SURVEYING The art and science of determining
angular and linear measurements to establish the
form, extent, and relative position of points,
lines, and areas on or near the surface of the
earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies
through applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
1. PLANE SURVEYING a type of surveying where
the earth is considered as a flat surface, and
where distances and areas involved are of
limited extent
2. GEODETIC SURVEYING surveys of wide extent
which take into account the spheroidal shape
of the earth
TYPES OF SURVEYS
CADASTRAL SURVEYS - closed surveys in urban and
rural locations to determine and define property lines
and boundaries, corners, and areas.
CITY SURVEYS - surveys in the city for planning
expansions, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining physical features of land,
and preparing maps.
CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS - surveys done at a
construction site to provide data
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration, and location and elevation of
structures.
FORESTRY SURVEYS - survey in connection with forest
management and mensuration, and the production
and conservation of forest lands.
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS surveys made to map
shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water
surfaces, and measure the flow of streams.
INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS known as optical tooling
surveys for ship building, construction and assembly
of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and
complex machinery, and for industries requiring very
accurate dimensional layouts.
MINE SURVEYS surveys to determine the position of
all underground excavations and surface mine
structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining claims,
determine geological formations, calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for other
related mining work.
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS survey which uses
photographs taken with specially designed cameras
either from airplanes or ground stations.
ROUTE SURVEYS determination of alignment, grades,
earthwork quantities, location of natural and artificial
objects in connection with the planning, design, and
construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals,
transmission lines, and other linear projects.
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS surveys to determine the
shape of the ground, the location and elevation of
natural and artificial features upon it.
DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
The extensive use of surveying instruments came
during the early days of the Roman Empire.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
ASTROLABE invented by Hipparchus in 140 BC and
further improved by Ptolemy used to determine the
altitude of stars
TELESCOPE invented by Lippershey (1607) Galileo
constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations in 1609. Only used in surveying after the
cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced
TRANSIT invented by Young and Draper (1830) The
universal surveying instrument
SEMICIRCUMFERENTOR used to measure and lay off
angles and establish lines of sight by employing peep
sights
PLANE TABLE used in field mapping. Consists of a
board attached to a tripod and can be leveled or
rotated to any direction
DIOPTRA invented by Heron of Alexandria. used in
leveling and measuring horizontal and vertical angles
ROMAN GROMA for aligning or sighting points
consists of cross arms with suspended plumb lines
fixed at right angles and pivoted upon a vertical staff.
LIBELLA used by Assyrians and Egyptians. had an A-
frame with a plumb line suspended from its apex.
used to determine the horizontal
VERNIER invented by Pierre Vernier a short auxillary
scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument to determine the fractional parts of the
main scale without interpolating.
DIOPTER developed by Greeks in 130 BC used for
leveling, laying off right angles, and measuring
horizontal and vertical angles.
COMPASS for determining direction of lines and
calculating angles between lines. Consists of a
magnetized steel needle which points at the magnetic
north
GUNTER’S CHAIN invented by Sir Edmund Gunter
(1620) – used for taping distances. 66 ft long and
contains 100 links
CHOROBATES for leveling work consists of a
horizontal straight-edge about 6 long, a groove 2.5 cm
deep and 1.5 m long on top. water is poured into the
groove for leveling
MERCHET for measuring time and Meridian. used by
Chaldeans in 4000 BC consists of a slotted palm leaf
through which to sight and a bracket from which a
plumb bob was suspended.
