Chapter 1

1.1, The study of chemistry.

o Chemistry: is the study of matter and the changes that matter undergoes
o Matter: is anything that has mass and occupies space.

1.2, Classification of matter (1).

• Matter can be classified as either substance or mixture of substances.

Substances
o Substance: a form of matter that has a specific composition and distinct properties.
Ex: Salt, Carbon dioxide, Iron, Water, Mercury, and Oxygen.

• Substances exist as solid, liquid, and gas.

Solids & Liquids → Condensed phase
Liquids & Gases → Fluids

• Substances can be either elements or compounds.

o Element: is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substance by chemical means.
Ex: Iron (Fe), Mercury (Hg), Oxygen (𝑂2 )
o Compound: is a substance composed of atoms of 2 or more of elements chemically united in
fixed proportions.
- Cannot be separated into simpler substances by any physical process.
- Ex: Salt (NaCl), Water (𝐻2 𝑂), Carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ).

Mixture
o Mixture: is a combination of 2 or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct
identities.
• Type one (Homogeneous mixture): The composition of the mixture is uniform throughout.
Ex: Sugar in a glass of water
• Type two (Heterogeneous mixture): The composition of the mixture is not uniform.
Ex: Sand mix with iron filings.

Homogeneous mixture

- ‘Homo’ means same.

- Uniform composition.
- Particles are distributed uniformly.
- It can be separated out physically.
 - Ex: Sugar in water, Rainwater.

Heterogeneous mixture

- ‘Hetero’ means different.

- Non-uniform composition.
- Particles are distributed non-uniformly.
- It can be separated out physically.
- Ex: Sand with iron filings.

1.3, Scientific Measurements.

• SI (International system of units) base units
• Prefixes used with SI units

o Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object or sample.

1Kg = 1000 g = 1 × 103 g

• Temperature:
- Celsius (°C): Was defined using freezing and boiling point of pure water.
- Kelvin (K): is known as absolute temperature, where the lowest temperature (0 K) referred as
absolute zero.
𝐾 = °𝐶 + 273.15
- Fahrenheit (°F)
5 °𝐶
𝐹 → 𝐶 = (𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡 − 32°𝐹 ) ×
9 °𝐹
9 °𝐹
𝐶 → 𝐹 = × 𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 + 32 °𝐹
5 °𝐶

• Volume (V): The derived SI unit for volume is 𝑚 3.

The meter cubed is a large volume that is not practical in most laboratory settings. So we can
use:
𝐿 = 𝑑𝑚 3

o Density (D): is the ratio of mass to volume.

𝑚
𝐷 =
𝑉
1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚 3 = 1 𝑔/𝑚𝐿 = 1000 𝐾𝑔/𝑚 3
1.4, Properties of matter.
• Properties of substance may be:
- Quantitative.
- Qualitative.

o Quantitative property: measured and expressed by a number.

o Qualitative property: not requiring explicit measurement.

Physical property and physical change.

o Physical property: is one that can be observed and measured without changing the identity of a
substance.
Ex: Melting point.
o Physical change: is one which the state of matter changes, but the identity of the matter does
not change.
Ex: Melting.

Chemical property and chemical change.

o Chemical property: to observe this property we must carry out a chemical change.
o Chemical change: is the one which the original substance will no longer exist.
Ex: Souring milk, burning gasoline, and Combustion of sugar to produce carbon dioxide and
water.

Extensive and Intensive property.

o Extensive property: The measured value of extensive property depends on the amount of
matter.
Ex: Volume, Length, Mass.
o Intensive property: The value of an intensive property does not depend on the amount of
matter.
Ex: Temperature, Density.

1.5, Uncertainty in measurement.

Exact and inexact numbers.
• Exact numbers include numbers with defined values, such as:
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 dozen = 12 object
1 Kg = 1000 g
• Inexact number: must be reported in such a way as to indicate the uncertainty in its value.
Significant figure.
• Significant figures: are the meaningful digits in a reported number.
Explain through examples:
1123 → 4 𝑠. 𝑓
1023 → 4 𝑠. 𝑓
0.01 → 1 𝑠. 𝑓
1.00 → 3 𝑠. 𝑓
0.005 → 1 𝑠. 𝑓

In a situation like number 100 we use scientific notation:

1 × 102 → 1 𝑠. 𝑓
1.0 × 102 → 2 𝑠. 𝑓
1.00 × 102 → 3 𝑠. 𝑓
Or we can say 100. → 3 𝑠. 𝑓

Calculations with measured numbers.

• In Addition/Subtraction:
- Look at number of decimal places.
- Report for the least number.

For example:

12.1 + 1.02 =

12.1 has only one decimal place, while 1.02 has 2 decimal places.

So, our answer must have only one decimal place.

12.1 + 1.02 = 13.1

• In Multiplication/Division:
- Look at number of significant figures.
- Report for the least number.

For example:

1.11 X 3.0 =

1.11 has 3 s.f, while 3.0 has 2 s.f.

So, our answer must have 2 significant figures.

1.11 X 3.0 = 3.3

Accuracy and precision.
o Accuracy: how close a measurement is to the true value.
o Precision: how close multiple measurements of the same thing are to one another.

