contain their supremum/limit points)
○ (Lemma)Suppose S is a subset of R. If S is closed and bounded, then p=Sup(S) in S
● (3.18) Theorem. The realline is a connected space.
● (3.19) Theorem. A nonempty subset of the real line is connected if and only if it is an interval.
● (3.20) Theorem. The following conditions on aspace X are equivalent,'
○ (a) X is connected.
○ (b) The only subsets ofX which are both open and closed are X and the empty set.
○ (c) X cannot be expressed as the union of two disjoint nonempty open sets.
○ (d) There is no continuous function from X to a discrete space which contains more than
one point.
● (3.21) Theorem. The continuous image o f a connected space is connected.
● (3.22) Corollary. If h: X -> Y is a homeomorphism, then X is connected if and only if Y is
connected. In brief, connectedness is a topological property of space.
● (3.23) Theorem. Let X be a topological space and let Z be a subset ofX. /fZ is connected, and ifZ is
dense in X, then X is connected.
● (3.24) Corollary. If Z is a connected subset of a topological space X, and if Z ⊆ Y ⊆ closure Z,
then Y is connected. In particular, the closure Z of Z is connected.
● (3.25) Theorem. Let F be a family of subsets of a space X whose union is all of X. If each member
of F is connected, and if no two members of F are separated from one another in X, then X is
connected.
● (3.26) Theorem. If X and Y are connected spaces then the product space X x Y is connected.
● (3.27) Theorem. Each component of a topological space is a closed set and distinct components
are separated from one another in the space.

6. Joining points by paths

● (3.28) Definition. A space is path-connected if any two of its points can be joined by a path.
● (3.29) Theorem. A path-connected space is connected.
● (3.30) Theorem. A connected open subset in a euclidean space is path-connected.

CHAPTER 4

3. Topological groups
● (4.9) Defintion. A topological group G is both a HausdorFF topological space and a group, the
two structures being compatible in the sense that the group multiplication m: G x G -> G, and the
function i: G -> G which sends each group element to its inverse, are continuous.
Tools
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

● Intersection of two open sets is open (subsets)

● X is countable then X is either finite or countably infinite.
● Discrete (integers) notable space
● Closure = smallest closed set of A and B
● any cover of a finite space is finite (there are only finitely many subsets to make the cover) and is
its own subcover

MIDTERM EXAM
● 8 hours within a 24 hour window
1. Proof: Definition of a topological space (how to verify it)
a. Give a space X (maybe even 2 spaces X and Y) and ask to verify that they are topological
spaces
i. Refer to Homework 2 Part 2: Finite topologies 1
1. Using the definition of topology provided in class, we want to show that
the topology on the finite set X is a nonempty collection of open sets
that meet the following 3 conditions. (1) X and empty set are open and
contained in topology (2) Finite intersections are open (3) Arbitrary set
of unions is open

ii. If finite, explicitly describe unions and intersections

iii. Examples
1. http://www-groups.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~john/MT4522/Lectures/L11.
html
2. https://www.math.uci.edu/~mfinkels/140T/chapter9.pdf
b. Prove whether or not it is Hausdorff
c. Give an example of a closed/open set in X?
2. Not proof: subset and product topologies
a. Illustrate/demonstrate subset topology
i. https://mathstrek.blog/2013/01/25/topology-subspaces/
ii. http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucahjde/tg/html/topsp03.html
iii. EX. Mobius strip A in R3, Klein bottle B in R4
1. induced topology (open sets of the subspace) on Y = a subset U of Y is
open in the subspace topology if we can find an open set O of X such
that U = O ∩ Y
2. Euclidean = standard base of open balls of radius r
3. All open sets in A come from intersection of A with U where U is an open
subset of X
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

b. Illustrate/demonstrate product topologies on common spaces

i. http://www-groups.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~john/MT4522/Lectures/L15.html
ii. Open sets and cartesian products of them
iii. EX. Y x I where Y = open cube and I = interval
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

