Casting Defects

Samah Khalifa.
 Mohammad essam freihat
Husam Jaber.
Ahmed Mahir.
Ahmed Hamdy.
Esalm
 Success in dental casting restorations depends also on the
castability. Castability is described as the ability of an
alloy to faithfully reproduce sharp detail and fine
margins of a wax pattern. The goal of a prosthodontist is
to provide the patient with restorations that fit precisely.

 unsuccessful casting leads to considerable trouble and

time. In most instances, defects in castings are often
avoided by strict observance of procedures governed by
certain fundamental rules and principles.
 Casting failures of alloys in dental technology should be
the exception, not the rule.
  A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal
casting process that is very undesirable. Errors in
the casting procedure often leads to casting defects
which results in unfitting of casting and may have
poor esthetic and mechanical properties.
 Some defects can be tolerated while other can be
repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated.
 Defects in castings can be avoided by strict
observance of procedures governed by certain
fundamental rules and principles.
 Defects: are defined as conditions in a casting that
must be corrected or removed, or the casting must be
rejected.
 Discontinuities:also known as "imperfections", are
defined as "interruptions in the physical continuity of
the casting". Therefore, if the casting is less than
perfect, but still useful and in tolerance, the
imperfections should be deemed "discontinuities .
Common causes of defects:
1)High heating rates:
 Adopting too high heating rates could lead to
occurrence of fins (or spines) in the casting. The
mechanism for this is as follows:

a) If the investment is subject to too high heating

rate the outside layer becomes hot faster than
the inner, and the temperature difference
between the outside layer and the center of
the investment is increased.
b) Consequently, the outside layer tends to
expand more than the inner parts. However,
the outside layer is held back by the inner,
cooler part.
c) Because of that the outside layer is subject to
compressive stresses, while the inner part is
subject to tensile stresses.
d) Since the investment is a brittle material, it
tends to crack under tensile stresses. In this
 case, the most typical cracks are radial, starting
from the interior of the investment and
spreading outwards.
e) During casting, these cracks are filed by the
casting alloy, manifesting as fins or spines.
2)Low temperature:

Too low temperature could cause incomplete removal of

the wax. Gases, formed when the hot alloy comes in
contact the residues could cause porosity or voids in the
casting. Too low temperature can be caused by too short
heating time or if insufficient air is available in the furnace.
3)Water film:

Wax is a hydrophobic material (i.e. it is repellent to water).

If the investment is not in close contact with the wax
pattern a water film might be formed over the surface. This
water might cause occurrence of small veins and ridges on
the surface of the casting. Loss of contact between the
investment and the wax pattern might be caused if the
pattern has moved slightly, if it has been subjected to
vibrations or if the painting has not been properly applied.
4)Air bubbles:

Occasionally, small air bubbles can become attached to the

pattern during or following the investing procedure. During
the casting, the bubble is filled with the casting material
(alloy) and is manifested as a nodule.
5) Liquid – powder ratio:

Both too high and too low amount of liquid could lead to a
rough surface of the casting.
6) Prolonged heating:
Prolonged heating at too high temperatures could lead to a
disintegration of the investment with a consequence of
rough mold walls. In addition, products of the
disintegration could contaminate the alloy causing surface
defects.
7)Alloy temperature:
If the alloy temperature is too high it can attack the surface
of the investment similar to the case of the prolonged
heating. As a consequence, a similar surface roughness can
occur.

Classification of Casting Defects

The casting should be replica of the pattern created in size,

texture and form. Because of its causes and effects often
overlaps, it is very difficult to classify casting defects.
 No Casting
 Casting defects by Addition
 Casting defects by Loss (Incomplete Casting)
 Porosity
 Discolored casting that resists pickling
 Oversized or Undersized restorations
 Distorted restorations

 No Casting:
 Occurs due to:
 1. Obstruction at the entrance of the mold due to
  a) Presence of fractured investment fragment
 b) Presence of metallic sprue former
 
2. Use of flat crucible former may result
in improper entry of molten alloy into the mold
cavity.
3. Premature solidification of the alloy due to:
 a) Use of Thick sprue (when alloy is melted within
the ring)
 b) Inadequate casting pressure
 c) Cold ring
 d) Incomplete heating of alloy
4. Escape of alloy from the opposite side of the
ring due to the fracture of the investment bridge.
This can happen due to a thin investment bridge or
high casting pressure.
 Distortion: (done by mohammad essam )

 wax distortion is the most common problem in

casting defects that can occur during the forming and
removal of the pattern from the mouth or die.
 distortion leads to a change in the shape and size of
the restoration.
causes:
1) mishandling of wax pattern
2) some distortion can occurs due to hardening of
investment material or expansion and shrinkage of
material→ it does not cause serious problem.
3) some wax distortion occurs during manipulation because
of release of internal stress → minimized by proper
handling .
4) thickness of the wax.

