Wear 224 Ž1999.

267–273

Residual stresses and fretting fatigue

A. Benrabah, C. Langlade ) , A.B. Vannes
´
Departement STMS, Laboratoire IFoS-UMR 5621, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, Ecully, France
Received 20 April 1998; revised 30 September 1998; accepted 18 November 1998

Abstract

Controlled residual stress field, induced by conventional and ultrasonic shot peening in some reference materials has been measured
using X-ray diffraction. Its influence on the tribological behavior of these treated samples has been studied and its evolution during the
fretting tests has been followed and related to the observed wear mechanisms. q 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Residual stress; Fretting; Wear; Material damage

1. Introduction ultrasonic shot peening on the fretting behavior of refer-

ence materials has been studied, using a well established
Damage induced by cyclic solicitation may have tribo- testing procedure w3,4x.
logical origins. Conventional solutions of cyclic problems
may thus be tested in such cases like fretting where
oscillatory displacements of small amplitude occur be- 2. Experimental
tween two surfaces loaded under normal conditions w1x.
This type of contact condition leads to two different 2.1. Fretting rig
damage mechanisms w1–3x:
- cracks which may be observed even at a low number
Fretting tests have been conducted using a tensile hy-
of cycles and are related to stress singularities,
draulic machine which has been previously described w2,4x.
- particle detachment which leads to the third body
The experimental conditions were:
formation. This particles formation is preceded by a
- Constant normal load Fn ranging from 400 to 800 N,
microstructural transformation of the subsurface mate-
in order to keep the maximal pressure Po Žas calculated
rial Žcalled Tribologically Transformed Structure, TTS
by the Herztian theory. below the elastic limit of the
w1,2x..
tested materials.
Like other tribological aspects, the appearance of one or
- Displacement D of controlled amplitude, ranging from
the other type of damage is not an intrinsic property of the
"4 mm to "100 mm.
tested material and is dependant on numerous experimental
- Frequency of the oscillations: it has been kept constant
conditions. If the influence of the contact parameters Žload,
to 1 Hz for all experiments presented in this work.
velocity . . . . has largely been studied, the exact role of the
Tests lasted from few cycles up to 250,000 cycles. The
material characteristics has hardly been examined even if
geometrical parameters of the different samples have been
largely speculated.
chosen in order to optimize the size of the wear scar for
For example the occurrence of the damages presented
the residual stress measurements. A cylinder on plane
above should be dependent on the apparent limit of super-
geometry was used.
ficial fatigue and therefore on the eventual residual stresses
in the subsurface layers.
The aim of the present work is to clarify this last point. 2.2. Materials
The influence of controlled residual stresses induced by
To enable behavior comparison, different pre-stressed
samples were tested against the same batch of cylinders
)
Corresponding author. Fax: q33-78-33-11-40 having a diameter of 35 mm with 8 mm width, made of

0043-1648r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 Ž 9 8 . 0 0 3 4 2 - 1
268 A. Benrabah et al.r Wear 224 (1999) 267–273

Table 1 Table 2
Materials characteristics Residual stress measured on the different unworn samples
Composition 32CrMoVa13 30NiCrMo16 sf s 08 sf s908 s 13 or
C 0.29–0.36 0.26–0.33
ŽMPa. ŽMPa. t ŽMPa.
Si 0.1–0.4 0.1–0.4 A1 Before cutting y520"30 y520"30 0.5"4
Mn 0.4–0.7 0.2–0.6 After cutting y480"30 y475"30 0.5"4
S - 0.02 - 0.02 A2-1 Before cutting y535"30 y530"30 2"4
P - 0.025 - 0.025 After cutting y460"20 y460"20 2"4
Cr 2.8–3.3 1.2–1.5 A2-2 Before cutting y520"25 y515"30 4"5
Ni - 0.3 3.3–4.3 After cutting y430"30 y420"20 4"5
Mo 0.7–1.2 0.3–0.6 B y535"35 y550"35 2"4
Va 0.15–0.35 –
Thermal treatment quenchedq quenchedq
tempered tempered
Hardness ŽHV500 . 395"5 405"25
R 0.2 ŽMPa. 979 1044 balls in a titanium container. Samples, balls and container
Tensile Yield Strength 975 900 were then submitted to ultrasonic vibrations at 20,000 Hz.
ŽMpa. at 10 7 cycles
The induced shot peening creates microcracks similar to
those observed when using conventional treatment.
Two types of 52100 balls have been used:
52100 steel ŽTable 1 for materials characteristics.. Samples case A2-1: balls with small diameter ŽB 1 mm.
have a controlled roughness of R a s 0.04 mm. The plane case A2-2: balls with medium diameter ŽB 3 mm.
samples to be tested were made of: Both conditions give an overlapping rate of more than
- Case A: 30 = 30 = 10 mm3 parallelepipeds made of 200%.
32CrMoVa13 Žsee Table 1. polished to achieve an
initial roughness of R a s 0.3 Ž"0.05. mm. 2.2.2. Sample B
- Case B: 10 = 10 = 10 mm 3 cubes made of These samples were conventionally shot peened Žsimilar
30NiCrMo16 Žsee Table 1. with an initial roughness of to case A1.. However in these cases, cubes of 1 = 1 = 1
R a s 0.88 Ž"0.05. mm mm3 dimension were cut prior to the shot peening process
Both types of samples were shot peened to create in order to avoid any risk of stress relaxation.
controlled residual stresses. Fig. 1 summarizes the different samples’ treatments.
After rapid verification using herztian hardness test w5x, a
2.2.1. Samples A Young’s modulus E of 220 GPa and a Poisson’s coeffi-
Case A1: Discs of 100 mm in diameter and 10 mm cient of 0.3 were chosen for the stress calculation.
thickness were treated on one face using conventional shot
peening Žballs of 0.6 mm in diameter. leading to an 2.3. Characterization
ALMEN intensity ŽAFNOR NFL 06832 standard. of 0.2–
0.3 mm. Parallelepipeds were then extracted from these X-rays diffraction analyses have been performed on
treated discs. each sample before and after fretting test to evaluate the
Case A2: Ultrasonic shot peening was used in these superficial residual stress. For this, we followed the con-
cases. In this process, samples were placed with 52100 ventional sin2c method w6,7x on a DOSOPHATEX appara-
tus ŽCourbon, St. Etienne, France. using the K a line of a
Cr anticathode Ž211 line.. This produces a Bragg angle of

