Rainfall measurement

River flow measurement

Evapotranspiration measurement
53

Determination of supply
As civil engineers we aim to assist societies to provide for the need for water

Where are our sources of water?

How much water do we have?
Quantification of the supply depends on accurate measurement of sources of
supply

Ref:
Hydrological cycle and data measurement
Back to the context:
We are taking raw water out of the cycle for consumption and returning waste
water back into the cycle.
It is a problem of supply and demand

The challenge of how do we measure data in the hydrological cycle?

How much data do we need?
To measure everything would give good water budgeting but at what cost?
How accurate will the data be?

We will not look at all aspects of measurement but only the key ones that we
commonly need as water engineers, namely
Precipitation, river flow and evaporation

Note other aspects of measurement are also important depending on

circumstances
Overland flow
Subsurface flow
Groundwater
Water quality

Refs:
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/36-dynamic-and-complex-the-
global-water-cycle
Hydrological measurement at river basin level
Hydrometry tends to operate at the river basin scale.
Historically water supply and wastewater operated at river basin level
But note: increasing demands for water have required river basin transfer schemes

Ref:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/
https://www.mwmo.org/learn/stormwater-101/what-is-a-watershed/
Management of hydrometric networks
A hydrometric network is an organised system for the collection of information
of a specific kind (Langbein, 1965)
Most countries have hydrometric networks. In developed countries it is
usually better and of higher quality.
Nationwide schemes are essential to ensure consistency of approach and
coverage of data requirements

Managers of hydrometric networks in the UK

Met Office
Environment Agency
SEPA
Rivers Agency in N. Ireland
Water companies

Ref:
Shaw, Elizabeth, Beven, Keith, Chappell, Nick, and Lamb, Rob. Hydrology in
Practice. Fourth. Spon Press, 2011. p30 ff
Langbein, W.B. (1965) National Networks of Hydrological Data. IASH Pub.
No. 67, 5-11

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hydrological-networks-and-locations-of-
the-meteorological-stations-and-solar-radiation_fig1_329795029
Questions:
Key words:
Organised system of data collection for specific purpose
Hydrological cycle

Measurements from which we can determine the available supply

Supply and demand
Abstraction and effluent return
Quantity and flow
Precipitation - the measurement of rainfall
Rainfall is the variable most commonly measured
400 BC first recorded rainfall measurement in India (Shaw)
But in spite of long history of rainfall measurement it is not straightforward

Typical engineering problem is to measure the rainfall over a catchment area.

From this we are able to estimate available resources.
But, we can only measure rainfall at point gauges and then we need to relate
that to the catchment area.
It is a data sampling problem.

There are two main types of rain gauges: Storage and automatic recording

Refs:
Shaw, Elizabeth, Beven, Keith, Chappell, Nick, and Lamb, Rob. Hydrology in
Practice. Fourth. Spon Press, 2011. p37ff
Storage (or non – recording) rain gauges

Daily rain measurement - two types in common use in the UK:

Standard: The Met Office Mark II instrument
The Snowdon gauge – A Met Office Mark I instrument
German Hellman gauge is similar to the Snowdon gauge which is more
common worldwide
The gauge is usually read at 09:00 each day

Monthly rain measurement –

Larger than the daily rain gauges.
More commonly used in mountainous regions
Measurements are usually made on the first day of each month.

Refs:
Storage (or non – recording) rain gauges
Measurement of small quantities using tapered bottle.

Refs:
https://measuring-instrumen-0.blogspot.com/2019/02/32-measuring-instrument-
geography.html
Recording rain gauges – tilting siphon
Need to record the distribution of rainfall; how much and when it fell

Two types widely used:

Tilting siphon rain recorder by Dines
Tipping bucket rain gauge

Tilting siphon
Filling of the float chamber is equivalent to 5 mm precipitation

Refs:
https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/types-of-rain-gauges/12801/
Recording rain gauges – tipping bucket
Tipping bucket rain gauge
Bucketful equivalents
Typically 15 gm water in one tipping bucketful

Refs:
http://sunjray.com/product/jdz05-1a-stainless-steel-tipping-bucket-rain-gauge/
Siting of rain gauges
The gauge should be representative of the surrounding area
Preferred:
Level ground, avoid steep hillsides
Sheltered but not over-sheltered

In overexposed locations a turf wall is recommended

This minimises wind eddies and loss of measurement

Refs:
Rain gauge – measurement errors
What is the potential size of error that could occur if rainfall measurement is
inaccurate?
Consider the area of a rain gauge compared to the area of a catchment

Siting errors can lead to big errors in volumes over a catchment area

Refs:
Density and errors in rainfall measurement
For water resources estimation we need rainfall over an area of the catchment
i.e. areal rainfall measurement
The problem is then using our point rainfall measurements at gauges to
estimate the areal rainfall.