Distortion can be minimized by:

1) not overheat wax .
2) place in increments .
3) never cool the pattern suddenly.
4) carve with sharp instruments .
5) invest immediately .
6) place it in the center of the casting ring .
7) use of hard wax .

 Casting defects by Addition:

1-Fins or Wings – It’s a wing like, formed on the cast
restoration due to the crack formed in the investment .
causes of fin formation :
1-improper positioning of the pattern ,
 The expansion of the wax is much greater than that of
the investment ,causing breakdown or cracking of the
investment if the space is less than 3mm.

2-pattern placed too near the edge of the investment .

 if too little investment covers the wax pattern , the alloy
is more likely to break through the mold.
 the periphery should be 6 mm from the end of a standard
investment ring .

3-high heating rates

 outer layer heats up faster, tend to expand -held back by
inner cooler part.
 outer layer: Compression stress , inner layer :tensile
stress.
 investment (brittle material), crack under tensile stress.
 cracks filled with alloy →fins.
prevention :
-ideally , 60 minutes should elapse during the heating of
the investment filled ring from room temperature to 700 c

4-casting pressure.
 too high-pressure during casting causes fins.
prevention:
adjust the casting machine to the requirements of each
alloy.

2-Bubbles or Nodules – Small globular structures formed

on the cast restoration, due to entrapment of air around the
wax pattern, during investing.
 If nodules are formed away from the crown margins ,
they are removed.

 If they are formed on the margins, the casting has to be

remade.
 nodules on margins or on internal surface might alter the
fit of the casting .

3-Water films (Veins) , due to the separation of the

investment from the wax pattern
appears as veins .
causes:
1-pattern is slightly moved or vibrated after investing.
2-no intimate contact of the investment with the pattern
3-high P\L ratio

prevention: use of wetting agent

End of my part

SURFACE DISCOLORATION:
 There are many factors that may contribute in surface
discoloration:
 •Overheating
  •Incomplete wax elimination (Underheating)
 •sulfur contamination :
 •investment breakdown at high temperature
 •High sulfur content of the torch flame

Underheating Incomplete elimination of wax residues may occur if

the heating time is too short or if insufficient air is available in the
furnace. These factors are particularly important with the low-
temperature investment techniques. Voids or porosity may occur
in the casting from the gases formed when the hot alloy comes in
contact with the carbon residues. Occasionally, the casting may be
covered with a tenacious carbon coating that is virtually
impossible to remove by pickling

Prolonged Heating When the high-heat casting technique is

used, a prolonged heating of the mold at the casting
temperature is likely to cause a disintegration of the gypsum-
bonded investment, and the walls of the mold are roughened
as a result. Furthermore, the products of decomposition are
sulfur compounds that may contaminate the alloy to the extent
that the surface texture is affected
The interaction of the molten alloy with sulfur produces a black
or grey layer on the surface of gold alloys that is brittle and does
not clean readily during pickling.
 Bright-appearing concavities may be the result of flux being
carried into the mold with the metal

Discoloration after casting:

 A source of discoloration is mainly overlooked by
contamination of a gold alloy by mercury 
 •Mercury penetrates rapidly into alloy result in loss of
ductility and greater susceptibility to corrosion 
 •Not recommended to place amalgam restoration adjacent
to gold alloy
 these dissimilar metals form a galvanic cell that can lead to
breakdown of the anode (amalgam) relative to the cathode
(noble alloy). 

 as solders, bits of wire, and mixtures of different casting

alloys should never be melted together and reused.
 The resulting mixture would not possess the proper physical
properties and might form a eutectic phase with low
corrosion resistance.
 Discoloration and corrosion may also occur.
 CARBON INCLUSIONS
CARBON AS FROM:
 A crucible
 An improperly adjusted torch
 Carbon-containing investment
 Can be absorbed by the alloy during casting
 May lead to formation of carbides or even create visible
carbon inclusions.

 Voids or porosity may occur in the casting from the gases

formed when the hot alloy comes in contact with the carbon
residues
 Occasionally, the casting may be covered with a tenacious
carbon coating that is virtually impossible to remove by
pickling.

Contamination:
 Contamination by oxidation due to overheating 
 •Use of oxidizing zone flame
 •Failure to use flux 
 Incomplete casting

 Partially complete casting or no casting at all may occur during casting

procedure.

 It is due to an inadequate amount of molten metal

entering the mold.