1.6, Using units and solving problems.

o Conversion factor: reporting a given value to a different unit, but the value does not change.
Ex: 1 in = 2.54 cm
o Dimensional analysis: The use of conversion factor in problem solving.
Ex:
Converting 12 inch to meter
2.54 𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
12 𝑖𝑛 × × = 0.3048 𝑚
1 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑐𝑚
 Chapter 2
2.3, Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes.
o Atomic Number (Z): is the number of protons.

Atomic Number = Number of protons = Number of electrons.

o Mass Number (A): the total number of neutrons and protons of an atom of an element.

Mass Number= Number of protons+ Number of neutrons.

𝐴
𝑍𝑋 , X= elements symbol

o Isotopes: atoms with the same atomic number but different mass number due to the difference
in number of neutrons.

2.4, The Periodic Table.

o Periods: elements arranged in horizontal rows.
o Groups or Families: elements arranged in vertical columns.

Types of elements.
o Metal: a good conductor of heat and electricity.
o Non-metal: usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
o Metalloid: has properties that are intermediate between metals and non-metals.

Important groups.
• Group 1A: Alkali metals
• Group 2A: Alkaline metals
• Group 6A: chalcogens
• Group 7A: halogens
• Group 8A: Noble gases
• Group 1B – 8B: Transition elements.
2.5, The Atomic Mass Scale and Average Atomic Mass.
• Average atomic mass calculation:
(𝐴𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒1) × (𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒1)
+ (𝐴𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒2) × (𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒2)

2.6, Ions and Ionic Compounds.

o Ion: is an atom that has lost or gain an electron or more.
o Cation: The loss of one or more electrons and it has a positive net charge.
o Anion: An ion with a negative net charge due to an increase in number of electrons.

Ionic compounds.
• Metals and Non-metals.
• Crystal structure.

General rules.

• Elements will generally have a charge of their group minus 8

For example:
Group 7 elements will have a 1- charge because (7-8= -1)
• Transition metals are variable.
• Important transition metals charges:
𝐶𝑟 2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑟 3+
𝑀𝑛2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑛3+
𝑁𝑖 2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑖 3+
𝐶𝑜 2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜 3+
𝐹𝑒 2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑒 3+
𝑆𝑛2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑛4+
𝑃𝑏2+ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑏4+
𝐻𝑔22+ 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑔2+
𝐶𝑢+ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑢2+
𝐴𝑔+
𝐶𝑑2+
𝑍𝑛2+

Naming rules.
• For elements with more than one charge use Roman numerals.
For example, 𝑀𝑛2+ = 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑒(𝐼𝐼)𝑖𝑜𝑛
• At the end of the monatomic anion, we change the end of the element’s name with -ide.
Important polyatomic ions.
• ammonium 𝑁𝐻4+
• hydronium 𝐻3 𝑂+
• nitrate 𝑁𝑂3−
• nitrite 𝑁𝑂2−
• carbonate 𝐶𝑂32−
• chlorate 𝐶𝑙𝑂3−
• chlorite 𝐶𝑙𝑂2−
• phosphate 𝑃𝑂43−
• phosphite 𝑃𝑂33−
• sulfate 𝑆𝑂42−
• sulfite 𝑆𝑂32−
• peroxide 𝑂22−
• thiocyanate 𝑆𝐶𝑁 −
• cyanide 𝐶𝑁 −
• acetate 𝐶2 𝐻3 𝑂2 −
• permanganate 𝑀𝑛𝑂4−
• chromate 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 2−
• dichromate 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 2−
• hydrogen phosphate 𝐻𝑃𝑂4 2−
• dihydrogen phosphate 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4 −
• hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate 𝐻𝑆𝑂4 −
• hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 −
• azide 𝑁3−
• hydroxide 𝑂𝐻−

o Oxoanions: are polyatomic anions that contains one or more oxygen atoms and one atom of
another element.

Hydrates.
o Hydrates: are compounds that have a specific number of water molecules within their solid
structure.
• Naming hydrates:
Name of compounds + hydrate (with prefix)
2.7, Molecules and Molecular Compounds.
Molecules.
o Molecule: is a combination of at least two atoms in a specific arrangement.

o Diatomic molecule: it contains two atoms.

o Homonuclear diatomic molecule: both atoms are of the same element.
o Heteronuclear diatomic molecule: atoms of different elements.

Molecular formals.

• Chemical formula: denotes the composition of the substance.

• Molecular formula: shows the exact number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
• Allotrope: one of two or more distinct forms of an element.
• Structural formula: shows not only elemental composition, but also the general arrangement of
the atoms.

Naming Molecular compounds.

• Changing the end of the second element name to -ide.

• Use Greek prefixes to present number of atoms of each element.
Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10

Acids.
o Acid: A substance that produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
• Naming acids:
- H + element:
Hydro+ element name + ic
 o Oxoacids: which ionize to produce hydrogen ions and the corresponding oxoanions.
• Naming:
- If the oxoanion end with -ate, then the end will be replaced with -ic and add the word
acid.
- If the oxoanion end with -ite, then the end will be replaced with -ous and add the word
acid.

