Accepted Manuscript

Lineament mapping and fractal analysis using SPOT-ASTER satellite imagery

for evaluating the severity of slope weathering process

Saeedeh Hosseini, Gholam Reza Lashkaripour, Naser Hafezi Moghadas,

Mohammad Ghafoori, Amin Beiranvand Pour

PII: S0273-1177(18)30774-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2018.10.005
Reference: JASR 13960

To appear in: Advances in Space Research

Received Date: 17 July 2018

Revised Date: 13 September 2018
Accepted Date: 4 October 2018

Please cite this article as: Hosseini, S., Reza Lashkaripour, G., Hafezi Moghadas, N., Ghafoori, M., Beiranvand
Pour, A., Lineament mapping and fractal analysis using SPOT-ASTER satellite imagery for evaluating the severity
of slope weathering process, Advances in Space Research (2018), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2018.10.005

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 Lineament mapping and fractal analysis using SPOT-ASTER satellite
imagery for evaluating the severity of slope weathering process

Saeedeh Hosseini1, Gholam Reza Lashkaripour*2, Naser Hafezi Moghadas2, Mohammad

Ghafoori2, Amin Beiranvand Pour3

1
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad,
Iran
2
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad,
Mashhad, Iran
3
Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) Songdomirae-ro,Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21990,
Republic of Korea

Abstract

The present study describes a remote sensing approach for preparing lineament map that

subsequently indicates the influence of lineament density in the severity of weathering

development. In this study, SPOT-5 data, the integration of SPOT-ASTER and Digital

Elevation Model (DEM) data were used and processed. The existence of an active fault

system in the south of Mashhad city, NE Iran and presence of schistose rocks in this area

result in the development of numerous lineament features. This region was selected for this

research. Lineament features including fractures, bedding plane, cleavage, shear zones and

schistosity were mapped in the study area. The results indicate that the highest concentration

of lineaments occurred in the central-western and south-eastern parts of the study area, which

coincide with metamorphic outcrops and NW-SE trending fault system. A comparison of

lineament statistical analysis and field survey demonstrated that the structural discontinuities

have a significant effect on forming and distribution of weathering profiles. It was observed

that increasing the number, length and density of structural discontinuities led to strong

1
severity in weathering, which can produce deep residual soils susceptible to landslide

occurrence. The remote sensing approach developed in this study can be applicable for

preparing lineament maps and evaluating the severity of weathering development in other

active fault zones around the world.

Keywords: Remote sensing imagery; SPOT-ASTER; Lineament mapping; Fractal analysis;

Weathering process.

* Corresponding Author: lashkaripour@um.ac.ir, Tel: +980989151411449, Fax: +98513

8807150. Co-authors email: saeedehhoseini1351@gmail.com; Lashkaripour@um.ac.ir;
nhafezi@um.ac.ir; ghafoori@um.ac.ir; beiranvand.amin80@gmail.com

1. Introduction

Remote sensing imagery plays an important role in recognizing and mapping fault-induced

lineaments and fractures (Pour et al., 2016, 2018; Eldosouky et al., 2017; Adiri et al., 2017;

Zhong et al., 2018). Comparison of the field-based map and a remote sensing-based map

shows that more structural fractures are observable in the remote sensing-based map, and it is

also suitable for any quantitative and qualitative processing in the statistical and fractal

analyses (Pour and Hashim, 2014; Bonetto et al., 2015; Radaideh et al., 2016; Ahmadirouhani

et al., 2017; Adiri et al., 2017; Masoud and Koike, 2017). Moreover, the results obtained by

remote sensing techniques are more reliable compared to field-based information that simply

collected of actual conditions in a region (Hashim et al., 2013; Gholamzadeh et al., 2015;

2
Ahmadirouhani et al., 2017; Pour and Hashim, 2017; Zhong et al., 2018). RADARDAT-1,

Landsat TM, ETM+, Landsat-8, Sentinel 1, SPOT, PALSAR and ASTER remote sensing

satellite data and their Digital Elevation Models (DEM) products have been extensively used

to map geological fault zones and associated lineament systems as well as evaluating the

fracture degree of lithological units (Solomon and Ghebreab, 2006; Masoud and Koike, 2006;

Bruning et al., 2011; Marghany and Hashim, 2010; Hashim et al., 2013, 2018, Gholamzadeh

et al., 2015; Šilhavý et al., 2016; Ahmadirouhani et al, 2017; Pour and Hashim, 2014, 2017;

Pour et al., 2016, 2018; Eldosouky et al., 2017; Adiri et al., 2017; Masoud and Koike, 2017;

Hamimi et al., 2018).