Fig. 2. Sin2C curve obtained on a conventionally shot peened 30NiCr-

Fig. 1. List of the shot peening treatments realized on the tested materials. Mo16 steel.
 A. Benrabah et al.r Wear 224 (1999) 267–273 269

about 788 and a penetration depth of the X-rays beam of

about 5 mm in our materials. For each test, two different
angles are to be considered:
) the incident angle c : defined as the angle formed
between the two vectors normal to the sample surface
and normal to the diffracting planes inside the grains. It
varies in the range wy45, q458x by 4.58 steps.
) the measurement angle w : measures were performed
in two directions; one parallel to the fretting displace-
ment Žreferred to 08. and the other one perpendicular to
the displacement Žreferred to 908..

Fig. 4. Evolution of the residual stresses in the fretting wear scar Žwith
Fn s800 N, N s1000 cycles and Ds"12 mm..
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Preliminary results and Õalidation 3.1.3. Validation of our experimental stress measurement
method
Fig. 4 presents the typical results obtained on samples
3.1.1. Pre-testing characterization after fretting tests. The limits of the contact area can
Prior to any fretting tests, the stress concentration was clearly be defined and the evolutions measured in both
evaluated on the different shot peened samples; results are directions are quite similar.
presented in Table 2. Fig. 2 illustrated the typical values
obtained in the case B. 3.2. Influence of the shot peening treatment on the fretting
behaÕior
3.1.2. Residual stress measurement after fretting testing
The contact geometry was chosen to facilitate the stress It may first be noticed that whatever the tested materi-
measurement in the wear scar Žrectangular area 0.8 = 0.8 als, numerous previous studies have shown that, for each
mm2 .. Fig. 3 presents a sketch of the experimental proce- couple of experimental and controlled parameters Ž Fn , D .,
dure which was followed to evaluate the superficial stress two different mechanical behaviors may be obtained.
after friction. It shows a high rate of overlapping between
two successive areas of measurements. It should be noticed
that each measure gives a mean value of the residual stress
inside the analyzed area so that very localized variations
may not be very accurately detected. It should also be
noted that almost no fluctuation or dispersion is observed
which means that no orientation effect is induced by the
surface treatment. However Table 2 clearly shows that the
sample cutting in cases A leads to an isotropic stress
relaxation of about 15%.