3. Proof: closures/interiors
a. Homework 2 Part 1: Chapter 2.1 Q1 (potentially with counterexample)
b. If intersection (separate into subset of A and subset of B)
c. Closure = smallest closed set
d. Interior = union of all open sets (show that open sets of 1 is contained in another)
4. Not proof: Homeomorphisms (continuous bijection, continuous inverse)
a. Define a homeomorphism between two spaces X and Y with a specific function/map
(one or two dimensional)
i. REMEMBER: Double check that your function covers the entire period
ii. Parameterizing things (shifts, scales, etc.) for matching domain and range
iii. Example functions: Common trig functions (arctan, tan) within bounds OR 1 / 1 +
abs(x)
1. Arctan: Domain (-inf, inf) and Range (-pi/2, pi/2)

b. List of spaces (maybe with mathematically formatted spaces or with pictures) -> group
them into topologically equivalent classes
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

i. Classification theorem. Any closed surface is homeomorphic to the sphere, or to

the sphere with a finite number of handles added, or to the sphere with a finite
number of discs removed and replaced by Möbius strips. No two of these
surfaces are homeomorphic.

5. Not proof: Calculate Topological invariants (if you have 2 spaces X and Y and if you show that the
invariants are not the same between spaces, then the spaces are not homeomorphic)
a. Euler number for polyhedra (v - e + f)
b. Connectedness (# of connected components)
c. Compactness

6. Proof: Compactness
a. Give us a set/space and ask us to provide whether or not it is compact
i. USE THEOREMS (EX. closure of a set, product of compact spaces = compact, line
is compact, etc.)
ii. If you’re in Rn, only compact if closed and bounded
iii. Chapter 3.3: Problems 5

CHAPTER 4
1. Constructing a Mobius strip
a. There is a natural function pi from R (subspace of E2) onto M (subsets of the partition of R)
that sends each point of R to the subset of the partition in which it lies. The identification
topology on M is defined to be the largest topology for which pi is continuous.
i. a subset O is defined to be open in the identification topology on M if and only if pi^-1(O)
is open in the rectangle R (preimage of open sets in M are open in R

b. For any topological space x, X = U Palpha

i. Partition X into sets Y = {Palpha}
ii. Map pi: X → Y
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

iii. Declare the largest topology such that pi is continuous

2. Identification topology
a. Partition P: a family of disjoint nonempty subsets of topological space X such that UP = X
b. Identification space: points of Y are the members of P (space obtained from X by identifying
each of the subsets of P to a single point)
i. identification topology on Y: If π: X → Y sends each point of X to the subset of P
containing it, the topology of Y is the largest for which π is continuous. Therefore a subset
O of Y is open if and only if π -1(0) is open in X.
ii. X/A: identification space where on partition if {a | a in A} and each x in X is in its own
partition
iii. EX. Torus

iv. EX. Spheres

1. Sn = ∂Bn+1 where ∂ = boundary
2. Sn = Bn/Sn-1

a.
b. NOTE: En is homeomorphic to Bn - Sn-1 and to Sn - {p} for any point p in Sn

v. EX. Cone

c. (4.1) Theorem. Let Y be an identification space defined as above and let Z be an arbitrary
topological space. A function f: Y → Z is continuous if and only if the composition fπ :X → Z is
continuous.
d. (4.2) Theorem. If f is an identification map, then:
i. (a) the spaces Y and Y*are homeomorphic;
ii. (b) a function g:Y → Z is continuous if and only if the composition gf: X → Z is continuous.
e. (4.3) Theorem. Let f: X → Y be an onto map. If f maps open sets of X to open sets of Y, or
closed sets to closed sets, then f is an identification map.
f. (4.4) Corollary. Let f: X → Y be an onto map. If X is compact and Y is Hausdorff, then f is an
identification map.
g. (4.5) Lemma. The geometric cone on X is homeomorphic to CX.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

h. (4.6) Glueing lemma. If X and Y are closed in X u Y, and if both f and g are continuous, then f u g
is continuous.

i. (4.7) Theorem. lf j is an identification map, and if both f:X→Z and g:Y—>Z are continuous,then
fu g: X u Y → Z is continuous.
j. (4.8) Theorem. If j is an identification map, and if each fa is continuous, then F is continuous

k. if Y is an identification space formed from X, then Y is the image of X under a continuous

function and therefore inherits properties such as compactness, connectedness, and
path-connectedness from X
i. However, X may be Hausdorff and yet Y not satisfy the Hausdorff Axiom
3. Topological groups
a. (4.9) Definition. A topological group G is both a Hausdorff topological space and a group, the
two structures being compatible in the sense that the group multiplication m: G x G → G, and
the function i: G → G which sends each group element to its inverse, are continuous (EX.
Circle)
i. You can make any finite group into a topological groups because any subset of Rn OR any
top space with the discrete topology is Hausdorf (every point is an open neighborhood)
b. Groups
i. trivial subgroup: G is a subgroup of itself and {e} is also a subgroup of G
ii. A subgroup H of the group G is a normal subgroup if g-1Hg = H for all g ∈ G.
1. G/H is a subgroup only if H is a normal subgroup of G

2.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

3.