Lineaments mapping (faults and discontinuities) can be used for the identification of fault

zones related to high-permeability paths for underground water flow (Meijerink et al., 2007;

Corgne et al., 2010; Contes, 2011; Khaghan Pour, 2014), the effect of geological structures

and rock weathering in occurring large landslides (Regmi et al., 2013; Pour and Hashim,

2017) and instability of the engineering structures foundation (Haftani et al., 2014; Kahraman

et al., 2015; Rastegarnia et al., 2017; Alizadeh et al., 2018). Weathering is a primary effective

process in deformation of the earth’s surface and significantly affects the physical and

mechanical properties of the rock (Jutson, 1914; Walther, 1915). Besides, weathering leads to

mineralogical changes in parent rock and makes the slopes vulnerable for landslide

occurrences (Lacerda and Santos, 2000; Calcaterra et al., 2004; Gulla et al., 2004; Borelli et

al., 2007; Borelli, 2008; Miscevic and Vlastelica, 2014; Regmi et al., 2013; Sajinkumar et al.,

2011).

3
Structural discontinuities have a significant role in the development of rock weathering;

hence, understanding the rock weathering conditions is one of the main challenges in slope

stability and subsidence studies. The weathering depends on the type of parent rock,

topography, climate and time (Huat et al., 2012). It seems that the type of bedrock and density

of discontinuities are among the effective factors in the degree of weathering and the

evolution of soil horizons and soil thickness. In situ soils are susceptible to landslide

occurrences. The penetration depth of weathering is increased by increasing density, length

density, and the intersection of discontinuities (Loosveld and Franssen, 1992). Therefore, it is

necessary to assess density, length, direction, and spatial distribution of lineaments as well as

the analysis of rock outcrops for evaluating the conductivity of fractures (Loosveld and

Franssen, 1992). Morphotectonic features including bedding, foliation, joints and faults were

considered as lineaments, which could be identified through satellite remote sensing imagery

(Koopmans, 1986; Shupe and Akhavi, 1989; Tibaldi and Ferrari, 1991; Marple and Schweig,

1992; Kar, 1994; Moralev et al., 1995; Solomon and Ghebreab, 2006; Bruning et al., 2011;

Zoheir and Emam, 2012; Rios-Sanchez et al., 2012; Ibrahim et al., 2017; Eldosouky et al.,

2017; Hamimi et al., 2018).

Accordingly, the application of satellite remote sensing imagery has great capability to map

lineament features that could be used as an applicable tool for identifying the weathering

profiles of soils for a variety of geological environments. However, there is no investigation

that used lineament mapping techniques in order to evaluate the severity of slope weathering

process using satellite remote sensing approach. In this investigation, SPOT-ASTER satellite

remote sensing imagery is used for producing lineament map and evaluating the influence of

4
lineament density in the severity of weathering development. The southern slopes of Mashhad

city, NE Iran was selected for this study (Fig. 1). Recently, Mashhad city is developing

rapidly toward its southern sector, where intense construction projects are establishing. Since

the southern parts of the city mainly consist of in situ soils, a comprehensive and detailed

study of structural lineament features might be a great assistance for predicting and preventing

geological hazards during future expansion of the city. The southern slopes of Mashhad city

consist of ophiolite units, mafic and ultramafic metamorphic rocks, which are highly

sustainable for weathering (Fig. 2). They include a wide variety of rocks and parent rock

properties such as mineralogy, texture and fabrication (bedding, fault, joint, and fracture) that

could be easily influenced by weathering. Furthermore, the wide expansion of weathered

ultramafic rocks with slippery surface due to alteration minerals (serpentine and talk),

formation of in situ soils containing a considerable amount of clay minerals (especially

montmorillonite), and several excavations performed in this area have cautioned to the

occurrence of future large landslides and/or subsidence. Figure 3 shows landslides that

recently occurred in the residential zones and slippery surface susceptible to landslide at the

side of the local roads in the study area, which emphasizing urgent attention to this region.

Subsequently, in the southern slopes of Mashhad city, the identification of potential

weathering zones may have thick in-situ soils profile, which is sustainable for consequent soil

variation behavior (in terms of geological engineering) and landslide occurrence is very

important for predicting and preventing geological hazards in the future expansion of the city.

This investigation is aimed (1) to evaluate the spatial analysis of lineament features using

SPOT-5 and integrated SPOT-ASTER remote sensing data in the southern slopes of Mashhad

5
city; and (2) to identify the zones with high-density of lineaments using fractal analysis,

where the possibility of the presence of severe weathering and formation of thick in-situ soils

is high.