MEASUREMENT process of determining the extent,
size, or dimension of a particular
quantity in comparison to a given
standard.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
DIRECT MEASUREMENTS comparison of the
measured quantity with a standard measuring unit
(makes use of instruments to measure the quantity)
INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS made when it is not
possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a
quantity
THE METER
proposed in 1789 by French scientists to
establish a system suitable for all times and
all peoples, and which could be based upon
permanent natural standards
originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the
earth’s meridional quadrant
Effective January 1, 1983, the English System was
officially phased out in the Philippines and only the
modern metric system was allowed to be used. The
metric conversion was signed into law in 1978 by
Pres. Marcos. The metric system prescribed the use
of the International System of Units (SI) as
established by the General Conference on Weights
and Measures and as modified by the local Metric
System Board to suit Philippine Conditions.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements
2. Angular Measurements
Angular Measurements
Radian – SI unit for plane angles (the angle subtended
by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the radius
of a circle)
a. Sexagesimal Units - the degree, minute, second
b. Centesimal Units - uses grads (360° = 400 grads)
the grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes and
the minute is divided into 100 centesimal seconds
SURVEYING FIELD NOTES - constitute the
only reliable and permanent record of actual work
done in the field
FIELD NOTEBOOK - used to record the field notes
TYPES OF NOTES
1. Sketches
2. Tabulations
3. Explanatory Notes
4. Computations
5. Combination of the above
INFORMATION FOUND IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS
1. Title of the Field Work or Name of Project
2. Time of Day and Date
3. Weather Conditions
4. Names of Group Members and Their Designations
5. List of Equipment
THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
1. Chief of Party responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operational control of the survey
party.
2. Assistant Chief of Party assists the chief of party in
the accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey
party.
3. Instrument Man sets up, levels, and operates the
surveying instruments.
4. Technician responsible for the use and operation of
all electronic instruments required in the field.
5. Computer performs all computations of survey data
and works out necessary computational checks
required in the field.
6. Recorder keeps the record of all sketches,
drawings, measurements, and observations taken in
the field.
7. Head Tapeman responsible for the accuracy and
speed of all linear measurements with tape. Carries
the zero end of the tape ahead
8. Rear Tapeman assists the head tapeman during
taping operations and in other related work. Holds the
30-m end or any intermediate meter mark of the tape
during measurement
9. Flagman holds the flagpole or range pole at
selected points as directed by the instrument man.
10. Rodman holds the stadia or leveling rod when
sights are to be taken on it.
11. Pacer checks all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. May also perform the job of the rodman.
12. Axeman/Lineman clears the line of sight of trees,
brush, and other obstructions in wooded country.
13. Aidman renders first aid treatment to members of
the survey party who are involved in snake or insect
bites, accidents and other health issues. May also be
designated as assistant instrument man.
14. Utilitymen renders other forms of assistance
needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief
of party.
ERROR difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity
MISTAKES inaccuracies in measurements which occur
because some aspect of a surveying operation is
performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and improper
execution.
BLUNDER – Large mistakes
 TYPES OF ERRORS
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS one which will always
have the same sign and magnitude as long as field
conditions remain constant and unchanged.
ACCIDENTAL ERRORS the occurrence of such errors
are matters of chance as they are likely
to be positive or negative, and may tend in part to
compensate or average out according to laws of
probability.

SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS due to imperfections of
the instrument used, either from faults in their
construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use.
2. NATURAL ERRORS caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth.
3. PERSONAL ERRORS arise from the limitations of the
senses of sight, touch and hearing of the human
observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate.
ACCURACY - how close a given measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.
PRECISION - degree of refinement and consistency
with which any physical measurement is made
PROBABILITY - number of times something will
probably occur over the range of possible
occurrences. In dealing with probability, it is assumed
that we only refer to accidental errors and that all
systematic errors and mistakes are eliminated.

THEORY OF PROBABILITY
1. small errors occur more often than large ones and
that they are more probable
2. large errors happen infrequently and are less
probable
3. positive and negative errors of the same size
happen with equal frequency, and they are equally
probable
4. the mean of an infinite number of observations is
the most probable value

MOST PROBABLE VALUE Refers to a quantity which,

based on available data, has more chance of being
correct than has any other
 TRIANGULATION AND TRILATERATION
Triangulation and trilateration are two methods used
to conduct land surveying by determining horizontal
measurements. The basic difference between
triangulation and trilateration is that triangulation
involves measurement of angles in surveying, while
trilateration involves measurement of length. The
process involves measurement of sides or angles of an
area that is divided into triangles, polygons,
quadrilaterals or a combination of figures.
TRIANGULATION
• The triangles formed in the area is
determined by measuring their angles.
• A base line whose value is known is taken as a
reference for proceeding the measurement.
• To control scale error, check base lines are
measured.