Organic Compounds.
o Organic compounds: they contain carbon and hydrogen, sometimes in combination with other
elements.
o Hydrocarbons or alkanes: simplest organic compounds which contains only carbons and
hydrogens.

Naming of hydrocarbons:
Formula Name
𝐶𝐻4 Methane

𝐶2 𝐻6 Ethane

𝐶3 𝐻8 Propane

𝐶4 𝐻10 Butane

𝐶5 𝐻12 Pentane

𝐶6 𝐻14 Hexane

𝐶7 𝐻16 Heptane

𝐶8 𝐻18 Octane

𝐶9 𝐻20 Nonane

𝐶10 𝐻22 Decane

o Functional group: a group of atoms that replaces H atoms in an organic compound.

• Functional group determines many of the chemical properties of a compound because it
typically is where a chemical reaction occurs.
Organic functional group:

Name Functional group

Alcohol −𝑂𝐻
Aldehyde −𝐶𝑂𝐻
Carboxylic acid −𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
Amine −𝑁𝐻2

Empirical formula.
o Empirical formula: the simplest form of a molecular formula.
 Chapter 3
3.1, Molecular and Formula Masses.
o Molecular Mass: is the mass in atomic mass units (amu) of an individual molecule.
o Formula Mass: is the mass od an ionic compound determine by empirical formula.

• Calculating mass:
(Number of atoms of element1 × atomic mass of element1)
+ (Number of atoms of element2 × atomic mass of element2) + ⋯

3.2, Percent composition of compounds.

n  atomic mass of element

percent by mass of an element =  100%
molecular or formula mass of compound

3.3, Chemical equations.

o Reactants: appears on the left side of the arrow.
o products: appears on the right side of the arrow.

Indicating physical states.

(g) = gas

(l)= liquid

(s)= solid

(aq)= aqueous (in water)

Allotropes: (graphite) / (diamond)

 Balancing chemical equations.

• Steps:
- Change the coefficients of compounds.
- Treat polyatomic ions that appear on both sides of the equation.
- Count atoms and/or polyatomic ions carefully and track their numbers each time you
change a coefficient.

3.4, The mole and The Molar Masses.

o Mole: The number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12.
• Avogadro Number:
NA = 6.0221418 × 1023 objects
o Molar Mass: the mass in grams of one mole of the substance. [SI Unit: g/mol]

Empirical Formula from Percent Composition.

• Steps:
- First %=g, so the given percentage treat it as a gram
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑍
- 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑍 × 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑍

3.5, Combustion Analysis.

• Steps of Solving:
- Write the chemical equation as
𝐶𝑥 (𝐻2 𝑂)𝑦 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
- Find the masses of C, H
 - After Finding C,H masses
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 𝐶𝑥 (𝐻2 𝑂)𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝐻 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

- Find the mol of each element

- Divide the smallest mol to all mols

• Steps of finding molecular formula:

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ′ 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙′
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

3.6, Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations.

• Steps:
- Balanced chemical equation
𝑋 + 𝑌 → 𝑋𝑌
- if the question asks for XY mol/grams and gave you mol/gram of X
coefficient ′ mol′ of XY
𝑋 𝑚𝑜𝑙 × = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑌
coefficient′mol′ of X

3.7, Limiting Reactants.

o Limiting reactant: Is the reactant used up first in a reaction.
o Excess reactants: are those present in quantities greater than necessary to react with the
quantity of the limiting reactant.
 • Steps to find limiting reactant:
- Balanced equation.
𝑋 + 𝑌 → 𝑋𝑌
- Evaluation step:
You choose one product (XY) and by using moles (given in question) of each reactant
find the produced moles of the product:
coefficient ′ mol′ of XY
𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 × = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑌
coefficient′mol′ of X
coefficient ′ mol′ of XY
𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑌 × = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑌
coefficient′mol′ of Y

The one with the least amount of mol produced it the limiting reactant, and if we need more calculations, we use
the limiting reactants always.

- If the question asks about the left from the excess rectant:

coefficient ′ mol′ of excess reactant

𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑′
coefficient′mol′ of limiting reactant

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ′𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 ′ − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑′ = 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Yield.
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

Actual yield = the one given in question

Theoretical yield= the one calculated.

 Chapter 4
4.1, General Properties of Aqueous Solutions.
o Solution: is a homogeneous mixture, can be in solid, liquid or gas form.
o Electrolyte: is a substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that conducts electricity.
o Non- Electrolyte: is a substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that does not conducts
electricity.
o Dissociation: process in which an ionic is the process by which an ionic compound, upon
dissolution, breaks apart into its constituent ions.
o Ionization: is the process by which a molecular compound forms ions when it dissolves.
o Base: a compound that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide.

Strong and Weak Electrolyte.

o Strong electrolyte: An electrolyte that dissociates completely.
o Weak electrolyte: is a compound that produces ions upon dissolving but exists in solution
predominantly as molecules that are not ionized.