 Occurs mainly at the margins or on the thin areas of

the casting

 Reasons of incomplete casting :

 Incomplete melting of alloy

 Too low casting force

 Poor castability

 Blocking of sprue due to loose investment particles

 Incomplete dewaxing

 Blocking due to pre solidification in spre

 Insufficient alloy
 How to prevent ?
 ´Use the proper size of sprue former
 ´Casting temperature should be higher than the liquidus temperature of
the alloy
 ´Ensure that no debris blocks the ingate
 ´Use an adequate amount of force for casting

 Factors that may inhibit the ingress of the liquefied

alloy:
 Insufficient venting of the mold
 Incomplete elimination of wax residual
 High viscosity of the fused metal

INSUFFICIENT VENTING OF
MOLD:

 Directly related to back pressure exerted by the air in mold.

 If the air cannot be vented quickly, the molten alloy does not
fill the mold before it solidifies.

 In such a case, the magnitude of the casting pressure should

be suspected.
  Application of pressure at least 4 sec.
 The mold is filled and the alloy is solidified in 1 sec or less
 Therefore the pressure should be maintained for a few seconds beyond
this point
 These failures are usually exemplified in rounded, incomplete margins

INCOMPLETE ELIMINATION OF WAX

RESIDUE:

 If too many products of combustion remain in the mold,

the pores of the investment become filled and air cannot
be vented completely.

 Contact of molten metal with wax or moisture produces

an explosion that may produce sufficient back pressure to
prevent the mold from being filled

 HIGH VISCOSITY OF FUSED METALS

  An incomplete casting resulting from too great a viscosity is attributed to
insufficient heating. 

 Temperature of the alloy should be raised higher than its liquid

temperature so that its viscosity and surface tension are lowered and so
that it does not solidify prematurity as it enters the mold.

Shiny Surface
 Incomplete casting resulting from incomplete wax
elimination is characterized by rounded margins and
shiny appearance

 Metal property:
 High viscosity
 Low density
 Insufficient pressure

 The class 4 casting alloy (Base Metal) has low density so not able to
enter the mold space very easily compared with class 1 Gold alloys
which has high density
 OTHER REASONS:
 Inadequate metal.
 Cool mold or melt
 Too thin Wax pattern

Oversized and undersized casting

Dimensional inaccuracies in casting:

The final fit of a casting depends on balancing out contraction and

expansion occurring during construction.
Major dimensional changes due to casting shrinkage of the alloy
which should be compasated by the setting expansion,
hygroscopic expansion, thermal expansion . The castings can be
either too small or too large.
Casting too large is due to excessive mould expansion eliminated
by
1) use of correct temperature 2) correct type of investment.
Casting too small is due to too little mild expansion eliminated by
Heating the mold sufficiently
 A casting should be as accurate as possible although a
tolerance of + 0.05% for an inlay casting is acceptable.
 To obtain casting with small tolerance limits , rigid
requirements should be placed not only on the investment
materials but also on the impression materials, waxes and
die materials. Technical procedures and the proper handling
of these material are equally important.

Wax shrinkage
 The amount of contraction which inlay waxes undergo from
mouth temperature to room temperature is important when
the direct technique is used to form wax pattern.
 Goldberg (1937) recommended the use of the wax with
0.1% Contraction for the direct technique and the wax with
 0.38% contraction for the a patterns made on a die at room
temperature in the indirect technique.

Cast shrinkage:
 The shrinkage occurs in 3 stages:
1. The thermal contraction of the liquid metal between the
temperature to which it is heated and the liquidus
temperature.
2. The contraction of the metal when change from the liquid to
the solid state.
3. The thermal contraction of the solid metal that occurs on
further cooling to room temperature.
The first mentioned contraction is probably of no consequence,
because as the liquid metal contracts in the mold with a properly
designed sprue system more molten metal can flow into the mold
to compensate for such a shrinkage. The casting technique allows
for such flow of molten metal.
 Coleman used the expression ‘casting shrinkage’ to include
the contraction which occurred during all the three stages
already described and employed the term ‘net casting
shrinkage’.
 Earnshaw (1957) suggested the following nomenclature to
give a more precise meaning for the term “casting
shrinkage”.
  a) Inherent casting shrinkage: The maximum contraction
that could occur during the casting of a given alloy, when
cooling from its solidus temperature to environmentral
temperature.
 b) Actual casting shrinkage: the contraction of the alloy
which occurs when a casting is made. It can also be
described as the ‘observed’ or measured casting shrinkage.
 c) Net casting shrinkage: The difference between the
compensation provided by the available investment
expansion and the actual casting shrinkage of the alloy, thus
describing the amount by which the final casting differs in
size from the original wax pattern. Since it is possible that
castings may be either oversize or undersize, this value can
be positive or negative

Effect of alloy composition on casting shrinkage:

varies with alloy composition, the variation amongst gold alloys
normally used for ordinary cast inlays, crowns and bridges is not
large enough to warrant changes in investment expansion (Morey
1991)
 Linear solidification shrinkage of casting alloys Type I (Au-
based) 1.56%, Type II (Au-Based) 1.37%, Type III (Au-based
1.42%, Type IV (Ni-Cr based) 2.30%, Type IV (Co-Cr) 2.30%
 The values for casting shrinkage differ for the various alloy,
because of differences in their composition. For ex platinum,
 palladium and copper are effective in reducing casting
shrinkage of an alloy.