Study by Rodda based on catchment area of 500 km2 having 10 rain gauges
shows that there are large errors in daily storm measurement and much higher
with convective (summer) storms.

Refs:
J C Rodda, 1969. Hydrological network design – needs, problems and
approaches. WMO/IHD report No.12
Ground based radar rainfall
Network across the UK – note gaps in the Highlands
Real time rainfall intensity is displayed at SEPA and EA offices
Information for flooding warning is provided
Gives a catchment area measure of rainfall – areal rainfall. See further notes
on areal rainfall below.

Tipping bucket recording gauges are used to calibrate the radar readings

Refs:
Questions:
Key words:
72

Volumetric measurement
As in rainfall measurement it is a sampling problem.
For water resources we are usually interested in continuous or regular
measurement.
How do spring, stream or river flows vary over a season?
What is the smallest flow?
Is that sufficient for our supply needs?

Volumetric measurement of volume over time.

Commonly used on small rural water supplies. Small streams.

Advantages are simplicity and accuracy for small flows

Not suitable for larger flows however.

Used for small village water supplies.

Refs:
https://www.appropedia.org/How_to_measure_stream_flow_rate
River gauging
For a river cross section of known area we could find the velocity and compute
the flow
Q=AV
However, continuous measurement of velocity is difficult. Sometimes ultrasonic
doppler meters are used.
But, this method is impractical on larger rivers.

But, water level or stage can be continuously measured and this can be related
to flow by taking spot flow measurements by salt dilution method or Velocity-
Area method – see next slides.
Usually, a river gauging site is located where there is natural bed control in the
river. It needs to be stable.
The relationship between stage and discharge is called the stage-discharge
relationship.
It is also known as the rating curve.

Refs:
NRFA website, 84001 river station
Discharge by salt dilution gauging
Gives a direct measurement of discharge
The addition of a chemical tracer to the flow and measurement of dilution
downstream after complete mixing.
Sometimes known as salt gulp.

Will not be covered in further detail in this module. For further information refer
to references below.

Refs:
Shaw, p 118
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004313540100519
75

Velocity-Area method
Discharge is estimated from a summation of Q=A.V measurements across the
river.

Refs:
https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/SGP323/scormPackages/path_2/77_estim
ation_of_discharge.html
Stage – the staff gauge
Assuming a rating curve can be developed from a stage-discharge relationship
the problem is then to measure the stage
Stage is measured with respect to a datum
Usually the Ordnance Survey datum for the UK is used.

The staff gauge can be a single gauge or stepped gauges up a river bank.
Usually low cost installation but may be costly to read if manually
These can be read at fixed times of the day giving a continuous record - less
common now in developed countries.
The method is less useful on flashy streams because the flood peak may be
missed (but note this may be less important for water resources where an
mean daily flow may suffice)

Refs:
Shaw, p106
https://novadura.com/product/depth-gauge-boards/
Stage – the staff gauge
Assuming a rating curve can be developed the problem is then to measure the
stage
Stage is measured with respect to a datum
Usually the Ordnance Survey datum for the UK is used.

The staff gauge can be a single gauge or stepped gauges up a river bank.
Usually low cost installation but may be costly to read if manually
These can be read at fixed times of the day giving a continuous record - less
common now in developed countries.
The method is less useful on flashy streams because the flood peak may be
missed (but note this may be less important for water resources where an
mean daily flow may suffice)

Refs:
Shaw, p106
https://novadura.com/product/depth-gauge-boards/
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/river-training/river-gauging-meaning-
and-methods-with-diagram/60942
https://www.radio-data-networks.com/solutions/flood-monitoring-alarm-
systems/wireless-automatic-staff-gauges/
Stage – float operated recorders
Changes in water level are measured by a float that is attached to a recorder
The float is usually located in a stilling well.