Identifying Electrolyte.
1- Ionic compounds:
All of them are strong if they are soluble in water, for bases metals+OH , Acids from table.
2- Molecular compounds:
Acids: From Table
Bases: NH3 OR R-NH2
4.2, Precipitation Reactions.
o Precipitation Reaction: Processes in which soluble reactants yield an insoluble solid product that
falls out of solution.
o Hydration: When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the water molecules remove individual
ions from the three-dimensional solid structure and surround them.
o Solubility: is defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of
solvent.

4.3, Acid-Base Reaction.

• Arrhenius Law:
- Acid: a substance that ionizes in water to produce H+ ions.
- Base: a substance that ionizes (or dissociates, in the case of an ionic base) in water to
produce OH– ions.
• Bronsted Law:
- Acid: a proton donor.
- Base: is a proton acceptor.

o Monoprotic acids: meaning that each acid molecule has one proton to donate.
o Diprotic acids: meaning that each acid molecule has two protons that it can donate.
o Triprotic acids: those with three protons.
o Polyprotic acids: acids with more than one proton.
Acid-Base Neutralization.

o Neutralization reaction: is a reaction between an acid and a base and produces water and a salt.

4.4, Oxidation- Reduction Reactions.

o Oxidation-reduction or a redox reaction: is a chemical reaction in which electrons are
transferred from one reactant to another.
o Oxidation: is the loss of electrons.
o Reduction: gain of electrons.

Oxidation Numbers.

• The oxidation number of any element, in its elemental form, is zero.

• The oxidation numbers in any chemical species must sum to the overall charge on the species.
Oxidation numbers must sum to zero for any molecule and must sum to the charge on any
polyatomic ion. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions.
(No Need to memorize)

𝑋 (𝑠) + 𝑌(𝑎𝑞 ) →
If X is above Y in the table then a reaction will occur, if not there is no reaction.

Other Types of Redox Reactions.

• Combination Reactions.
• Decomposition.
• Disproportionation reaction.
• Combustion.
4.5, Concentration of Solutions.
o Concentration: is the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
Dilution.
o Dilution: is the process of preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one.
𝑴𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑴𝟐 𝑽𝟐

4.6, Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis.

o Titrations: titration, a solution of accurately known concentration’ standard solution’ is added
gradually to another solution of unknown concentration, until the chemical reaction between
the two solutions is complete.
o equivalence point: The point in the titration where the acid has been completely neutralized.
o Endpoint: where an indicator causes a sharp change in the color of the solution.
o Indicators: are substances that have distinctly different colors in acidic and basic media.

Acid-Base Titrations and Redox Titrations.

If it a Titration we do not use M1V1 law, but we use the standard solution information to find the
unknown.
 Chapter 19
19.2, Galvanic Cells.
o Electrochemistry: The area of chemistry concerned with the interconversion of chemical and
electrical energy.
o Galvanic (Voltaic) Cell: A spontaneous chemical reaction which generates an electric current.
• Metals bars are called electrodes.
• Each combination of container, electrode, and solution is called a half-cell.

Anode
- The electrode where oxidation occurs.
- The electrode where electrons are produced.
- Is what anions migrate toward.
- Has a negative sign.

Cathode
- The electrode where reduction occurs.
- The electrode where electrons are consumed.
- Is what cations migrate toward.
- Has a positive sign.

• difference in electrical potential between the anode and the cathode is measured by a
voltmeter and the reading (in volts) is called the cell potential (Ecell).
 • Salt bridge is important because it allows the compilation of the circuit.
• It contains 1M of salt (KCl,NaCl,KNO3)

Shorthand Notation for a Galvanic Cell:

• Sometimes we will see platinum used in the cell even though it will not participate in the
reaction, and the reason is some solid metals (such as Sn) are soft so we use instead
Pt(s) to help in transfer the electrons.

19.3, Standard Reduction Potentials.

standard hydrogen electrode (S.H.E.).
• H can act as both Anode, Cathode depending on
the other metal is react with.
• Reduction 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2
• Oxidation 𝐻2 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −
• 𝐸 0 = 0.0𝑉

Standard conditions:
- 1M solution
- 1 atm gas
- 25℃
Standard cell potential (𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 )

𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 − 𝑬𝟎𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

Tips:
- E 0 is for the reaction as written.
- The more positive E 0 the greater the tendency for the substance to be reduced.
- The sign of E 0 changes when the reaction is reversed.
- Changing the stoichiometric coefficients of a half-cell reaction does not change the
value of E0.
- Half-cell potentials (in Volts) are intensive properties
 Chapter 10
10.1, Properties of Gases.
• Nobel Gases = Monoatomic gases.
• At room temperature (22℃) (H, O, N, F, Cl) = diatomic gases.

Characteristics of Gases.
- Takes both shape and volume of its container.
- Gases are compressible.
- Gasses has lower density than solid and liquid. Density of gasses depends on
temperature and pressure.
- Gases form a solution in any proportion. Gases are freely miscible with each other.

Gases pressure: Definition of units.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑎𝑡 1 𝑐𝑚 2 = 1𝑘𝑔) × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (9.81 )
𝑠2
𝑘𝑔 × 𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ≈ 10𝑁 ( )
𝑠2
10 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑃𝑎 =
𝑠2 × 𝑚
o Barometer: an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
o Manometer: is a device used to measure pressures other than atmospheric pressure.