2. Geographical location of the study area

Mashhad city (longitude 59°25′ to 59°36′E and latitude 36°14′ to 36°20′N) is located at the

southern sector of Razavi Khorasan province, northeast of Iran (Fig. 1). The study area is

situated in the Alborz collision belt. It is resulted from closing the Paleo-Tethys and collision

of Turan plate in the north and lithospheric segment of Iran in the south (Alavi, 1991). The

metamorphic assembly in the southern area of Mashhad is a part of Binalud mountains, which

is a folded-faulted belt consisting of thrusting plates with a duplex anticline structure. The

highest structural plate of this duplex is the metamorphic assembly of the south of Mashhad

city (Alavi, 1991). The Mashhad metamorphic assembly is the relict of an accretionary prism

that has been formed during the subduction of oceanic paleo-Tethys crust below the southern

edge of the Turanian plate and replaced during the collision of Iranian microplate and

Turanian plate in the northern edge. These conditions have led to various structural changes

and consequently metamorphism in the rock units in the southern part of Mashhad city. In

terms of lithology, the study area consisting of ophiolite units, mafic and ultramafic

metamorphic rocks such as peridotite, gabbro, dunite, basalt, serpentinite, pyroxenite, and

rock units comprising meta-chert and marble with interlayered meta-basalt (Alavi, 1991).

6
Fig. 2 shows the geological map of the southern slopes of Mashhad city (scale 1:20000) that

used in this study. Since residual soils are formed by in-suit weathering of parent rock, their

distribution depends on the dispersion of various types of rock in the study area. Therefore,

the geological map can be a suitable guide to study the distribution of soils derived from

various parent rocks in the area. Due to the limitation of the geological map (1:100000) in

presenting the distribution of various rock types, geological units of southern Mashhad were

drawn in a 1:20000 scale map (Fig. 2). This map can provide a possibility for better

evaluation of weathering-derived soils distribution with different parent rocks in the study

area.

During the early Holocene, the climate in the region was more humid than it is today, and

weathering in the area has been affected by past weather conditions (Soltani et al., 2008). The

average climate data for the study area in the period of 1951 to 2017 years can be summarized

as follows: mean annual temperature of 15.4°C, mean annual precipitation of 241mm/year,

the maximum recorded temperature of 43.4°C, and the minimum recorded temperature of

-24°C. The climatic characteristics represent cold arid climate in past and hot arid climate at

present. Extensive urbanization and industrialization in the past decades can e onsidered as

the reason or the in rease in ini u and a i u te eratures ( ari i et al 2017).

2. Materials and methods

Syste`m Pour l‘O servation de la Terre (SPOT-5) satellite data have a high efficiency in the

detection of lineaments because of high-resolution stereoscopic (HRS) ability and a high

7
spatial resolution (2.5 m). The SPOT-5 satellite data offer greatly enhanced capabilities,

which provide additional cost-effective imaging solutions. The coverage offered by SPOT-5

is a key asset for applications such as medium-scale mapping (at 1:25,000 and 1:10,000

locally), urban and rural planning, oil and gas exploration, and natural disaster management.

The data provides adequate information for 3D terrain modeling by covering wide areas

stereoscopically (Dagras et al., 1995). Stereo satellite imagery is vital for applications that call

for 3D terrain modeling and computer environments, such as flight simulator databases,

pipeline corridors and mobile phone network planning. 2.5-meter color products are derived

from the images obtained by SPOT-5. The 2.5-metre color image is obtained by merging two

separate images, namely the image with a panchromatic mode at 2.5-metre resolution, and the

images with a three-band multispectral mode at 10-meter resolution. Because the 2.5-metre

image is itself generated by merging two 5-meter images, one of the High-Resolution

Geometric (HRG) instruments has to acquire three images simultaneously to produce a 2.5-

metre color image. Therefore, images obtained are similar to a three-band color image with a

resolution of 2.5 meters and panchromatic viewing geometry (Dagras et al., 1995). SPOT-5

data have been used successfully in some investigations for mapping of the geological

structures and mineral exploration (Harris et al., 2011; Ogunmola et al., 2014, 2016;

Ahmadirouhani et al., 2017).

The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) has 14

spectral bands, including 3 bands in visible and near-infrared (15 m resolution), 6 bands in

shortwave infrared (30 m resolution) and 5 bands in thermal infrared (90 m resolution). The

visible and near-infrared sub-system has an additional backward-looking band for the stereo

8
construct of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) with a spatial resolution of up to 15 m

(Abrams et al., 2002). Visible and near-infrared bands of ASTER are also able to provide

sufficient spectral information for the identification of vegetation and iron oxide minerals on

the Earth’s sur a e (Pournamdari et al., 2014a,b). Shortwave infrared bands of ASTER are

capable of discriminating hydrothermal alteration and weathered minerals and thermal

infrared bands can map carbonate and silicate minerals (Ninomiya, 2003, 2004; Pour and

Hashim, 2012). ASTER data have been used in numerous geological structural mapping

investigation (Zoheir, and Emam, 2014; Eldosouky et al., 2017; Zoheir et al., 2017).

SPOT-5 Level 2A scene product used in this study was acquired on July 21, 2008, for the

southern slopes of Mashhad city. Level 2A data are rectified to match in the Universal

Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection with World Geodetic System 84 (WGS-84)

datum, without using ground control points. Level 2A is the entry-level map product and

geometrically and radiometrically corrected. It is corrected by normalizing Charge-Coupled

Device (CCD) response to compensate radiometric variations due to detector sensitivity.