In general casting shrinkage values are less than their linear

thermal contraction values, even though the casting shrinkage as
obtained includes both the solidification shrinkage and the
thermal contraction from the solidification temperature to room
temperature
 The reasons are:
1) When the mold becomes filled with molten metal the metal
starts to solidify at the walls of the mold, because the
temperature of the mold is less than that of the bulk molten
metal.
2) During initial cooling, the first layer of metal to solidify against
the walls of the mold is weak and it tends to adhere to the mold
until it gains sufficient strength as it cools to pull away. When the
metal is sufficiently strong enough to contract independently of
the mold, it shrinks thermally until it reaches room temperature.
3) There may be constraints by the mold on the metal contraction
during cooling because of the typical geometry of dental castings.
The thermal shrinkage of the first weak solidified layer is initially
prevented by its mechanical adhesion to the walls of the mold.
During this period it is actually stretched because of its
interlocking with the investment material, which has a lower
thermal contraction coefficient. Thus any contraction occurring
during solidification can be eliminated by a well designated sprue
system that feeds new liquid metal to the sites undergoing
solidification.

 Setting expansion:
Setting expansion of the investment occurs as a result of normal
crystal growth. The expansion probably is enhanced by silica
particles in the investment interfering with the forming
crystalline structure of the gypsum, causing it to expand outward.

Hygroscopic expansion (Low heat technique)

 When gypsum product allowed to set in contact with water
 Ring is submerged in water bath at 37 C for 1 hour
immediately after investing.
  The water then replaces the water of Hydration, preventing
confinement of crystal growth.
 Hence crystal tends to grow outward in presence of water
and result in more expansion.

The following factors tend to increase hygroscopic expansion:

 Increased silica content of the investment & hemihydrate as
the binder.
 Increased setting expansion of the binder
 Thicker mix of investment (Low W/p ratio)
 Increasing mixing time (spatulation)
 Immersion of the investment at or before its initial set (time
of immersion).
 Temperature of water bath
  Lining the ring with asbestos liner
 Using a split ring or one made of flexible rubber
 Storage at 100% humidity

 Thermal expansion (high heat teachnique)

 Occurs when the mold is heated to eliminate the wax.
 Silica refractory material is mainly responsible for this
because of solid state phase transformations.
 Cristobalite changes from α to the β (high temp) form
between 200ºC This transition involves a change in crystal
form, an accompanying change in bond angles and axis
dimension and a decreased density producing a volume
increase in the refractory components (a displacive
transformation)
Expansion requirements for castings:
 Thin ¾ crown – 1.80%
 Class I, and II, small MOD – 1.85%
 Large MOD, ¾ crown 1.40%
 Overlay, pin pontic – 1.95%
 Bulky ¾ crown – 2.00%
 small class V, Full crown – 2.10%
 Large class V crown 2.40%
Factors controlling Thermal expansion:
  Thinner mix Less Thermal expansion
 Increase w/p Less Thermal expansion

Effect of shape of the casting on casting shrinkage:

Interference could have a greater effect in castings of more
complex shapes, especially if those shapes allow interlocking of
the solidified alloy and the mould , size and shape of the casting
effect the casting shrinkage.

An investment with high compressive strength at the casting

temperature will be more effective than a weaker one in
restricting casting shrinkage
When small dental castings (inlays and crown) are considered. it is
obvious the effect of these two interrelated factors where
interlocking between the alloy and mould would be minimal.
on the other hand, in full crowns the effect would be greatest as
the investment cores opposes alloy contraction especially in the
directions important to the fit of the casting.
MOD inlay casting: restraint imposed by the walls of the mould is
more complex and varies in different directions. It is greatest in
the mesiodistal direction where the investment cores against
opposes alloy contraction and least in buccolingual and occluso-
gingival directions where there is little interlocking of the casting
and mould.

Alloy contraction could therefore be expected to be greatest in

buccolingual and occlusogingival directions than mesiodistal
direction , and this differential contraction could cause a
distortion of the casting
References
1-Ch17: Dental Casting technique and defects.
2-Kenneth J. Anusavice; Phillips Science of dental material, Eleventh edition, Elsevier,
2004.Robert C. Craig John M. Powers, John C. Wataha; Dental materials properties and
manipulation, Eight edition, 2004.