Fig. 5. Ža. RCFM’s obtained on two different steels before and after
Fig. 3. Sketch of the experimental procedure followed to evaluate the clasical shot peening, Žb. RCFM’s obtained on 32CrMoVa13 steel after
residual stresses field in the fretting wear scar. ultrasonic shot peening using two different balls diameters.
270 A. Benrabah et al.r Wear 224 (1999) 267–273
Fig. 6. Evolution of the friction coefficient versus the displacement
amplitude D Žgross slip condition. as a function of the sample pre-treat-
ment. Ža.: case A2-1, Žb.:case A2-2, Žc.:case B, Žd.:case A1 and Že.:
untreated material.
Pure elastic or partial slip conditions are generally
observed at high normal load and small amplitude of
displacement.
Gross slip regime is likely reached at high amplitude
and reduced normal load.
Fig. 5 illustrates the influence of the shot peening
treatment on the mechanical response of the system during
fretting testing. It maps the occurrence of the two different
mechanical responses observed for the various samples.
The frontier between the two domains was experimentally
determined using a well established procedure w4x. Under
the same testing conditions, the area of the gross slip
regime is larger in the case of classically shot peened
materials ŽFig. 5a.. It should be noted that in the case of
ultrasonic shot peening, the limits of the domain are
independent on the applied normal load ŽFig. 5b.. Fig. 6
presents the evolution of the friction coefficient Žgross slip
regime. for various conditions.
Under the same contact conditions Ž Fn s 600 N., the
type of shot peening treatment has more influence than the
nature of the tested steel. This may be related to the
influence of several parameters.
Roughness: the effect of the surface roughness has been
investigated. The roughness induced by the different shot
Fig. 7. Evolution of the residual stresses in the wear scar for different shot peened samples with different roughnesses.
Table 3
Measured roughness in micron as a function of the shot peening process
R a Žmm. R t Žmm. R z Žmm.
Case B 1.8"0.4 10"2 8.5"0.5
Case A1 1.4"0.4 6.5"0.5 5.5"0.5
Case A2-1 0.37"0.01 1.6"0.1 1.3"0.1
Case A2-2 1.5"0.4 8"2 6"0.5
peening processes has been measured and the results are
summarized in Table 3. As differences in roughnesses
have been observed, the influence of this parameter has to
be clarified. We focused the tribological behavior of case
A2-1 and A2-2 Žsame shot peening method. under given
fretting conditions Ž D s "12 mm, Fn s 800 N.. Observa-
tions using optical microscope have been performed on
worn surfaces after 500 fretting cycles. If almost no dam-
age can be detected in case A2-2, micrographs reveal in
case A2-1 the presence of some localized surface damages
which can be correlated to asperities delimiting the contact
area. Moreover, as gross slip occurs in the contact, the
surface material undergoes transformations which lead ŽFig.
7.,
- For case A2-1: to an increase of the mean value of the
residual stress Žabsolute value. in the contact area.
- For case A2-2: to no significant evolution of the
residual stress field.
If no damage can be detected in case A2-3, optical obser-
vations reveal in case A2-1 some very limited material
degradations which can be correlated to asperities delimit-
ing the contact area w8,9x.
Hardness: its influence was also investigated. Profiles
of Vickers hardness were performed without revealing any
significant evolution from one shot peening process to
another ŽFig. 8..
3.3. Influence of the fretting test on the eÕolution of the
residual stresses
The material response of the different shot peened
surfaces under fretting conditions has been investigated.
 A. Benrabah et al.r Wear 224 (1999) 267–273
Fig. 8. Vickers micro-Hardness values ŽHV. obtained on different shot
peened samples as a function of depth.
According to the results obtained in Fig. 5 and to ensure
similar gross slip conditions, cases A1 and B have been
tested using D s "14 mm and cases A2 using D s "12
mm. The material modifications were studied using two
complementary methods:
- measurement of the superficial residual stress at differ-
ent singular points of the contact,
- measurement of the width of the X-rays diffraction
peaks.
Fig. 9. Evolution of the residual stresses measured on 32CrMoVa13 steel
at the center and at the limit of the wear scar as a function of the number
of cycles Žlogarithmic scale..
271
3.3.1. Residual stress and fretting
In order to highlight modifications, results concerning
the evolution of the residual stress are presented using
relative values D s defined as:
s i y sm
D s Ž %. s = 100
si
With s i : initial value of the residual stress, prior to any
fretting testing, and sm value of the residual stress after
the fretting test as measured at the contact center or at the
limit of the contact. These two singular locations have
been shown to be representative of the stress evolution.
3.3.2. Width of the X-rays diffraction peaks
An increase of the peak width can be linked to several
phenomena:
- Žinherent. experimental problems,
- creation of coherent microdomains due to cold draw-
ing effects,
- heterogeneity in deformation between coherent do-
mains which creates internal stresses of higher order.
This can be revealed by using several methods w10–12x.
In this study, the following procedure was used consider-
ing the integral width Li. The X-rays diffraction peak of
the 211 line was recorded at c s 08 using an integration
time of t s 600 s. The penetration depth was about 5 mm.
Fig. 10. Evolution of the residual stresses measured on 30NiCrMo16 steel
at the center and at the limit of the wear scar as a function of the number
of cycles Žlogarithmic scale..