• Intervisibility between stations is essential
• More internal checks
• Once the angles are measured, the sides are
sides of the triangles are calculated using sine
rule.
TRILATERATION
• The triangles formed in the area is
determined by measuring their sides.
• The azimuth of a line is the known value and it
is taken as the reference to proceed the
measurement.
• To control angular error, check angles are
measured
• It is possible to measure distances without
intervisibility
• Less internal checks compared to
triangulation
• Once the sides of the triangular figures are
determined, the angles are calculated using
cosine law.
Geodetic Surveying: Surveying technique to
determine relative positions of widely spaced points,
lengths, and directions which require the
consideration of the size and shape of the earth.
(Takes the earth’s curvature into account.)
• Geodetic survey is used to provide control points to
which small
surveys can be connected.
Vertical positioning
• Geodetic levelling
• Trigonometric levelling
• Barometric levelling
Horizontal positioning
• Triangulation
• Trilateration
• Traversing
• Astronomical positioning
• Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey
Triangulation
- Use to established a horizontal control system
for a country
- The process of a measuring system comprised
of connected triangles whose vertices are
stations marked on the surface of the earth
and in which angular observations are
supported by occasional distance and
astronomical observation is known as
triangulation
Principle of Triangulation
- Entire area to be surveyed is converted into
framework of triangles
- If the length and bearing of one side and
three angles of a triangle are measured
precisely, the lengths and directions of other
two sides can be computed
- Precisely measured line is called base line
- Computed two lines are used as base lines for
two interconnected triangles
- Vertices of the individual triangles are known
as triangulation stations
- Extending this process network of triangles
can be computed over the entire area
- As a check the length of one side of last
triangle is also measured and compared with
the computed one
Subsidiary bases are measured at suitable intervals to
minimize accumulation of errors in lengths
Astronomical observations are made at intermediate
stations to control the error in azimuth.
Laplace Stations Those triangulation stations are
called Laplace Stations.
Purpose of Triangulation
• To establish the accurate control points for plane
and geodetic surveys of large areas
• To establish the accurate control points for
photogrammetric surveys
• Accurate location of engineering works
Classification
• The triangulation survey is classified into three types
1. Primary triangulation or First order
triangulation
2. Secondary triangulation or Second order
triangulation
3. Tertiary triangulation or Third order
triangulation
Primary Triangulation Highest grade of
triangulation system. To determine the shape
and size of the earth's surface. Stations are generally
selected 16 km to 150 km apart
Specifications:
• Length of the base lines - 8 km to 12 km
• Length of the sides - 16 km to 150 km
• Average triangular error – less than 1"
• Actual error of the base - 1:50000
• Discrepancy between two measurements – 5 mm
√Km
Secondary Triangulation
To connect two primary triangulations. To provide
control points closer together than those of primary
triangulation. For the densification of horizontal
control net work
Specifications:
• Length of the base lines - 2 km to 5 km
• Length of the sides - 10 km to 25 km
• Average triangular error - less than 3"
• Actual error of the base - 1:25000
• Discrepancy between two measurements – 10 mm
√km
Tertiary Triangulation
To provide control points between stations of primary
and second order triangulation. For the densification
of horizontal control for topographical surveys on
various scales.
Specifications:
• Length of the base lines – 100 m to 500 m
• Length of the sides - 2 km to 10 km
• Average triangular error - less than 12"
• Actual error of the base - 1:10000
• Discrepancy between two measurements – 25 mm
√km
 Layout of Triangulation
• The arrangement of the various triangles of a
triangulation series, is
known as the layout of triangulation
• Three types of layout
(1) Simple triangles in chain
(2) Braced quadrilaterals in chain
(3) Centred triangles and polygons
Simple triangles in chain Used when control points
are provided in a narrow strip of terrain such as a
valley between two ridges.
Braced Quadrilaterals in chain Consists of figures
containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals. Braced Quadrilaterals system is treated to
be the best arrangement of triangles as it provides a
means of computing the lengths of the sides using
different combination of the sides and angles
Centred Triangles and Polygons Consists of figures
containing centered polygons and centered triangles
• Used when vast area extending in all direction is
required to be covered.