4.
5. if a group is abelian, then every one of its subgroups are normal
iii. Subgroups will have all the properties of a group.
iv. If H < K and K < G, then H < G (subgroup transitivity).
v. if H and K are subgroups of a group G, then H ∩ K is also a subgroup.
vi. if H and K are subgroups of a group G, then H ∪ K is may or may not be a subgroup
vii. cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element X (the group generator).
1. groups in which every element is a power of some fixed element. (If the group is
abelian and I’m using + as the operation, then I should say instead that every
element is a multiple of some fixed element.
2. Klein-4 is the smallest non-cyclic group, but has cyclic subsets
viii. Abelian: if communicative as well (a*b = b*a)
ix. Order: gcd (greatest common divisor); number of elements in each section (i.e.
(14)(25)(36) = 2

c. Product Groups
i. Product of two topological groups is a topological group.
ii. For any finite groups 𝐺 and 𝐻 , the product group has |𝐺||𝐻| elements.
iii. symmetric group S4 is the group of all permutations of 4 elements (order 4!=24)
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

d. Matrix Groups: G(n,F) where you have nxn matrices that are invertible with entries in field F
(R,Q,C,F2, NO INTEGERS) with matrix multiplication
i. Not abelian (not communicative)
ii. Matrix multiplication is closed: det(A*B) = det(A) * det(B)

iii. Matrix multiplication is associative

iv. (1 0 0 1) as identity element
v. (a b c d)^-1 = (d -b -c a)
e. General Linear Group: GL as a group with nonzero determinant
f. Special Linear Group (subgroup of GL) with determinant of 1
g. Field: set closed under both addition and multiplication
i. (F, +) abelian group
ii. (F - {0}, x) abelian group
iii. EX. Q and Z/5Z are fields
1. R 2x3 is not closed under multiplication
2. R 2x2 is not commutative under multiplication
3. Z does not have multiplicative inverse at 0 (only 1 and -1)
4. Z/6Z does not have multiplicative inverse for 2,3,4
4. isomorphism between two topological groups: a homeomorphism which is also a group
isomorphism
a. isomorphisms are invertible homomorphisms
5. Subgroup: subset of a topological group that is algebraically a subgroup and in addition has the
subspace topology
a. EX. integers Z with the discrete topology form a subgroup of the real line R: if two number
differ by integers they map to the same radian
Examples of Groups
1. (Z, +) (Q, +) (R, +) (C, +)
2. (Q - {0}, x) (R - {0}, x) → 0 has no multiplicative inverse
3. Modulo
a. Additive inverse: 0 = (a + x) mod m
b. Multiplicative inverse: 1 = (a*x) mod m
i. EX. You can verify this claim by checking that for x ∊ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} the operation 2
* x (mod 6) does not yield 1.
4. Dihedral group: rigid symmetries of a polygon
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

Examples of Topological Group

5. The real line, the group structure being addition of real numbers.
6. The circle, as described above.

7. Any abstract group with the discrete topology.

8. The torus is considered as the product of two circles. We take the product topology and the
product group structure. (The product of two topological groups is a topological group; see
Problem 13.)
i. {U x V} where U, V open in S1 with multiplication
9. The three-sphere is considered as the unit sphere in the space of quaternions H (H is
topologically E4 and has the algebraic structure of the quaternions.)
10. Euclidean n-space. We choose the notation Rn to emphasize that we have a topological group
(usual addition as group structure) and not simply the topological space P .
a. Vector addition in Rn
11. General Linear Group: GL as a group with nonzero determinant with mult. as group operation
a. Bijective: Surjective (onto) + Injective (one-to-one)

T
12. Orthogonal group: subset of orthogonal matrices (where inverse = transpose OR A A = I)
a. Special Orthogonal Group SO (subgroup of GL) with determinant of 1

13. Translations
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

a. Homogeneity: For if x and y are any two points of a topological group G there is a
homeomorphism of G that maps x to y, namely the translation L y x - l . Therefore G
exhibits the same topological structure locally near each point.