Refs:
https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/wmm/chap06_05.html
https://www.toshbrocontrols.com/field-instruments/rate-of-flow-indicator-rate-of-
flow-indicator
Velocity-area method
Velocity is measured at selected verticals at known depth across a section of
the river.
Cross section is surveyed.
If flood flows occur it should be resurveyed.
The measurement of velocity is more difficult which must take into account the
variation of velocity with depth.

Refs:
Shaw, p111
https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/SGP323/scormPackages/path_2/77_estim
ation_of_discharge.html
Velocity measurement
Velocity can be measured using a float timed between 2 markers.
A correction factor must be applied to give the average velocity.

Preferred method are:

A The velocity current meter.
Impeller type; accuracy +/- 1.5%
Velocity is usually measured at 0.6 m depth with the impeller meter.
This represents the point of mean velocity over the depth.

B Electromagnetic type (not shown)

C Doppler flow meter; accuracy +/- 2%

Acoustic Doppler flow meter; floats on the surface

Refs:
https://www.edaphic.com.au/products/water/swoffer-water-flow-meters/
www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-a-boat-mounted-acoustic-Doppler-
current-profiler-ADCP-measuring_fig1_284587353
84

V-A station
Acoustic Doppler example of flow measurement is shown
Recording velocity over depth of the flow to give an average
Operator has a cableway to move the float across the river.

Advantage - no wading involved. H&S improvement over wading methods

Example of a V-A station is the Killermont on the River Kelvin. It has a

cableway similar to that shown in the slide.

Refs:
Velocity-area method
Discharge from mean section or mid section method.
Mid-section method is shown in the diagram. The velocity is measured in the
middle of the area.

Refs:
Shaw, p117
https://slideplayer.com/slide/684465
https://geographyfieldwork.com/RiverDischargeMethodolo
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-
streamflow-measured?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
Example: velocity-area method
The velocity-area method is used to measure the flow
First and last panel distance measurement is ½ value of other distances so that
the widths of the panels are consistent.

Refs:
Excel file: Velocity-area method (1)
89

Profiled thin plate weir – volumetric measurement and the weir equation
Volumetric measurement:
Measurement of a volume over time to give flow as noted previously

Weir equation:
Or apply the equation for a v-notch or square sharp edged weir. Refer to
Hydraulics module labs.

V-notch weirs are used in smaller channels for measuring flow e.g. irrigation
channels
Used as a temporary measurement device… example of plywood weir in this
case.

Generally they are used for smaller flow measurement – they are not a
practical device for large channels
They are less robust than broad crested weirs when bed erosion is a problem

Refs:
https://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/weir-plate-materials
https://www.appropedia.org/How_to_measure_stream_flow_rate
http://ponce.sdsu.edu/onlineveenotchdescription.html
90

Flow measurement: weirs

Standardised formula: 2nd year hydraulics weir equation

Station 71006 Ribble – operated by the Environment Agency

Information stored on the National River Flow Archive

A compound broad crested weir (24.4 m wide overall) installed in August 1968.
Low flow notch 3.8 m wide with two flanking crests each 10.3 m wide and 0.3 m higher.

Drowns at high flows, and insensitive at low flow due to its breadth.
Original cableway damaged by high winds in 1988 and not replaced until September 1997.
No bypassing reported.
Large drawdown at high flows gives discrepancy between staff gauge and chart.
Flood Studies Report grade E for low flows only (designated in 1971) discharges.

Compound weir (use example with steel sharp edge plate)

More accurate measurement of lower flows

Notice debris on the weir – inaccurate measurement

Problems of weed build up – seasonal changes etc.

Question whether fish can move upstream easily… ?

91

Ribble 71006
Recording house and cableway.
Similar to Killermont
It will have a stilling well and depth recorder

Cableway used for high flow measurement

Weir drowns out
Ribble
Drowning out of the gauging station in flood conditions
Weir measurement becomes inaccurate
River gauging
Example of weir structure.
Good measurement but impact on river aquatic environment.

Refs:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_gauge
River gauging – crump weir
Example of weir in a lab flume

Refs:
https://armfield.co.uk/product/s6-mkii-standard-teaching-research-flume/
Rating curve
Refer to Killermont example above. Q = K.Hn
For the case where the datum is zero when the flow is zero.

Otherwise for stage correction Q = K.(H-Ho)n

The log-log plot helps to identify the change in the slope of the line and different
rating curves over different depths of the river section.

Refs:
Example: Rating curve
The velocity-area method is used to measure the flow
Stage is measured from the stilling well inside the gauging station building.
From Environment Agency data download SG is stage, FQ is the flow.