Factors to be consider in selecting a figure
• Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral
• Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably squares
• Centered polygons should be regular
• No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should
be small
• The angles of simple triangles should not be less
than 45°
• In case of quadrilaterals no angle should be less than
30°.
• In case of centered polygons, no angle should be
less than 40°
• The sides of the figures should be of comparable
length
Layout for Primary Triangulation
Two methods
• Grid iron system
• Centered system
Grid iron system Primary triangulation is laid in series
of chains of triangles
Centered system Whole area of the survey is
covered by a net work of primary triangulation
extending outwards in all directions from the initial
base line
Station marks Object of station marks is to provide a
surface mark with a permanent mark buried below
the surface on which a target or instruments is to
centred over it
Satellite Station In order to secure well condition
triangle or better intervisibility objects such as church
tops, flag poles or towers etc. are sometime selected
as triangulation stations
Reduction to center
• The angles are then corrected and reduced to what
they would be from the true station
• The operation applying to this correction due to the
eccentricity of the station is generally known as
reduction to centre
Signals
• They are the devices erected to define the exact
position of a station
• A signal is placed at each station so that the line of
sights are established between triangulation stations
Classification of Signals
(a) luminous signals
(b) opaque signals.
Luminous Signals: Luminous signals are further
divided into two categories
• sun signals
• night signals.
Sun Signals
Heliotropes Those signals which reflect the rays of the
sun towards the station of observation, are known as
heliotropes.
• Such signals can only be used in clear weather.
Night Signals While making observations at
night, night signals are used.
Various types of night signals are:
Various forms of oil lamps with a reflector. These are
used for sights less than 80 km.
Acetylene lamps designed by captain G.T. McCaw.
These are used for sights more than 80 km.
Opaque Signals
• The opaque, or non-luminous signals used during
day
• Various forms and the ones most commonly used
are the following
- Pole Signal
- Target Signal
- Pole and Brush Signals
- Stone Cairn
- Beacon
Pole Signal It consists of a round pole
painted black and white in alternate and is supported
vertically over the station mark on a tripod.
Target Signal It consists of a pole carrying two
square or rectangular targets placed at right angles to
each other
Pole and Brush Signals It consists of a straight pole
about 2·5 meter long with a bunch of long grass tied
symmetrically round the top making a cross
Stone Cairn It consists of stones built up to a height of
3 meters in a conical shape.
Beacon It consists of red and white cloth tied round
the three straight poles.
Tower A tower is erected at the triangulation station
when the station or the signal or both are to be
elevated to make indivisibility between station
Reconnaissance
• Objective of the reconnaissance is to plan a system
of triangulation in accordance with the specifications
laid down for the type of triangulation
• Reconnaissance team should prepare a well-defined
description of the stations selected by them due to
two main reasons
Criteria for selection of triangulation stations
• Triangulation stations must be selected
carefully
• It can save a lot of time and funds by keeping
the following key points in mind
• Triangulation stations should be intervisible.
• Stations should be easily accessible with
instruments.
• Station should form well-conditioned
triangles.
• Stations should be located so that the survey
lines are neither too small nor too long
• Cost of clearing and cutting and building
towers should be minimum
• No line of sight should pass over the industrial
areas to avoid irregular atmospheric
refraction
Distance between the stations
• If the intervening ground does not obstruct the
intervisibility, the distance of horizon from the station
of known elevation is given by the following formula
Relative elevation of the stations
• Distance between two stations A and B of heights
hA and hB respectively is D.
• DA and DB are the distances of visible horizon from
A and B respectively and hB ′ required elevation at B
above the datum
• Since DB = D − DA, hB ′ can be calculated and
checked whether to be raised above the ground.
• Normally the line of sight is kept at 3m
above the ground as the refraction is
maximum near the ground
Base Line measurements
• Field work for base line measurement is carried out
by two groups as setting out group and the
measuring group
• After the measurements the most probable length is
calculated applying the following corrections
• Corrections for base line measurement
• Correction for the absolute length
• Correction for temperature
• Correction for pull or tension
• Correction for Sag
• Correction for slope
• Correction for alignment
• Reduction to mean sea level
• Axis signal correction
• Correction for the unequal height
• Reduction to Chord to arc