• Closed Manometer is suitable if

𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 <= 𝑃ℎ

- If pressures are equal nothing will happen, but if the

pressure of the gas is lower than the atmospheric pressure the
level of Hg will drop.

• Open Manometer is suitable if

𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 > 𝑃ℎ
 𝑃 = ℎ𝑑𝑔
h is height in meter, d is density in kg/m^3, g is gravity (m/s^2)

10.2, The Gas Laws.

Gasses= f (Temperature, Pressure, Volume, n).

Physical property

Law1: Boyle’s Law.

• (V and P)

1
𝑉 ∝
𝑃
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

Law2: Charles Law.

• (V and T)
𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
𝑣1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Law3: Avogadro’s Law.
• (V and n ‘moles’)
𝑉 ∝ 𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2

Law4: Combined Gas Law.

𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑷𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝒏𝟐

10.3, The Ideal Gas Law.

𝑎𝑡𝑚 ×𝐿
• R (Gas constant) = 0.08206 𝑚𝑜𝑙×𝐾
• Ideal Law:

𝑉𝑃 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

• Density of unknown gas:

𝑔 𝑑𝑅𝑇
=𝜇
𝑉 𝑃
• Molar Mass of unknown gas:
𝑑𝑅𝑇
𝜇=
𝑃
10.4, Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products.
• In this section we use combination of stoichiometry and the ideal gas equation to find either
moles or volume of a gas.

10.5, Gas Mixtures.

• Gases mix homogeneously in any proportions.
• Each gas in a mixture behaves as if it were the only gas present.
o Partial pressure: The pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture.

Ptotal = ∑ Pi

Pi = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
ni RT
Pi =
V
Pi = xi × Ptotal
xi = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
ni Pi
xi = =
ntotal Ptotal

In determining a water-insoluble gaseous product we use:

Pgas = Ptotal + Pwater

 Chapter 5
5.1, Energy and Energy Changes.
o Energy: Capacity to do work or transfer heat.
• All forms of energy are either Potential or Kinetic.

o Kinetic energy: is the energy that results from motion.

1
Ek = 𝑚u2
2
𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
o Thermal energy: a form of kinetic energy, which is the energy associated with the random
motion of atoms and molecules.
o Potential energy: is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position in a field of force.
o Chemical energy: a form of potential energy, which is energy stored within the structural units of
chemical substances.
o Electrostatic energy: is potential energy that results from the interaction of charged particles.
o Law of conservation of energy: When energy of one form disappears, the same amount of energy
must appear in another form or forms.

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions.

o System: the specific part of the universe that is of interest to us.
o Surrounding: The rest of the universe outside the system.
o Heat: is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at different temperatures.
o Thermochemistry: is the study of heat (the transfer of thermal energy) in chemical reactions.

o Exothermic process: is a process that gives off heat.

• The chemical energy in the reactant(s) is greater than the chemical energy in the product(s).
𝑋 + 𝑌 → 𝑋𝑌 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
o Endothermic process: is a process that absorbs thermal energy as heat.
• The chemical energy in the product(s) is higher than the chemical energy of the reactant(s).
𝑋Y + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 𝑋 + 𝑌

Units of Energy.
• Standard SI unit: joule (J)

1
1𝐽 = ( (2𝑘𝑔) × (𝑚/𝑠)2 ) = 1𝑁. 𝑚
2
 • Another unit:
𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4.184𝐽
𝐶𝑎𝑙 = 1000𝑐𝑎𝑙

5.2, Introduction to Thermodynamics.

• There are 3 types of systems:
1. Opened (can exchange mass and energy with its surroundings.)
2. Closed (allows the transfer of energy but not mass.)
3. Isolated (does not exchange either mass or energy with its surroundings.)

o State of a system: which is defined by the values of all relevant macroscopic properties, such as
composition, energy, temperature, pressure, and volume.
o State functions: Properties that are determined by the state of the system, regardless of how
that condition was achieved. Such as Energy, pressure, volume, and temperature.

• First law of thermodynamics:

∆𝑈 = UF − Uint
∆Usystem + ∆Usurrounding = 0

Work and Heat.

∆𝑈 = 𝑞 + 𝑤
q is heat, w is work
𝑤 = −𝑃∆𝑉
Cases of work:
- Work on system +ve
- Work done by system -ve
5.3, Enthalpy.
• If V is constant, then there’s no work
∆𝑈 = qv
• If P is fixed (Enthalpy H)
∆𝐻 = qp
qp = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉
∆𝐻 = Hproducts + Hreactants

5.4, Calorimetry.
• calorimeter allows you to measure heat based on two important concepts:
1. Specific heat
2. Heat capacity
o specific heat (s): of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a
substance by 1°C. Unit : J/(g℃)
o heat capacity (C): is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1°C.
Unit: J/℃

𝐶 = 𝑠𝑚
C is heat capacity, s is specific heat, and m is mass (g)
𝑞 = 𝐶∆𝑇 = 𝑠𝑚∆𝑇

Calorimetry.
qsystem = −qsurrounding

There are 2 types of calorimeter:

1. Coffee cup calorimeter
The pressure is constant, ∆H = qp .

The system= reaction, Surrounding=solvent.