Geometric corrections compensate for systematic effects, including panoramic distortion, the

Earth's rotation and curvature, and variations in the satellite's orbital altitude (Kardoulas et al.,

1996). For SPOT 5, a global DEM with a post spacing of one kilometer is used. Geometric

corrections use a resampling model that compensates for systematic distortion effects and

performs transformations needed to project the image in a standard map projection (UTM

WGS-84). Level 2A images could be registered directly with other layers of geographic

information such as vector data, raster maps or other satellite images in the same map

projection (UTM WGS-84).

9
ASTER scene used in this study was level 1B and acquired on 15 July 2005. The level 1B

data product measures radiance at the sensor, without atmospheric corrections and was

produced from the original level 1A format. Geometric and radiometric corrections have been

applied to 1B format data (Abrams et al., 2002). The ASTER image has been pre-

georeferenced to UTM zone 40 North projection using the WGS-84 datum. To accomplish the

specific image processing objectives in this study, SPOT-5 and ASTER images of the study

area were processed using the ENVI (Environment for Visualizing Images) version 5.1, ER-

Mapper version 6.4 and Arc GIS version 10.3 software packages.

In this investigation, to produce fracture map of the study area, the panchromatic band (2.5-

meter spatial resolution) of SPOT-5, digital elevation model (DEM) and integrated SPOT-

ASTER data (5-meter spatial resolution) were used. The SPOT-ASTER data has great

capability to separate the geological units and fracture-induced alternation. SPOT-5 satellite

data of the study area were used to detect both the main and minor lineaments. SPOT-5 was

geo-referenced with the WGS-84 datum. The 2.5-metre color image is obtained by merging

two separate images, namely the image with a panchromatic mode at 2.5-metre resolution,

and the images with a three-band multispectral mode at 10-meter resolution. Using SPOT-5

data, because of simultaneously having a stereo view and high resolution, provide better

detection of the structural features compared to the ASTER-SPOT data and DEM data. The

2.5-m resolution multispectral SPOT-5 data produced best outputs for detecting joint sets and

fractures and mapping.

Considering the spectral and spatial resolution of ASTER data, a combination of bands 742

and bands 531 of ASTER were used to separate the rock units and enhancing the lineaments.

10
The band ratio of 2+4/3, 5+7/6, 7+9/8 in RGB were adopted (Amer et al., 2012) and used in

the separation of lithological units and determination of fractures for the study area. To

complete and drawing fractures map of study area, hill shade images provided by 10 m spatial

resolution of SPOT and ASTER DEM images. Finally, the 2.5-meter spatial resolution of

SPOT-5 data provided the stereoscopic vision capability. Simultaneous use of lineament

enhancement filters (sharpen11*11) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method

resulted in drawing lineament systems for the study area. Figure 4 shows an overview of the

methodological flowchart used in this study.

4. Analysis and Results

4.1 Evaluation of lineaments distribution

After processing the data and drawing the structural fractures map of the study area (Fig. 5),

lineaments development and their trends were evaluated. Accordingly, an image map of the

lineaments trend was obtained and classified (Figs. 6 and 7). As shown in Figure 6, there are

three dominated trends in the whole study area, including N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE trends. In

this study, they are named as class 1 (N-S), class 2 (NE-SW) and class 3 (NW-SE),

respectively. Then, the entire study area was divided into four equal parts to realize the trend

of lineaments distribution, exclusively (Fig.7). Then, the azimuth of lineaments was measured

for each part and its rose diagram was also plotted. Figure 7 (a and b) displays the lineaments

with NW-SE trend have the most development and distribution in the whole of the study area,

which is compatible with the trend of the fault system in the south slopes of Mashhad city.

Therefore, an NW-SE trend was identified as a dominated trend in the study area. However,

11
the zone A shows the highest dispersal of lineaments distribution compare to other zones (B,C,

and D) (see Fig 7 b). Figure 8 (a-d) shows some field photos and polar graph results of the

joint analysis for some checking point stations in the study area, including Khaghani station,

Hashemieh station, Sarafrazan station and Zakaria station. The results derived from the

structural lineaments study during fieldwork indicated the existence of two sets of the

lineaments such as N-S and NE-SW in the most of the field checking stations, although some

checking points contain three sets of lineaments, including N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE.

4.2. Spatial analysis of lineaments

In this study, the spatial analysis of lineaments was performed on remote sensing-based

lineament map using spatial pattern survey. It evaluates the spatial variations of a parameter in

different locations and drawing the spatial variation maps of the parameter (Davy et al., 1990;

Davy, 1993; Ouillon et al., 1995; 1996; Castaing et al., 1996; Ackermann et al., 2001; Nieto et

al., 2005; Koik and Ichikawa, 2006; Zazoun, 2008). A network involving several cells is

designed and adapted for the study area. Then, the considered variable for each cell is

calculated using statistical methods. The value of the calculated variable is attributed to the

central point of each cell. Iso-value points are connected to each other. Finally, iso-value

curves are calculated by connecting iso-value points, and spatial pattern of the variable was

provided in form of the image map. Furthermore, in this study, the distribution of longitudinal

parameters and lineaments density were evaluated. The study of lineaments density could be

performed by two following methods: (i) Calculating the number of lines per unit area (Davy

12
et al., 1990) or lineaments density (Eq. 1) and (ii) determining the total length of lines per unit

area (Bour, 1997) or longitudinal density of lineaments (Eq. 2).