14. (4.10) Theorem. Let G be a topological group and let K denote the connected component of G
which contains the identity element. Then K is a closed normal subgroup of G.
a. If H is a subgroup of G, show that its closure H is also a subgroup, and that if H is normal
then so is H.
i. A subgroup H of the group G is a normal subgroup if g-1Hg = H for all g ∈ G.
b. Remark. If G = O(n) then K = SO(n). We shall prove this later.
15. (4.11) Theorem. In a connected topological group any neighborhood of the identity element is a
set of generators for the whole group.
16. (4.12) Theorem. The matrix group GL(n) is a topological group.
17. (4.13) Theorem. O(n) and SO(n) are compact.

6. Orbit spaces

CHAPTER 5: THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP

1. Homotopic maps
● Loop: a map α: I → X (where I = [0,1] for example) such that α(0) = α(1) = p where p is a
basepoint (i.e. the loop is based at point α(0) and α must be continuous (intuitive since α is a
map)
● Product of loops: If two loops are based on the same point (concatenation of loops)

○ NOTE: That this does not give group structure since it is not associative
○ NOTE: t is for individual loops, s is scalar for entire scale
● Identity = constant loop: loop at origin/basepoint exclusively: b(t) = 0
○ α: I → X, α(t) = α(0)
● Inverse: α-1: I → X, α-1(t) = α(1-t)
● Homotopy: two loops can be identified if they can be continuously deformed into one another
while keeping the base point fixed (compatible with composition)
○ NOTE: f and g need to be continuous but not necessarily onto or one to one
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

○
● Straight line homotopy: can be defined whenever f and g both map X into a convex subset of
Euclidean space
○ A convex set is defined as a set of points in which the line AB connecting any two points
A, B in the set lies completely within that set

● Relative homotopy:

● Spherical straight line homotopy: f and g cannot be antipodal for this to be true (SEE HEX 2)
● Homotopy Examples:

○
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

○
● (5.2) Lemma. The relation of 'homotopy' is an equivalence relation on the set of all maps from X
to Y
● (5.3) Lemma. The relation of 'homotopy relative to a subset A of X' is an equivalence relation on
the set of all maps from X to Y which agree with some given map on A (i.e. relative homotopy
also gives us 5.2)
● (5.4) Lemma. Homotopy behaves well with respect to composition of maps.
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

2. Construction of the fundamental group

●
○ Homomorphic path connected maps have isomorphic fundamental groups
○ Isomorphic = invertible homomorphisms (onto and one to one)
● Composition of Group Homomorphisms

● trivial fundamental group: consists of the identity alone; every loop going from and to 𝑥0 are
homotopic (ex. Rn)
● fundamental group includes not the loops themselves, but the homotopy classes of loops.
3. Calculations
● Convex subset of E: In this case, we can shrink any loop to the constant loop at the base point by
means of a straight-line homotopy = trivial group
○ A path connected space whose fundamental group is trivial is said to be simply
connected.

●
○ (5.9) Lemma. Φ is a homomorphism.

●
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

Theorem for Calculating π1

1. THEOREM 1
○ (5.12) Theorem. Let X be a space which can be written as the union of two simply
connected open sets U, V in such a way that U n V is path-connected. Then X is simply
connected.
○ EXAMPLES
i. Cube or any convex set of Rn
ii. Rn
iii. Sn for n >= 2
○ NONEXAMPLES: Torus, Circle
2. THEOREM 2: ORBIT SPACE

○
○ EXAMPLES
i. Circle is the orbit space (Section 4.4) of the action of the integers on the realline
by addition
ii. Torus
iii. Klein bottle
iv. Lens space L(p,q)
v. Mobius strip = Z
vi. Cylinder = Z

○
3. THEOREM 3: PRODUCT SPACES

○
○ EXAMPLES: Torus, Cylinder, Thick sphere

i.
○
Still working on it: first and second countable, distance functions*,

4.

5.
6. THEOREM 4: Van Kampen
○ Wedge of Two Circles
○ Torus
○ Projective Plane
○ NOT Mobius Band
4. Homotopy Type