2. Bomb calorimeter

The volume is constant, ∆U = qV .

The system= reaction, Surrounding=calorimeter.
5.5, Hess’s Law.
• Thermochemical equations: are chemical equations that show the enthalpy changes as well as the
mass relationships.
• Hess’s Law:
∆Hoverall = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ⋯ … + ∆Hn
• Guidelines for solving:
1- Always specify the physical states of all reactants and products because they help determine
the actual enthalpy changes.
2- If we multiply both sides of a thermochemical equation by a factor n, then ∆H must also
change by the same factor.
3- When we reverse a chemical equation, we change the roles of reactants and products.
Consequently, the magnitude of ∆H for the equation remains the same, but its sign changes.
 Chapter 6
6.1, The Nature of Light.
• What we call light ‘visual light’ is only a small part in the electromagnetic spectrum.

o Wave length 𝜆 : The distance between identical points on successive waves. (unit:m)
o Frequency v: Number of waves per second. (unit:𝑠 −1 )
o Amplitude: The vertical distance between the midline of a wave to the top of a peak or the bottom
of a trough.

𝑐 = 𝜆𝑣
c is speed of light in vacuum which equals to 2.998 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

• Electromagnetic waves have 2 components (electric field and magnetic

field), both components have the same wavelength, frequency, and speed
but they are perpendicular planes.
6.2, Quantum Theory.
• Planck gave the name quantum to the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted (or
absorbed) in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

𝑐
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑣 = ℎ
𝜆
𝐸 → 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 of a single quantum of energy. (unit: J)

ℎ → Planck’s constant which equals 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠

6.3, Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom.

o Emission spectra: is the release of energy in form of light which can seen or visualize.
• Emission spectra of a substance can be seen by energizing a sample of material with thermal
energy or any other form of energy (with high voltage).
• Each element has a unique emission spectrum.
o line spectra: are the emission of light only at specific wavelengths.

• Bohr postulated that the electron in hydrogen atom is

allowed to occupy a certain orbit of specific energies. In
other words, energy of electron is quantized.
• The most negative value, then, is reached when n = 1,
which corresponds to the most stable energy state or the
ground state of the hydrogen atom.

1
𝐸𝑛 = −2.18 × 10−18 𝐽 ( )
𝑛2
𝑛 → 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

• n=1 is the ground state, any orbit with n>1 is called excited state.
• If the electron moves to a higher state, it absorbs energy.
• If the electron moves to a lower state, it release energy.

∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖
 1 1
∆𝐸 = −2.18 × 10−18 ( 2 − 2 )
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

1 −2.18 × 10−18 1 1
= ( 2 − 2)
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

6.5, Quantum Mechanics.

o Atomic orbital: the region in space where the electron is most likely to be found.
• An atomic orbital has a characteristic energy as well as a characteristic shape and direction in
space (orientation).

Comparing between Bohr and Subatomic behavior of electrons:

Bohr model ‘suitable for hydrogen atom’ Subatomic behavior of electrons ‘orbital’
‘n’ is quantum number which is the distance from Allows us to understand the behavior of electrons
nucleus. (orbits) ‘not only position’.
Provided certainty with position of e. Probability of e position.

Shapes of orbitals:
6.6, Quantum Numbers.
• Quantum mechanics: Three quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of an
electron density in an atom
1. Principal quantum number (n): size
2. Angular momentum quantum number (l): shape
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml ): orientation
Additional: Electron Spin (ms ) describes the electron in an orbital.

Principal quantum number (n): size

• Indicates how far the electron is from the nucleus. As n increases the e− is located farther from
the nucleus.
• As n increases the energy of the orbital increases.
o Shell: A collection of orbitals with the same value of n.

Angular momentum quantum number (l): shape

• describes the shape of the atomic orbital.

• For a given value of n, the possible values of l range from 0 to n – 1.
o Subshells: One or more orbitals with the same n and l values.
Magnetic quantum number (𝒎𝒍 ): orientation
• describes the orientation of the orbital in space.
• Within a subshell, the value of ml depends on the value of l. For a certain value of l, there are (2l
+ 1) integral values.

6.8, Electron Configuration.

o Electron Configuration: A description of which orbitals are occupied by electrons.
o Ground-State Electron Configuration: The lowest-energy configuration
o Aufbau Principle (“building up”): A guide for determining the filling order of orbitals as follows:
1. Lower-energy orbitals fill before higher-energy orbitals.
2.An orbital can only hold two electrons, which must have opposite spins.
3.If two or more orbitals with the same energy (degenerate) are available, follow Hund’s rule
‘Personally, I use the periodic table method to get the electron configuration, You just need to know
where is the element and follow filing the orbitals.
For example, I want the electron configuration of Cl
I can see that see comes after 2p so:
1s2 2s2 2p5
And that it!!’

6.9, Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table.