(1)

(2)

Where, N is the number of fractures, and L is the total lengths in area A.

Figure 9 shows the curve of lineament length distribution for three classes of fractures derived

from remote sensing analysis for the study area. By looking at the curves (Fig.9), the length

variation system is discernable. The highest variation rate is observed in class 2. Besides, in

all three curves, a descending trend can be seen from the short to long joints. In general, all of

the histograms have an exponential distribution (Fig. 9). It should be noted that exponential

distribution of the number to the length of fractures shows the structural maturity of the area

and the maximum propagation of structural fractures in the region (Xypolias and

Koukouvelas, 2004).

Spacing is another important factor in investigating fracture systems (Casas et al., 2000;

Solomon et al., 2006), which means the vertical space between successive fractures and it is a

mathematical term. There are various methods to calculate the mean spacing. In the simplest

method, the spacing of two fractures is measured by a meter and with a measurement close to

the mean spacing. In a more precise method, the length of a joint is divided into equal

intervals and from each point; the shortest line is drawn to the adjacent joint. Then the mean

length of intersection lines is calculated (Ekneligoda and Henkel, 2006). One the other

applicable method to calculate the distance between lineaments could be performed by Digi

Fractal software, which is complex but more accurate (Hardebol and Bertotti, 2013). In this

13
study, for measure spacing between remote sensing lineaments, the Scanline method provided

in GIS software environment was used. Thus, the space between lineaments was measured by

the first method and the histogram was also plotted. When a fracture class is analyzed through

interpretation of satellite images, identification of fractures depends on image resolution and

small spaces between two successive fractures may be difficult to distinguish and are usually

ignored. Therefore, the frequency distribution of the data may be compatible with negative

exponential distribution (Hang and Angelier, 1989). Figure 10 shows a frequency-spacing

histogram of structural fractures in the southern slopes of Mashhad city. Remote sensing data

of all three fracture classes show compatibility with negative exponential distribution (Fig.

10).

Furthermore, other applicable parameters in statistical calculation of lineaments are density

and lineaments length density (Xypolias and Koukouvelas, 2004). The calculation of the

intersection points of lineament is another parameter that helps to identify weathering zones

and explore the mineral deposits and underground water reserves (Knipe, 1993; Sibson,

1994). These parameters are calculated in terms of per unit area (unit area). In the study area

by considering the fractures density, the region is networked into 80 square cells with 1 km×1

km dimensions. Then, parameters of density, accumulation, and intersection points were

manually calculated. In order to study the spatial variations of density, accumulation, and

intersection points of lineaments in the southern slopes of Mashhad, the values of each

parameter were provided in form of contour diagram maps (Fig 11 (A-D)).

The exponential distribution of the number to the length of fractures represents the structural

maturity and the maximum development of structural fractures in that area, and southern

14
slopes of Mashhad city has such conditions due to the length of fractures. On the other hand,

comparison of frequency density, length, lineament interception and fractal maps shows that

all three maps are similar in terms of density and have a high density in the central eastern and

western parts of the area (Fig.11 (A-D)). Considerably, the density of lineaments interception

plays an important role in the conductivity of fractures network. Since the interception points

provide a proper place to the fluid influx and weathering development, the possibility of

weathering development and evolution of soil horizons in these areas is high. In fact, high

fractal dimension, the fracture density and intersection increase the permeability and

connectivity of fracture networks, which subsequently influence the possibility of high

chemical weathering due to the effect of acidic fluids and water in the fractures.

Weathering increases the water-holding capacity of rocks by increasing porosity and mineral

surface area and effect on the physical and mechanical properties of rocks (Certini et al.,

2006; Zanner and Graham, 2005). Some elements such as Ca, Na, and Mg during weathering

removed and decrease their concentrations. Chemical and physical changes occur because of

water infiltration and weathering. Water infiltrates into the low-porosity rocks in the shear

zones and zones near the faults and fractures. Infiltrating water promote the chemical

reactions with primary minerals in the rock (e.g., feldspars, pyroxenes, and micas).

The comparison of provided maps shows that all three maps are similar in terms of density,

and the highest density is mapped in the central eastern and western parts of the study area. It

means that in the study area, due to the different orientation and highest length and frequency

of lineaments, the density of the intersection points of fractures is increased and the space of

lineaments is decreased. Besides, the evaluation of geological map shows that the main part of

15
geological units is metamorphic and ultramafic rocks with fault boundary, which contain

more evolved soil horizons compared to other parts (Fig.12).