Refs:
Excel file: 71006 Ribble Rating curve (2)
Example: Rating curve

Refs:
Excel file: 71006 Ribble Rating curve (2)
Example: Rating curve

Refs:
Excel file: 71006 Ribble Rating curve (2)
102

Ribble at Henthorn Farms

Upper and lower line representing uncertainty
90% confidence limits

Refs:
NRFA website
103

Ribble at Henthorn Farms – extension of the rating curve

NRFA website
Rating curve

Low flows
Note – lots of gaugings at low flows
Most sites are better at low flows.
But, beware, sites can be affected by weed growth in particular.

High flows
Very few gaugings at high flows
More spread of gaugings at higher flows
Uncertainty in the extrapolation of the curve

Prediction of the flood flow is very uncertain.

SEPA and EA will quote flood return periods. But, there is a large uncertainty
in these figures.

Refs:
NRFA website
Rating curve – uncertainty and anomalies
Unstable bed – for example change in the river profile after flood conditions
Rating equation is the Kelvin at Killermont

Backwater effect at high flows

Weed growth in the summer. May require a seasonal rating equation.

Difference in measurements whether the river is rising or fall. Non-steady flow

and wave effects

Refs:
http://evidence.environment-
agency.gov.uk/FCERM/en/FluvialDesignGuide/Chapter7.aspx?pagenum=4
http://my-fyp.site44.com/surface%20runoff.html
http://evidence.environment-
agency.gov.uk/FCERM/en/FluvialDesignGuide/Chapter2.aspx?pagenum=3
Evaporation
Difficult to quantify
Can account for large difference seen between precipitation and river flow

Need to consider two types of evaporation:

Open water evaporation Eo
Evaporation from an open water surface
Relatively easy to quantify

Evapotranspiration Et
Intercepted precipitation (wet canopy evaporation)
Transpired water from plant surfaces
Much harder to quantify than open water evaporation:
Rates vary over an area, depends on types of vegetation, water availability

Harder to measure Eo and Et but values are less variable in time compared to
precipitation
Therefore more predictable in time.

Refs:
Shaw, p50
https://youngzine.org/article-expert/environment/evapotranspiration-what-i-
study
Open water evaporation Eo
Can be measured using evaporation pans

Small therefore easily transported

Now tend to self filling and automatically recorded
American or US Class A pan

Hook gauge measurement

Rainfall must be allowed for in the measurement

Wire mesh over the top to prevent a bird drinking trough

EA Kempton Park study 1959-1962

Pan evaporation was 963 mm
Reservoir evaporation was 673 mm
Annually, reservoir evaporation = 0.7 x pan evaporation
0.7 = pan factor. Caused by heat storage effects in the reservoir

Refs:
Shaw, p53
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2011JD016848
Open water evaporation Eo

I = inflow; precipitation and river inflow, subsurface seepage in

O = outflow; draw off to supply, overflow, subsurface seepage out
ΔS = change in storage

Rare to find gauges on the inflow of our large reservoirs.

River gauging on the outflow is more common
Leakage is often difficult to estimate
So, it gives an approximate estimate

Heat storage effects have an impact depending on the dimensions of the

reservoir

Refs:
Shaw, p51
Example: Open water evaporation from reservoir water budget

Ensure that all flows are in the same dimensions.

It is common to convert all data to mm depth equivalent over the surface area
of the reservoir

Refs:
GCU Learn:
Excel file: Estimate E - water budget (2)
Evapotranspiration
A similar model to the open water balance but here it is for a catchment rather
than a reservoir.

Fluxes G is change in ground water. Could be movement of water in or out of

a catchment e.g. through an aquifer
Outflow and precipitation can be measured
Over a long period time e.g. annual it is usually assumed that change in
storage is small i.e. ΔS = 0
Also, often assumed that the catchment is watertight.

Note if monthly values are required than ΔS is required.

End of water year is usually September

Refs:
Shaw, p56
https://youngzine.org/article-expert/environment/evapotranspiration-what-i-
study
Example: Transpiration from catchment water budget
River catchment is the Eden at Kirkby Stephen 76014

Ensure that all flows are in the same dimensions.

It is common to convert all data to mm depth equivalent over the surface area
of the reservoir

Refs:
GCU Learn:
Excel file: Estimate E - water budget (2)