• The shorthand configuration: is using noble gases in brackets, followed by the electron
configuration in the outermost occupied subshells. Can be used for all elements except H, and He.
• Anomalies:

Group 6B, & 11B there is an exception in the rule:

- In 6B, the d orbital should be half-filled
- In 11B, the d orbital should be full filled
 Chapter 7
7.2, The Modern Periodic Table.

• Element that are in the group have a similar chemical property.

• XA ‘main groups’, X is a number that tell us how many electrons are present in the outermost
subshell (Balanced electrons).
o Valence electrons: The outermost electrons of an atom.

7.4, Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements.

Atomic radius

o Atomic radius: The distance between the nucleus of an atom and its valence shell.
There is two ways to define atomic radius:
1. Metallic radius ‘For metals’: The half distance between the nuclei of two adjacent, identical metal
atoms.
2. Covalent radius: The half distance between adjacent, identical nuclei in a molecule.
Trend atomic radius
The atomic radius increases as we go in the periodic table:
- Right to left
- Up to down

Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy (IE): is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in
the gas phase.
Or in other words is the number of kJ required to remove one mole of electrons from a mole of
gaseous atoms.

• Saying the first ionization energy or 𝐼𝐸1 means removing one electron from ground state, second
means 2 ….etc.

Trend IE
The ionization energy increases as we go in the periodic table:
- Left to right
- Down to up

Special cases:
Moving from:
𝐵𝑒 → 𝐵
𝑀𝑔 → 𝐴𝑙
𝑁 → 𝑂

𝑃 → 𝑆
- The reason is that (Be,Mg,N,P) valence
electrons are harder to remove ‘more
stable’.
How to determine the higher IE between elements:
1. Check (n ‘period number’):
Lower n = higher ionization number
2. Atomic number (Z):
Higher Z = higher ionization number

For 𝐼𝐸2 we remove an electron [𝑋]+ then re-check 1 and 2.

Electron Affinity EA
o Electron affinity (EA): is the energy released (the negative of the enthalpy change) when an atom
in the gas phase accepts an electron.

Trend EA
The ionization energy increases as we go in the periodic table:
- Left to right
- Down to up

7.5, Electron Configuration of Ions.

• Noble gases valence electrons are extraordinary stable, while other main group elements tend to
either loose or gain the number of electrons needed to reach 8 electrons.
For example:
- Groups 1A and 2A tends to lose electrons.
- While groups 6A and 7A tends to gain electrons.

• To write the electron configuration of an ion formed by main group element, we first write the
configuration for the atom and either add or remove the appropriate number of electrons.
For example:

• Ions of
d-block elements may have an exception such as Fe
7.6, Ionic Radius.
o Ionic radius: is the radius of a cation or an anion.
• The Ionic radius can affect chemical and physical properties of an ionic compound.
• When an atom loses an electron and becomes a cation, its radius decreases.
• When an atom gains an electron and becomes an anion, its radius increases.

o Isoelectronic series: is a series of two or more species that have identical electron configuration,
but different nuclear charge.
For example:

• In Isoelectronic series the species with the smallest nuclear charge (smaller Z) will have a bigger
radius, and the species with the largest nuclear charge (larger Z) will have a smaller radius.
 Chapter 8
8.1, Lewis Dot Symbols.
• Gilbert Lewis hypothesized that atoms combine to achieve a more stable electron configuration,
where maximum stability occurs when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.
• Lewis dot symbols consists of the element's symbol surrounded by dots representing the valence
electrons.

• Suppose we want to draw the Lewis Dot symbols for Mg2+ or O2- . First draw Lewis Dot symbol
for the neutral element, then add or remove electrons. Put any ion with dots in square brackets
and indicate the charge.
8.3, Covalent Bonding.
o Octet rule: atoms (except Hydrogen) will lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve a noble gas
electron configuration.

• Covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs.

• Lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual
atoms.

• It can be one or even multiple bonds.

o Triple bond: arises when two atoms
share three pairs of electrons.

o Bond length is defined as the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms in a
molecule.
• The unit used to measure with angstroms:
1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 × 1010 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑠
• Multiple bonds are shorter than single bonds.

8.4, Electronegativity and Polarity.

M:X, Pure covalent bond 𝑀𝛿+ 𝑋 𝛿− , Polar covalent bond 𝑀+ 𝑋 − , Ionic bond
Electrons are shared equally Electrons are shared unequally Oppositely charged atoms are
between the atoms. between the atoms. held together by electrostatic
attraction.

Electrons are the red color you
can see that is in the middle
between the two atoms equally.
Electronegativity difference
value < 0.5
Electrons are the red color you
can see that is in the left side
atom, so it is shared unequally.
Electronegativity difference
value between 0.5 – 2.0
Electrons are the red color, in
ionic compounds the anion side
gains electrons which increases
the atomic radius.
Electronegativity difference
value > 2.0
 o Electronegativity: is the ability of an atom in a
compound to draw electrons to itself.
• The Electronegativity increases as we go in the periodic
table:
- Left to right
- Down to up

• Electronegativity difference calculated by

|𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 −
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦. |

Dipole Moment
• It can be represented in two ways:
- Dipole arrow
The arrow side is towards the element with higher electronegativity (the shift of electron
density)

- The second way

The negative is the element with higher electronegativity.