Fractal analysis of lineaments network using square counting method is a common method in

the fractal analysis of faults (Idziak and Teper, 1996; Gonzato et al., 1998; Ni et al., 2017).

Therefore, this method was used to investigate the presence or absence of the fractal model in

structural fractures network in the study area. The results show that the fractures of the study

area had fractal geometry and their fractal dimensions were between 0.85 and 1.5 with a mean

of 0.93 (see Fig. 11 D). According to the calculated values of a fractal dimension, it could be

concluded that the boundaries of the plotted network are matched to the fractures of the fractal

zone and it was between 1.05 and 1.6. It was similar to a structural study conducted by Hirata

(1989). Furthermore, Ni et al. (2017) indicated that the fractal dimension value is

reprehensive of the degree of fracture in rock masses and believed that high values of fractal

dimension were compatible with high permeability regions.

4.3. Field survey and evaluating of weathering intensity

Field survey and evaluation of soil thickness in different stations of the study area confirmed

the role of structural fractures in rocks weathering development. In rocks mass such as granite

weathering occurred along joints, while in shistic rocks including slate and phyllite,

weathering occurred along foliation, cleavage and bedding surfaces. Also, evaluation of soil

profile shows the high thickness of soil on faulted rocks. Moreover, no residual soil and

saprolite horizon are formed on some lithological units (Fig. 13 A-D).

16
The determination of weathering intensity has broad applications for a range of natural

resource management, environmental, mineral exploration and engineering issues (Wilford,

2012). Typically, there is a good correlation between the degree of weathering intensity and

the degree of soil development. A typical weathering profile is a vertical section of the soil

layers or soil horizons that reflects progressive stages of transformation from fresh bedrock

through the weathered material to ground surface (Singh et al., 2004). Discontinuities in the

rocks appear to be a major factor on the spatial distribution of weathering profiles and there is

a direct and positive relationship between intensity and grade of weathering. Rocks became

porous and permeable when they are intersected by fractures and faults that form in response

to tectonic processes. These structures are capable of transporting surface water to the deeper

levels. Hence, mapping of these structures is very important for exploration of groundwater

and mineral resources, weathering zones and residual soil profiles (Reddy et al., 2010). The

thickness of the residual soil layer varies from place to place is controlled by the factors

responsible for weathering like the composition of parent rock, climate, age and topography

(Wilford, 2012).

In this study, weathering intensity in ultramafic rocks was obtained from three methods,

including (i) field measurements (ii) existing boreholes and (iii) geoelectric survey. The

weathering intensity description was done based on the visual recognition of alteration, rock

and soil ratios, amount of clay-size minerals, the existence of original texture and joints, the

degree of discoloration, estimation of RQD and GSI. The method used for classification of

weathering profile over bedrock in the study area is summarized in Table 1. The system

proposed for severity of weathering in the study area is shown in table 2. The results of the

17
evaluation of weathering intensity at 23 stations are presented in Table 3. Analysis of the filed

data indicated that the distribution patterns of lineaments identified by remote sensing data

match well with the field data collecting in check-point stations. The weathering intensity is

increased in the stations contain the density of lineaments interception. The weathering

intensity is particularly increased in the fault contact between ultramafic and metamorphic

rock units in many parts of the study area (see Fig. 12).

5. Discussion
Satellite remotely sensed data have been used as source of information for the detection of

tectonic structures such as faults, large-scale fractures and fracture zones (Bonetto et al., 2015;

Radaideh et al., 2016; Ahmadirouhani et al., 2017; Adiri et al., 2017; Masoud and Koike,

2017; Pour and Hashim, 2017; Pour et al., 2018; Hamimi et al., 2018). Lineament maps

created by means of conventional field mapping techniques cannot identify all the lineaments

existing in the area, due to the enlarged scale and reduced view of the mapper. In contrast,

remote sensing, with progressive development in image enhancement techniques, is an

opportunity to prepare relatively more reliable and comprehensive lineament maps.

Lineaments play an essential role in natural resources exploration and susceptibility hazard

mapping of earthquakes/landslides (Pour and Hashim, 2016; Masoud and Koike, 2017;

Alizadeh et al., 2018). Properties of lineaments such as extent, density, intersection, and

orientation have proven major indicators of zones of high permeability and/or low pressure

that may act as pathways for fluid- and gas-related resource migration (Masoud and Koike,

2017). Regional lineaments are commonly interpreted as surface expressions of geologic

18
weak zones at faults and rock fractures (Milbury et al., 2007; Austin and Blenkinsop, 2008).

Structural discontinuities have a significant role in the development of rock weathering.

Recently, one of the main challenges in slope stability and subsidence studies is recognizing

the rock weathering conditions, which can be detected using lineament mapping and remote

sensing analysis.