272 A. Benrabah et al.r Wear 224 (1999) 267–273
For the purpose of this study, we concentrated on the
evolution of the peak’s width and considered:
Li y Lm
D L Ž %. s = 100
Li
with Ži. and Žm. referring to the same convention as above.
Using this definition, a stress relaxation leads to an
increase of D Li . Figs. 9–11 present the evolution of D s
along the previously defined axis system. Figs. 12 and 13
show the parallel evolution of D L i . Similarities in the
evolution of these two parameters can be noted and three
different domains can be defined on all curves.
3.3.2.1. Phase 1. corresponding to short test duration
Ž- 10,000 cycles. reveals stress relaxation of about 20%.
Whoever, when carefully considering D s and D Li , this
phase I in the 08 direction can be subdivided into several
steps:
N - 300 cycles ŽFig. 14.: significant reduction of D s
and D Li in the 08 direction, no variation in the 908 axis.
N ) 1000 cycles: correlated evolutions of D s and D Li
similar in both directions. This particular behavior of D Li
during the very first cycles can be explained by consider-
ing the material damage. Numerous studies w2,3,13x have
clearly established that these two types of steel, when
submitted to fretting conditions such as those chosen in
this study, undergo wear damage by particle detachment.
Fig. 11. Evolution of the residual stresses measured on both steels at the
center of the wear scar as a function of the number of cycles Žlinear
scale..
Fig. 12. Evolution of D LŽ%. measured at the contact center on 32CrMo-
Va13 steel.
These particles originate from a TTS at the subsurface.
This TTS is made of nanocrystalline ferrite supersaturated
in additional elements. Non-oriented and dislocation rich,
it is very hard and therefore very brittle. Microcracking of
this TTS leads to the detachment of particles which can
later be oxidized Žred powder.. From our present results,
the following points may be highlighted.
The increase of D L i is related to the TTS formation
which creates coherent microdomains. This TTS transfor-
mation concerns the entire contact area and is macroscopi-
cally dependent on the friction direction during the first
1000 cycles ŽFig. 13.. This point was uncovered in the
previous works w2,14x due to the absence of crystallo-
graphic texture at the submicroscopic scale which tends to
screen it.
Compared to the stress and strain induced by the shot
peening process at the material subsurface, the formation
of the TTS reduces the equivalent specific volume. As the
internal stresses are linked to the elastic accommodation
between the equivalent deformations in the different mi-
crodomains, the TTS also modifies the equilibrium in the
first order residual stresses and leads to the stress relax-
ation evidenced in this work w15x. This phenomenon is
rather a ‘dynamic crystallization’ w13,14x than a structural
restoration.
Fig. 13. Evolution of D LŽ%. measured at the contact center on 30NiCr-
Mo16 steel.
 A. Benrabah et al.r Wear 224 (1999) 267–273
Fig. 14. Typical evolution of D LŽ%. and s Ž%. in the wear scar for short
duration fretting tests Ž N s 300 cycles..
If the TTS formation influences the residual stress field,
the shot peening process prior to any fretting testing, also
modifies the TTS formation. When comparing treated and
untreated materials, the following remarks can be made.
Due to the presence of residual stresses the TTS forma-
tion is inhibited, probably due to the reduction of the
effective stress value. This reduced TTS formation rate
may explain why we were able to observe the very first
steps of its formation which is orientation dependent.
Previous studies on untreated materials had revealed the
presence of TTS even after only few cycles w2x when
anisotropy effects were already lost.
The influence of the surface roughness during the shot
peening process favors the particle trapping and enhances
the creation and stabilization of the third body in the
contact. This particles bed accommodates velocities and
protects the two first bodies.
3.3.2.2. Phase II. After about 10,000 cycles, the maximum
decrease of the residual stress is reached. This corresponds
to a flow equilibrium between the particle detachment
from the TTS and the TTS formation. The equilibrium
does not correspond to the same flow rates for the two
types of steels. This has been related to their different
microplastic behaviors w15x.
3.3.2.3. Phase III. This corresponds to the stabilization of
the dynamic equilibrium. The particles being trapped in the
contact due to the roughness created by the shot peening
273
process, this final steady state will be reached more easily
than in the case of untreated materials and the wear rate is
reduced. The presence of this large domain confirms the
beneficial effect of the compressive residual stress on the
TTS formation. It levels down the overstress field and
slows down the microcracks propagation which could lead
to the particle detachment.
4. Conclusions
An experimental procedure was set up and validated. It
enables the study of the influence of the residual stress on
the wear mechanisms in the case of fretting conditions. It
shows that the subsurface modifications can easily be
followed by a simplified analysis of the diffraction peak
width Žusing the 211 line of the ferrite.. This parameter
appears to be strongly dependent on the TTS. This TTS
was shown to be inhibited by the presence of compressive
residual stresses and this has direct consequences on the
global wear rate which is drastically reduced. However,
the beneficial effect of the residual stress is limited by the
opposite effect of the roughness modification, also due to
the shot peening process.
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