8.5, Drawing Lewis Structures.

Steps:
1- Choose the central atom (The one with the least electronegativity)
2- sketch structure
3- Count the total number of valence electrons
(For example)
𝐶𝐶𝑙4

𝐶 → 4 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 −
𝐶𝑙 → 7 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 − × 4 ′𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦′
Sum the total = 32 electrons
Sum – number of bonds (2 𝑒 − ) = 32 – 4 (2𝑒 − ) = 24 𝑒 −

4- distribute electrons, starting with the most electronegative while also applying the octet rule.

8.6, Lewis Structures and Formal Charge.

• Formal charge allows to assess the stability for the structure, especially when there is more than
one possible structure.
• How to calculate it:
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚 1 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚2 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚3. . 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑛
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜. 𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑒

𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 ′𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠′

subtract the two numbers and you will get the formal charge of the atom, then you can add them all to get
the formal charge of the whole structure.

• For molecules, the formal charges must sum to zero.

• For ions, the formal charges must sum to the overall charge on the ion.
• Why formal charge is important:
because sometimes, there is more than one way to draw a Lewis structure. Determining formal
charge allows you to determine which structure is more stable and the better way to represent the
molecule.

• How to determine the best structure:

- For molecules, a Lewis structure in which all formal charges are zero is preferred to one
in which there are nonzero formal charges.
- Lewis structures with small formal charges (0 and ±1) are preferred to those with large
formal charges (±2, ±3, and so on)
- The best skeletal arrangement of atoms will give rise to Lewis structures in which the
formal charges are consistent with electronegativities. For example, the more
electronegative atoms should have the more negative formal charges.
For example, 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂 have two possible Lewis structures but the one on the right is preferred because even
though both have a total of 0 formal charge. The one on the right has all individual formal charges zero
too.

8.8, Exception to the Octet Rule.

• Octet rule means there is 8 electrons around each atom, but there is exception:
- Incomplete octet <8
- Expanded octet >8

Incomplete Octet
It is rare and generally only found with:
- Be Beryllium (especially beryllium hydride BH2)
- Al Aluminum & B Boron (with Halogens)

Expanded Octet
Happens when:
- n>3 ‘number of period in the periodic table’
- When the central atom is bonded to Cl, F, O.
The reason is when n>3 we have s, p, and d orbitals even if we don’t use the d it is
there.
 Chapter 9
9.1, Molecular Geometry.
• The VSEPR model (Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion) helps in predicting shapes of
molecules or polyatomic ions along with Lewis structure.
• The basis of VSEPR is that electron pairs in the valence shell of an atom repel one another.
• There are two types of electron pairs:
- Bonding pairs.
- Lone pairs (nonbonding)
• When we are talking about electron domains we focus on the central atom. To determine number
of domains we count:
- Each type of bond individually (Single bonds are counted separately from double or triple)
- Lone pairs.

Steps to find electron-domain geometry and molecular geometry

1. Draw the right Lewis structure
2. Figure out the electron domain geometry (counting bonds and lone pairs)
3. There are 5 shapes possible

Domain no. electron domain geometry Lone pairs placement & molecular
geometry
2

4
5

• If we replaced a single bond with a multi bond, or one of the domains becomes a lone pair the
ideal bend angle will change. ‘increases on the change side’

..
..

..

- In shape 1 we have a Tetrahedral, we replaced a domain with a lone pair which affected in a
decrease on other domains angles.
 - In shape 2 we have a trigonal planar, we replaced a single bond with a double bond the angle
between H and the double bound increased from 120 to 122, while the angle between H
and the other H decreased.

9.2, Molecular Geometry and Polarity.

• The polarity of a molecule depends on:
- Geometry of the molecule (bonds).
- The symmetry of the molecule (How the dipoles look in space).

• Polar:
1. Non-symmetrical in space
2. Unequal distribution of electrons in the bonds.

• Non-Polar:
Symmetrical in space.

• Trigonal planar tend to be non-polar if all terminal atoms are identical.

• Bent structure tend to be polar.

Examples of determining polarity:

- We put the shape in x,y-axis. The right side of
the molecule (+x,0) and the left side (-x,0)
+x - If we took net y and net x
+x+(-x) = 0, These positive and negative x
components cancel each other out because they
-x are the same.
And since all components equal to 0, then this
molecule is non-polar.

- Even though These positive and negative x

components cancel each other out because they are the
+y +y same. Y components are additive, therefore the
molecule is polar.
-x +x
 A word
Please do not rely on this summary 100% you need to study to get what is written here. I may have
written something wrong here or there also check while you are understanding/memorizing.

Finals are soon, So I wanted to advise everyone with few things:

1- Do not be hard on yourself and take it easily.
2- Do not skip meals or rest timings you need a good health to be able to succeed.
3- Whenever you feel down or tired give yourself a break, think that there is nothing left this will be
tiring for a small amount of time and you can do it! You have made it this far are you not strong
for few days only? I do not think so.
4- Do not get affected by anyone way of studying, everyone has their own way to study.
5- Smile and stay positive!

Good luck!