In this investigation, SPOT-ASTER satellite remote sensing imagery is used for producing

lineament map and evaluating the influence of lineament density in the severity of weathering

development in the southern slopes of Mashhad city, NE Iran. To achieve a better

understanding of the extent of weathering in the study area, the lineaments map and frequency

density, length, lineament interception and fractal maps were produced for emphasizing

lineaments influence on weathering intensity (see Figs 7 (A-D) and 11 (A-D). Then, intensity

weathering was determined during field checking of 23 stations in the study area (see Table 1-

3). To better realize and comparison the weathering severity with lineament distribution

models, an additional parameter such weathering intensity was added into the original

distribution models. Results revealed that there is a close relation between distributions of

lineaments and soil thickness with intersection point with high density. The resultant map for

intersects point density of lineaments indicated that maximum intersects point density of

lineaments are concentrated in the southeastern parts of the region (see Fig. 11 C). This means

that despite the frequency of lineaments in other parts of the study area (see Fig 11 A and B);

probably many of the lineaments with similar trend did not intersect each other (maybe short

or parallel). Therefore, their intersection points in these zones are low, which result in weak

weathering conditions. However, in the zones having high intersecting points, weathering

19
severity is high due to high permeability. The southeastern parts of the study region show a

high concentration of intersection points and weathering severity, which is verified during

fieldwork (see Fig. 11 C).

The evaluation results of the fractal dimension reflect the development of the network of

lineaments in the central, eastern and western parts of the study region (see Fig 11 D).

Considering the concentration of the number of lines and the concentration of the points of

intersection, the length and dimension fractal of lineaments in the south-eastern part of the

study area, it is evident that this zone encompasses weathering severity and soil thickness.

Fieldwork data from this zone have also verified the severity of weathering conditions (see

Fig.11; yellow circles). The analysis of lineaments trends in different parts of the study area

indicated that the lineaments with NW-SE trend have a strong effect on weathering

development. The weathering depth depends on the orientation of bedding joints with respect

to the slope in the study area. Slope inclination and soil thickness are controlled by

weathering and erosion processes.

6. Conclusions
The results of satellite image evaluation and field survey confirm the presence of three

lineaments classes, including N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE in the southern slopes of Mashhad

city, NE Iran. The most developed lineament has NW-SE trend, which is expanded in many

parts of the study area. These lineaments are matched with thrust faults between lithological

units. It seems that granite mass intrusion and active tectonics of the area result in the

formation of different faults, small and large joints, and acceleration of weathering and soil

20
degradation process. In the study area, the weathering is usually caused by water penetration

along the joints surface. The highest density of lineament is identified in the central, eastern

and western part of the study area, which contains metamorphic rock units with fault

boundary. In situ soil horizons were formed especially in the south-eastern part of the study

area, which is susceptible to landslide and subsidence. Therefore, more cautious,

sustainability and environmental management must be performed during urban planning for

the central-western and south-eastern sectors of the southern slopes, Mashhad city.

Governmental authorities must e noti ied a out the ity’s vulnera ility di ensions to ado t

preparedness strategies for the future. The results of this study contain significant implications

for evaluating the severity of the weathering process and landslide occurrence in the southern

slopes of Mashhad city. The remote sensing approach used in this study is useful and

comprehensively applicable for producing lineament map and evaluating the severity of

weathering process for any other regions around the world.

Acknowledgments

The authors of this research are grateful to Miss Gholamzadeh for her great help during the
field mapping, and to Mr. Naderi for his help in providing data for writing the manuscript. We
also thank reviewers for their comments, which were especially helpful in clarifying certain
points in the manuscript. We also thank Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) for great
assistance and cooperation during producing of the primary version and revising of the
manuscript.

21
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29
Table caption:
Table 1. The method used for classification of weathering profile over bedrock in the study

area.

Table 2. The system proposed for severity of weathering in the study area.

Table 3. The results of the evaluation of weathering intensity at 23 stations in the study area.

Figure caption:
Fig.1. (A) Geographical location of Mashhad city in the north-eastern part of Iran. (B) The

location of the southern slopes of Mashhad city.

Fig.2 Geological map of the lithological units in the southern slopes of Mashhad city.

Fig. 3. Field photos of recent landslide occurrences in the southern slopes of Mashhad city. (A)

and (B): landslides happened in the residential zones; (C) and (D): slippery surface

susceptible to landslide alongside of the local roads.

Fig. 4. An overview of the methodological flowchart used in this study.

Fig. 5. Faults and fractures map of the southern slopes of Mashhad city. Green circles show

the filed checking stations.

Fig.6. Rose diagram showing the trend of lineaments in the whole southern slopes of

Mashhad city.

Fig.7. (a) The lineament map of the southern slopes of Mashhad city, which is divided into

four equal sections (A-D); (b) Rose diagrams showing the trend of lineaments in the

corresponding sections (A-D).

30
Fig.8. Field photos and polar graph results of the joint analysis for some checking point

stations in the study area; (a) Khaghani station; (b) Hashemieh station; (c) Sarafrazan station

and; (d) Zakaria station.

Fig.9. Histogram of structural fractures length frequency in the southern slopes of Mashhad

city (the length of fracture is presented in the horizontal axis (km) and fractures frequency is

presented in the vertical axis).

Fig.10 Frequency-spacing histogram of structural fractures in the southern slopes of Mashhad

city (the spacing fracture is presented in the horizontal axis (km) and fractures frequency is

presented in the vertical axis).

Fig.11. (A) Contour diagram map for the density of lineaments in the study area (based on the

number of fractures per unit area); (B) Contour diagram map for length density of lineaments

in the study area (based on the total length of fractures per unit area); (C) Contour diagram

map for intersect points density of lineaments in the study area per unit area; (D) Contour

diagram map for fractal dimension density of lineaments in the study area. The yellow circles

on the map represent the station's location and their sizes are attributed to the intensity of

weathering in the zone.

Fig.12. Field photo showing the fault contact between ultramafic and metamorphic rocks and

the thickness of the soil profile (the left side of the image).

Fig.13. Evaluating the weathering development and soil horizons on some rocks in the

southern slopes of Mashhad city. (a) Weathering along joints in granite parent rock; (b) No

31
residual soil associated with mafic parent rock; (c) Soil thickness on phyllite parent rock; (d)

A significant increase of saprolite zone thickness in the area with high lineament density.

32
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
 Table 1. The method used for classification of weathering profile over bedrock in the study area.

Term Grade Description

All rock material is converted to soil. The mass

Completely Weathered (Residual structure and the material fabric (texture) are
VI
Soil) completely destroyed. The material is generally silty or
clayey and shows homogenous color.

All material rock is decomposed to soil. Material

Completely Weathered (Saprolite) V partially preserved. Original rock texture is present.
The material is generally sandy.

The rock material is in the transitional stage to form

soil. Material condition is either rock or soil. Materials
Highly weathered IV completely discolored but the fabric is completely
preserved. Mass structure partially present. RQD:
0−25% Ro k/Soil >50%

The rock material shows partial discoloration. The

mass structure and material structure is completely
Moderately weathered III preserved. Discontinuity is commonly filled by iron
rich material. Material fragment or block corner can be
hi ed y hand RQD: 25−50% Rock/Soil >50%

Discoloration along discontinuity and may be part of

rock material texture are completely preserved. The
Slightly Weathered II
material is generally weaker but fragment corners
cannot be chipped by hand. RQD: 50–75 (%)

No visible sign of rock material weathering. Some

Fresh Rock I discoloration on major discontinuity surfaces. RQD:
75–100 (%)

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Table 2. The system proposed for severity of weathering in the study area.

Soil Thickness Weathering Intensity

<1 Very Low
1-3 Low
3- 6 Medium
6-9 High
>9 Very high

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 Table 3. The results of the evaluation of weathering intensity at 23 stations in the study area.

Soil Rock weathered Bedrock Weathering

Station GSI RQD
Thickness Thickness Depth Intensity

Tp1 0 - 0 Very Low 60 -70 50 - 75

Tp2 1.5 4.5 6 Low 50 - 60 50 - 75
Tp3 3.2 12.3 15.5 Low -Medium 50 - 60 50 - 75
Tp4 5.6 4.4 10 Low- Medium 40 - 50 25 - 50

Tp5 6.5 21.5 28 Medium- High 30 - 40 25 - 50

Tp6 5.5 18.5 24 Low 50 - 60 50 - 75

Tp8 3 1.5 4.5 Low - Medium 50 - 60 50 - 75
Tp7 0 - >5 Very Low 60 -70 50 - 75

Tp9 0.85 0.15 1 Low 50 - 60 50 - 75

Tp10 0.5 0.1 0.6 Low 50 - 60 50 - 75

Tp11 1.1 0.2 1.3 Low 50 - 60 50 - 75

Tp12 5 - 5 Medium 40 - 50 25 - 50

Tp13 0 1.30 1.30 Very Low 60 -70 50 - 75

Tp14 5.5 >7.5 >13 Medium 40 - 50 25 - 50

Tp15 2.1 >13 >15 Low 50 - 60 50 - 75

Tp16 1.1 0.15 1.25 Very Low - Low 60 - 70 50 - 75

Tp17 0 4.5 > 4.5 Very Low 60 -70 50 - 75

Tp18 3.40 0.1 3.5 Low -Medium 50 - 60 50 - 75

Tp19 3.4 >15 >19 Medium 40 - 50 25 - 50

Tp20 4.8 0.2 5 Medium 40 - 50 25 - 50

Tp21 10.1 1.3 11.4 Very High < 30 0 - 25

Tp22 7.5 15 22.5 Medium - High 30 - 40 0 - 25

Tp23 0.5 4.5 5 Very Low - Low 60 - 70 50 - 75

35